•••• IS ' V •: -'- /*'• THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVII TONALITE to VESUVIUS Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 E.3 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. Go. ALFRED BRADLEY GOUGH, M.A., PH.D. f Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. English Lector at the T Trier. University of Kiel, 1896-1905. I A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. / Tourneur CvrtI See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. A. E. H. L. AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Secretary J Variafinnc r-,in,,i,,c «f to the London Mathematical Society. Hon. Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford ; 1 DS> LalCl Ot' formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. [" Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. J JTJ-I M!OI._I..C Formerly Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls 1 UOal> nlcnolas- College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls J College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- | Vermigli, Pietro Martire. 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset ; Henry VIII. ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. *• A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. /Vesuvius (in fiarti See the biographical article: GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD. I Vl 5 (tn pa">- A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. f Unitarianism; Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. \ Valdes, Juan de. A. H. K. AUGUSTUS HENRY KEANE, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. Emeritus Professor of Hindustani at University College, London. Author of -I Tripoli: North, Africa (m pan); Ethnology; Man Past and Present; The World's Peoples; &c. I Ural-Altaic. A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. J IT i L- f General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. | unuia, Lan A. J. ALEXANDER JOHNSTON. / ¥I .. See the biographical article : JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER. \ Umted States: Sttt"? W»JMK A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. r Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J „ , Cf / • .-, College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of ] ursula> M (.** Part>- Mysore Educational Service. A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News J Venezuela: Geography and (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. [ Statistics. A. L. ANDREW LANG. f See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. \ Totemism. A. Lo. AUGUSTE LONGNON. r Professor at the College de France, Paris. Director of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. Tr-nvnc- r/,,,«/c „/ TV™ Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Livre des vassaux du Comti de Cham- J ,, pagne et de Brie; Geographie de la Gaule au VI siecle; Atlas historique de la France } Vermancjols. depuis Cesar jusqu'a nos jours ; &c. A. M.* REV. ALLAN MENZIES, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, St Mary's College, St Andrews. Author J United Free Church Of Scotland. of History of Religion ; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy. A. M.-Fa. ALFRED MOREL-FATIO. r Professor of Romance Languages at the College de France, Paris. Member of the J yega Carpio (in part). Institute of France; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Secretary of the Ecole 1 des Chartes, 1885-1906. Author of L'Espagne au XVI' et au XVII' siecles. [ 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. v VI INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. N. A. P. H. A. R. B. A. Sp. A. Sy. A. W. H.* A. W. R. B. M. B. R. r Toucan; Touracou; ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Tree-creeper; Trogon; See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Tropic-bird; Trumpeter; I Turkey; Turnstone. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. (~ Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in South Africa till 1896. Member of i Transvaal: History (in part). Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and political prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for the Hitchin Division of Herts, 1910. THE REV. AUGUSTUS ROBERT BUCKLAND, M.A. [ Secretary of the Religious Tract Society, London. Morning Preacher, Foundling -j Tract: Tract Societies. Hospital, London. Author of The Heroic in Missions ; &c. L ARCHIBALD SHARP. Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent. ARTHUR SYMONS. See the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR. ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. Tricycle. Verlaine, Paul. Utrecht, Treaty of. Vaseline. B. W. G. C. A. C. C. A. S. C. B. P. C. C. W. C. D. W. C. El. C. F. A. C. H. Ha. C. J. L. C. M. C* K. D* ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. J _ . -,.,,/. rt Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws ] *raae marKS \m part), of England. BRANDER MATTHEWS, A.M., LL.D., LITT.D., D.C.L. f Professor of Dramatic Literature, Columbia University, New York. President of I Twain, Mark. the Modern Language Association of America (1910). Author of French Dramatists | of the iQth Century ; &c. I SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.M.E. Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of the Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum and its Products ; Chemical Technology ; &c. BENEDICT WILLIAM GINSBURG, M.A., LL.D. St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. J Tonnage. Formerly Editor of The Navy, and Secretary of the Royal Statistical Society. 1 Author of Hints on the Legal Duties of Shipmasters ; &c. CHARLES ARTHUR CONANT. Member of Commission on International Exchange of U.S., 1903. Treasurer, -j Trust Company. Morton Trust Co., New York, 1902-1906. Author of History of Modern Banks I of Issue; The Principles of Money and Banking; &c. REV, CHARLES ANDERSON SCOTT, M.A. Dunn Professor of the New Testament, Theological College of the Presbyterian Church of England, Cambridge. Author of Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths; &c. CATHERINE BEATRICE PHILLIPS (MRS W. ALISON PHILLIPS). Associate of Bedford College, London. Ulfilas. Unicorn. CHARLES CRAWFORD WHINERY, A.M. f United States: History (in Cornell University. Assistant Editor nth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. \ part). HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. See the biographical article: WRIGHT, CARROLL DAVIDSON. SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L. Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1900-1904. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York.. Member of the American Historical Association. SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.). Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office, London. Fellow of I King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, •{ Tulsi Das. 1889-1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn. f Trent, Council of; Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik -| Ultramontanism; im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichle des Papstthums ; &c. Vatican Council The. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lixr., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. f Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Varthema, LudoviCO di; of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. H v«, • A™ Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of VesPuccl> AmengO. Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. Trade Unions: United Slates. Turks. ("Transvaal: History (in part); 4 Turenne, Vicomte de; I Uniforms. J Truce of God; \ Urban II.-VI. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). f Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary J . . , Commission. .Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director- j v*n: Turkey (in part). General of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; I Life of Lord Clive ; &c. D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional 1 Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. I D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon;} Tnurnai India in the loth Century; History of Belgium; Belgian Life in Town and Country; \ &c. D. C. G. DANIEL COIT OILMAN. J Universities- United See the biographical article : GILMAN, DANIEL COIT. \ um D. (X T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. J Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon ) Troyon, Constant. School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c. D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The\ Variations. Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Tralles; Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 4 Tripoli: Syria; 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Trov and Trnad (in barti Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. D. H. DAVID HANNAY. f Toulon; Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal < Tourville, Comte de; Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. L Trafalgar, Battle of. E. B.* ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON. Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the Department of Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of the Academic des In- J Utica. scriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Descriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine; Traites des Monnaies Grecques et Romaines ; Catalogue des Camees de la Bibliotheque Nationale. E. C. B. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.Lrra. J T . J Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius," | * in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. L Vallombrosians. E. E. A. ERNEST E. AUSTEN. J Assistant in the Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South 1 Tsetse-fly. Kensington. E. F. S. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of •< Utamaro. Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint -editor of Bell's " Cathedral " Series. I Topelius, Zakris; Triolet; E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. I Troubadour; Trouvere; See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. j Usk, Thomas; [ Vers de Soeiete; Verse. E. Ga. EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E. c Managing Director of the British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of Manual of ^ Tramway. Electrical Undertakings; &c. [ E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. f University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian •( Tyras. at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. E. J. W. G. ELIAS JOHN WILKINSON GIBB. f Turkev. jiteraiure Translator of several Turkish books. \ * ' E. K. C. EDMUND KERCHEVER CHAMBERS. Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Sometime Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Chancellor's English Essayist, 1891. Author of The Medieval J. Vaughan Thomas. Stage. Editor of the "Red Letter" Shakespeare; Donne's Poems; Vaughan's Poems. Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT., LL.D. f Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Ge Tndymite; Vanadinite; [ Vesuvianite. Tuscany: History; Vespers, Sicilian. MOSES CASTER, PH.D. /Tourneur, Cyril: Introduction \ and Bibliography. SEb VjAS'l'EKj rH.JJ. r Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice- President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine J Vacarescu. Literature, 1886 and 1891. Author of A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; The ' Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle. { MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. r Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. J Vaphio. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. r Tracm-s. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham J ¥T . . ' , . . ... University, 1905-1908. ' [ Umbna (Ancient). NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. f United States: \ Flora. Fauna and Xll 0. Ba. P. A. K. P. C. M. P. C. Y. P. Gi. P. G. K. P. La. R. A.* R. A. S. R. C. J. R. D. S. R. I. P. R. J. M. R. K. D. R. L.* R. N. B. R. P. S. R. S. C. R. Tr. S. A. C. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f Tournament- Editor of the Ancestor, 1002-1005. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the-^ _ '., Honourable Society of the Baronetage. I Tudor (Faml PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. Transbaikalia (in part}; Transcaspian Region (in part) ; Turgai (in part); Turkestan (in part); Ufa (Government) (in part); Ural Mountains (in part). PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. f Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- J Variation and Selection; parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. 1 Vertebrata. Author of Outlines of Biology; Sec. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. / yane gjr g Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J **. Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- 1 V. logical Society. I PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f Van Dyck (in part)- Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. •{ - Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez: Life and Work; &c. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. r Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. Venezuela: Geology. ROBERT ANCHEL. Archivist of the Department de 1'Eure. RICHARD ALEXANDER STREATFEILD. f Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Musical Critic of 4 Verdi, Guiseppe. the Daily Graphic. Author of Masters of Italian Music ; The Opera ; &c. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L., Lnr.D. See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. ROLLIN D. SALISBURY, A.M., LL.D. r' Geologist in charge of Pleistocene Geology of New Jersey. Dean of Ogden (Grad.) | United States: Geology (in School of Science and Head of the Department of Geography in the University of 1 part). Chicago. Vendee, Wars of the. < Troy and Troad (in part). REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. | Trilobites. f Tone, Theobald Wolfe; Formerly Editor of the St James's J Tyler, Wat; [ Ulster, Earls of. ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. r Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum; and Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and Lilera- H Tseng Kuo-fan. lure of China; &c. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-law. Gazette (London). SIR RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of Toxodontia; Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer \ Tylopoda; of All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. i Uneulata ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, Author of Scandinavia: {Torkenskjold, Peder; Torstensson, Count; Valdemar I., II. ana IV. of Denmark; Verboczy, Istvan. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, . London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. -Tower; • Tracery; Triumphal Arch; Vault. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lnr. (Cantab.). r Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. Veneti; Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville ] Voctini' and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A. Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in Classics at Worcester College, Oxford. S Troyes. STANLEY ARTHUR COOKE, M.A. f Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew J Tree-Worship' and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic] Ti-~-ai, Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on uzzlan> Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Xlll S. M. C. S. M. E.-W. S. N. T. As. SYDNEY MONCKTON COPEMAN, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., F.R.S. Medical Inspector to H.M. Local Government Board, London. Medical Lecturer on Public Health at Westminster Hospital. Lt.-Col. and Divisional Sanitary , Officer, 1st London Division, Territorial Force. Milroy Lecturer, Royal College of I Vaccination. Physicians, London, 1898. Author of Vaccination, its Natural History and Patho- logy; &c. SIR SYDNEY MAROW EARDLEY-WILMOT. Rear-Admiral (retired). Commanded H.M.S. " Dolphin " in Red Sea, 1885-1886, j and assisted in the defence of Suakin. Superintendent of Ordnance Stores, "j Torpedo. 1902—1909. Author of Life of Vice- Admiral Lord Lyons; Our Navy for a Thousand Years ; &c. [ SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc. See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of f Uranus (Astronomy). I. Venus (Astronomy). Tortona; Trapani; Trasimene, Lake; Trebula; Turin; Turris Libisonis; Tuscany: Geography; Tusculum; Tyndaris; Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member' of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. graphy of the Roman Campagna. Author of The Classical Topo- T. A. A. T. A. I. T. C. C. T. E. H. T. F. C. T. H. T. S. T. Se. V. C.* V. M. W. A. B. C. W. A. He. W. A. P. W. Bo. THOMAS ANDREW ARCHER, M.A. Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. THOMAS CHROWDER CHAMBERLIN, A.M., PH.D., LL.D., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.A.A.S., &c. Professor and Head of Department of Geology and Director of the Walker Museum, University of Chicago. Investigator of Fundamental Problems of Geology at the Carnegie Institute. Consulting Geologist, United States and Wisconsin .Geological Survey. Author of Geology of Wisconsin; General Treatise on Geology (with R. D. Salisbury) ; &c. THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., K.C. r Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of International Law and Diplomacy in the University of Oxford, 1874-1910. Bencher I Treaties; of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Studies in International Law; The Elements of Juris- 1 Vacarius. prudence ; A Iberici Gentilis de jure belli ; The Laws of War on Land; Neutral Duties in a Maritime War; &c. Udine; Umbria (Modern); Valeria Via; Varia; Vasto; Veii; Veleia; Velia; Velletri; Venafrum; Venusia; Vercelli; Verona (in part); Vesuvius (in part). Ursula, St (in part). •j Unemployment; Vagrancy. United States: Geology (in part). THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., Lixx.D. See the biographical article: HODGKIN, THOMAS. J Urban VII. and VIII. 4 Vandals (in part). THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD SHAW or DUNFERMLINE. Lord of Appeal. M.P. for Hawick District, 1892-1909. Lord Advocate for Scotland, -| Vergniaud, Pierre. 1905-1909. I THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. f Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J vanhmo-h «ir Tnhn University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of | V Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. l SIR VINCENT HENRY PENALVER CAILLARD. f Director of Vickers, Sons & Maxim, Ltd.; and the London, Chatham & Dover J Turkey: Geography and Railway. Formerly President of the Ottoman Public Debt Council, and Financial } (-,, t-'f- Representative of England, Holland and Belgium in Constantinople. Author of Imperial Fiscal Reform. VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON. /Trombone (in part); Principal of the Conservatoire Royal deMusique at Brussels. Chevalier of the Legion | Trumpet (in part) of Honour. L REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. WILLIAM ABBOT HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Natural History in the University of Liverpool. President of the Linnean Society, 1904. Author of Report upon the Tunicata collected during the Voyage of the " Challenger " ; &c. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. WlLHELM BOUSSET, D.Tn. Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen. Author of Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; &c. {Topfier, Rodolphe; Trent; Tschudi; Unterwalden; Uri; Valais; Var; Vaud. •\ Tunicata. Utrecht: Province (in part); Valet; Vavassor; Verona, Congress of; Vestments. j Valentinus and the [ Valentinians. XIV W. E. G. W. F. C. W. G.* W. L. F. W. MeD. W. MacD.* W. M. D. W. P. C. W. R. M. W. R. S. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. j Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, J. Tsana (in part). Egypt, and Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. J Trade Marks (in part); Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King s College, 1 Treason; Trial; Venue. London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (zyd edition). ALGeoloEist on 'H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-bearing Rocks of the S. \ Transvaal: Geology. m i ••«••.. .. i TTr _ _ iiT_ _ f A f..: T"7._ ^- — / — ,..• nf /~"f*fi1 ,IM A fnfil \/ftt'*>it'vi a • fvr- LjCOlOglSt On n.m. vjeuiogl^ill ouivcy. xrui" — "& - ;-~ Transvaal; Mineral Wealth of Africa; The Geology of Coal and Coal Mining; WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., Pn.D. Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Editor of Documentary History of Reconstruction ; &c. WILLIAM MCDOUGALL, M.A. Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly bellow of St John's College, Cambridge. WILLIAM MACDONALD, LL.D. Professor of American History in Brown University, Providence, R.I. 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Valentinian I.-II. Valerian. Valla, Lorenzo. Valladolid. Valtellina. Vanadium. Vanderbilt, Cornelius. Vane, Sir Henry. Vanilla. Vauban. Vaughan, Henry. Vauvenargues, Marquis de. Venezuela: History. Venus's Fly-trap. Verdun. Vermont. Vernet (Family). Verney (Family). Vernon, Edward. Versailles. Vespasian. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVII TONALITE, in petrology, a rock of the diorite class, first described from Monte Adamello near Tonale in the Eastern Alps. It may be described as a quartz-diorite containing biotite and hornblende in nearly equal proportions. The prin- cipal felspar is plagioclase, but orthoclase occurs also, usually in small amount. Those varieties which are rich in orthoclase, in addition to plagioclase, have been called quartz-monzonites or adamellites, but a better term is grano-diorite, which has been very generally adopted in America for rocks which are intermediate in character between the granites and the diorites. The hornblende of the diorites is green, sometimes with a tinge of brown; the biotite is always brown and strongly pleochroic. Often these two minerals are clustered together irregularly or in parallel growths. They have generally a fairly strong tendency to idiomorphism, but may sometimes enclose plagioclase fel- spar in ophitic manner. Both of them decompose to chlorite, epidote and carbonates. The plagioclase felspar, which may form more than one-half of the rock, is andesine or oligoclase; simple crystals are rare, the majority being complex growths with centres of felspar rich in lime, while in the external zones the proportion of soda felspar increases greatly. The inner portions have often well-defined, but very irregular, boundaries, and are sometimes sponge-like, with the cavities filled up with a later, more acid, deposit. This seems to indicate that growth has taken place in stages, alternating with periods when the crystallized felspar was eroded or partly dissolved. The ortho- clase sometimes forms irregular plates enclosing individuals of plagioclase. Quartz occurs both in irregular simple grains and as micropegmatite. Occasionally pale green pyroxene is visible in the centre of crystals of dark green hornblende. The accessory minerals apatite, magnetite and zircon are always present, and very common also are orthite in coffee-coloured zonal prisms practically always encircled by yellow epidote, and reddish-brown crystals of sphene, simple or twinned. In external appearance the tonalites are very like the granites but usually darker in colour. Tonalite-porphyrites often accom- pany them, having the same composition but with phenocrysts of felspar, quartz, hornblende and biotite in a fine-grained ground- mass. Veins and threads of fine grey rock, mainly composed of quartz and felspar, often intersect tonalite-masses and have been called tonalite-aplites, seeing that they bear the same relations to aplites as the aplites do to the granites. They contain more soda- lime felspar than the normal aplites. Towards their margins the larger alpine masses of tonalite often assume banded or gneissic facies, due apparently to movement during intrusion. XXVII. I In eastern Tirol another tonalite occurs at Rieserferner ; there is also a well-known mass of this rock near Traversella. In the south of Scotland (Galloway district) tonalites accompany hornblende- and biotite-granites, hornblende- and augite-diorites. The newer granites of the Highlands of Scotland in many places pass into tonalites, especially near their margins, and similar rocks occur in Ireland in a few places. Grano-diorites have been described from California, and rocks of very similar character occur in the Andes, Patagonia and the lesser Antilles. Tonalites are also said to be frequent among the igneous rocks of Alaska. (J. S. F.) TONAWANDA, a city of Erie county, New York, U.S.A., about ii m. by rail N. of Buffalo on the Niagara River at the mouth of Tonawanda Creek (opposite North Tonawanda), and on the Erie Canal. Pop. (1900), 7421, of whom 1834 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 8290. Tonawanda is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the Erie railways, and is connected with Buffalo, Niagara Falls and Lockport by electric lines. The industries depend chiefly on electric power generated by the Niagara Falls, 11 m. distant. There are rolling- mills, planing-mills, ship-yards, and blast-furnaces, and among the manufactures are wooden ware, flour and paper. The surrounding region was the scene of hostilities during the Seven Years' War, and the War of 1812. The first permanent white settlement was made about 1809, and Tonawanda was in- corporated as a village in 1854 and was chartered as a city in 1903. The name of the city is an Indian word said to mean " swift water." TONBRIDGE [TUNBRIDGE], a market town in the Tonbridge or south-western parliamentary division of Kent, England, 295 m. S.S.E. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 12,736. It is situated on rising ground above the river Medway, which is crossed by a stone bridge erected in 1775. The church of St Peter and St Paul, chiefly Decorated and Perpendicular, with some portions of earlier date, was completely restored in 1879. There are remains of an ancient castle, consisting chiefly of a finely pre- served gateway, of the Early Decorated period, flanked by two round towers. The castle was formerly defended by three moats, one of them formed by the Medway. Tonbridge School was founded by Sir Andrew Judd, lord mayor of London in the time of Edward VI., and was rebuilt in 1865, remodelled in 1880, and extended subsequently. Ornamental articles of inlaid wood, called Tonbridge ware, chiefly sold at Tunbridge Wells, are largely manufactured. There are gunpowder mills on the banks of the Medway, and wool-stapling, brewing and TONDERN— TONE tanning are carried on. There is some traffic on the Medway, which is navigable for barges. Tonbridge owed its early importance to the castle built by Richard, earl of Clare, in the reign of Henry I. The castle was besieged by William Rufus, was taken by John in the wars with the barons, and again by Prince Edward, son of Henry III. After being in the possession of the earls of Clare and Hert- ford, and of the earls of Gloucester, it became the property of the Staffords, and on the attainder of the duke of Bucking- ham in the reign of Henry VIII. was taken by the Crown. It was dismantled during the Civil War. The lords of the castle had the right of attending the archbishops of Canterbury on state occasions as chief butlers. TONDERN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on the Widane, 8 m. from the North Sea at Hoyer, opposite the island of Sylt, and 42 m. by rail N.W. from Flensburg. Pop. (1900), 4244. Tondern was in early days a seaport, but since the reclamation of the marshes and the dredg- ing of the Widane navigation has ceased, and vessels load and unload at Hoyer, with which the place has direct railway com- munication. The trade consists chiefly in agricultural produce and cattle, and there is an important horse market. In the village of Galhus, lying about 4m. N., were discovered, in 1639 and 1734 respectively, two golden horns of the Scandi- navian period; these were stolen in 1802 from tne Museum of Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, where they had been treasured, and have never been recovered. See Karstens, Die Stadt Tondern (Tondern, 1861). TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798), Irish rebel, the son of Peter Tone, a Dublin coachmaker, was born in Dublin on the aoth of June 1763. His grandfather was a small farmer in county Kildare, and his mother was the daughter of a captain in the merchant service. Though entered as a student at Trinity College, Dublin, Tone gave little attention to study, his inclination being for a military career; but after eloping with Matilda Witherington, a girl of sixteen, he took his degree in 1786, and read law in London at the Middle Temple and after- wards in Dublin, being called to the Irish bar in 1789. Though idle, Tone had considerable ability. Chagrined at finding no notice taken of a wild scheme for founding a military colony in the South Seas which he had submitted to Pitt, he turned to Irish politics. An able pamphlet attacking the administration of the marquess of Buckingham in 1790 brought him to the notice of the Whig club; and in September 1791 he wrote a remarkable essay over the signature " A Northern Whig," of which 10,000 copies are said to have been sold. The principles of the French Revolution were at this time being eagerly em- braced in Ireland, especially among the Presbyterians of Ulster, and two months before the appearance of Tone's essay a great meeting had been held in Belfast, where republican toasts had been drunk with enthusiasm, and a resolution in favour of the abolition of religious disqualifications had given the first sign of political sympathy between the Roman Catholics and the Protestant dissenters of the north. The essay of "A Northern Whig " emphasized the growing breach between the Whig patriots like Flood and Grattan, who aimed at Catholic emancipation and parliamentary reform without disloyalty to the connexion with England, and the men who desired to establish a separate Irish republic. Tone expressed in his pamphlet unqualified contempt for the constitution which Grattan had so triumphantly extorted from the English govern- ment in 1782; and, himself a Protestant, he urged co-operation between the different religious sects in Ireland as the only means of obtaining complete redress of Irish grievances. In October 1791 Tone converted these ideas into practical policy by founding, in conjunction with Thomas Russell (1767- 1803), Napper Tandy (q.v.) and others, the society of the " United Irishmen." The original purpose of this society was no more than the formation of a political union between Roman Catholics and Protestants, with a view to obtaining a liberal measure of parliamentary reform; it was only when that object appeared to be unattainable by constitutional methods that the majority of the members adopted the more uncompromising opinions which Wolfe Tone held from the first, and conspired to establish an Irish republic by armed rebellion. Tone himself admitted that with him hatred of England had always been " rather an instinct than a principle," though until his views should become more generally accepted in Ireland he was prepared to work for reform as distinguished from revolution. But he desired to root out the popular respect for the names of Charlemont and Grattan, and to transfer to more violent leaders the conduct of the national movement. Grattan was a reformer and a patriot without a tincture of democratic ideas; Wolfe Tone was a revolutionary whose principles were drawn from the French Convention. Grattan's political philosophy was allied to that of Edmund Burke; Tone was a disciple of Danton and Thomas Paine. Democratic principles were gaining ground among the Roman Catholics as well as the Presbyterians. A quarrel between the moderate and the more advanced sections of the Roman Catholic Committee led, in December 1791, to the secession of sixty-eight of the former, led by Lord Kenmare; and the direction of the committee then passed to more violent leaders, of whom the most prominent was John'Keogh, a Dublin tradesman. The active participation of the Roman Catholics in the movement of the United Irishmen was strengthened by the appointment of Tone as paid secretary of the Roman Catholic Committee in the spring of 1792. When the legality of the Roman Catholic Convention in 1792 was called in question by the government, Tone drew up for the committee a statement of the case on which a favourable opinion of counsel was obtained; and a sum of £1500 with a gold medal was voted to Tone by the Convention when it dissolved itself in April 1793. Burke and Grattan were anxious that provision should be made for the education of Irish Roman Catholic priests at home, to preserve them from the contagion of Jacobinism in France; Wolfe Tone, " with an incomparably juster forecast," as Lecky observes, " advocated the same measure for exactly opposite reasons." He rejoiced that the breaking up of the French schools by the revolution had rendered necessary the foundation of Maynooth College, which he foresaw would draw the sympathies of the clergy into more democratic channels. In 1794 the United Irishmen, persuaded that their scheme of universal suffrage and equal electoral districts was not likely to be accepted by any party in the Irish parliament, began to found their hopes on a French invasion. An English clergyman named William Jackson, a man of infamous notoriety who had long lived in France, where he had imbibed revolutionary opinions, came to Ireland to negotiate between the French committee of public safety and the United Irishmen. For this emissary Tone drew up a memorandum on the state of Ireland, which he described as ripe for revolution; the paper was betrayed to the government by an attorney named Cockayne to whom Jackson had impru- dently disclosed his mission; and in April 1794 Jackson was arrested on a charge of treason. Several of the leading United Irishmen, including Reynolds and Hamilton Rowan, immediately fled the country; the papers of the United Irishmen were seized; and for a time the organization was broken up. Tone, who had not attended meetings of the society since May 1793, remained in Ireland till after the trial and suicide of Jackson in April 1795. Having friends among the government party, including members of the Beresford family, he was enabled to make terms with the government, and in return for information as to what had passed between Jackson, Rowan and himself he was per- mitted to emigrate to America, where he arrived in May 1795. Taking up his residence at Philadelphia, he wrote a few months later to Thomas Russell expressing unqualified dislike of the American people, whom he was disappointed to find no more truly democratic in sentiment and no less attached to order and authority than the English; he described George Washington as a " high-flying aristocrat," and he found the aristocracy of money in America still less to his liking than the European aristocracy of birth. Tone did not feel himself bound in honour by his compact TONGA with the government at home to abstain from further conspiracy ; and finding himself at Philadelphia in the congenial company of Reynolds, Rowan and Napper Tandy, he undertook a mission to Paris to persuade the French government to send an expedi- tion to invade Ireland. In February 1796 he arrived in Paris and had interviews with De La Croix and L. N. M. Carnot, who were greatly impressed by his energy, sincerity and ability. A commission was given him as adjutant-general in the French army, which he hoped might protect him from the penalty of treason in the event of capture by the English; though he himself claimed the authorship of a proclamation said to have been issued by the United Irishmen, enjoining that all Irishmen taken with arms in their hands in the British service should be instantly shot ; and he supported a project for landing a thousand criminals in England, who were to be commissioned to burn Bristol and commit any other atrocity in their power. He drew up two memorials representing that the landing of a considerable French force in Ireland would be followed by a general rising of the people, and giving a detailed account of the condition of the country. The French directory, which possessed informa- tion from Lord Edward Fitzgerald (q.v.) and Arthur O'Connor confirming Tone, prepared to despatch an expedition under Hoche. On the 15th of December 1796 the expedition, consist- ing of forty-three sail and carrying about 15,000 men with a large supply of war material for distribution in Ireland, sailed from Brest. Tone, who accompanied it as " Adjutant-general Smith," had the greatest contempt for the seamanship of the French sailors, which was amply justified by the disastrous result of the invasion. Returning to France without having effected anything, Tone served for some months in the French army under Hoche; and in June 1797 he took part in prepara- tions for a Dutch expedition to Ireland, which was to be sup- ported by the French. But the Dutch fleet was detained in the Texel for many weeks by unfavourable weather, and before it eventually put to sea in October, only to be crushed by Duncan in the battle of Camperdown, Tone had returned to Paris; and Hoche, the chief hope of the United Irishmen, was dead. Bona- parte, with whom Tone had several interviews about this time, was much less disposed than Hoche had been to undertake in earnest an Irish expedition; and when the rebellion broke out in Ireland in 1798 he had started for Egypt. When, therefore, Tone urged the directory to send effective assistance to the Irish rebels, all that could be promised was a number of small raids to descend simultaneously on different points of the Irish coast. One of these under Humbert succeeded in landing a force in Killala Bay, and gained some success in Connaught before it was subdued by Lake and Cornwallis, Wolfe Tone's brother Matthew being captured, tried by court-martial, and hanged; a second, accompanied by Napper Tandy (q.v.), came to disaster on the coast of Donegal; while Wolfe Tone took part in a third, under Admiral Bompard, with General Hardy in command of a force of about 3000 men, which encountered an English squadron near Lough Swilly on the i2th of October 1798. Tone, who was on board the " Hoche," refused Bompard's offer of escape in a frigate before the action, and was taken prisoner when the " Hoche " was forced to surrender. When the prisoners were landed a fortnight later Sir George Hill recognized Tone in the French adjutant-general's uniform. At his trial by court-martial in Dublin, Tone made a manly straightforward speech, avowing his determined hostility to England and his design " by fair and open war to procure the separation of the two countries," and pleading in virtue of his status as a French officer to die by the musket instead of the rope. He was, however, sentenced to be hanged on the I2th of November; but on the nth he cut his throat with a penknife, and on the igth of November 1798 he died of the wound. Although Wolfe Tone had none of the attributes of greatness, " he rises," says Lecky, "far above the dreary level of common- place which Irish conspiracy in general presents. The tawdry and exaggerated rhetoric; the petty vanity and jealousies; the weak sentimentalism; the utter incapacity for proportioning means to ends, and for grasping the stern realities of things, which so commonly disfigure the lives and conduct even of the more honest members of his class, were wholly alien to his nature. His judgment of men and things was keen, lucid and masculine, and he was alike prompt in decision and brave in action." In his later years he overcame the drunkenness that was habitual to him in youth ; he developed seriousness of character and unsel- fish devotion to what he believed was the cause of patriotism; and he won the respect of men of high character and capacity in France and Holland. His journals, which were written for his family and intimate friends, give a singularly interesting and vivid picture of life in Paris in the time of the directory. They were published after his death by his son, William Theobald Wolfe Tone (1791-1828), who was educated by the French government and served with some distinction in the armies of Napoleon, emigrating after Waterloo to America, where he died, in New York City, on the roth of October 1828. See Life of Theobald Wolfe Tone by himself, continued by his son, with his political writings, edited by W. T. Wolfe Tone (2 vols., Washington, 1826), another edition of which is entitled Auto- biography of Theobald Wolfe Tone, edited with introduction by R. Barry O'Brien (2 vols., London, 1893) ; R. R. Madden, Lives of the United Irishmen (7 vols., London, 1842); Alfred Webb, Com- pendium of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878) ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, vols. iii., iv., v. (cabinet ed., 5 vols., London, 1892). (R. J. M.) TONGA, or FRIENDLY ISLANDS (so called by Captain Cook), an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, about 350 m. S.S.W. of Samoa and 250 m. E.S.E. of Fiji. The long chain of islands, numbering about 150, though with a collective land area of only 385 sq. m., extends from 18° 5' to 22° 29' S. and 174° to 176° 10' W., and is broken into three groups, viz. the Tonga to the south, Hapai (which again is divided into three clusters) in the centre and Vavau to the north. The largest island is Tongatabu (the Sacred Tonga, Tasman's Amsterdam) in the southern group, measuring about 25 by 10 m., and 165 sq. m. in area, which contains the capital, Nukualofa. The vegetation is rich and beautiful, but the scenery tame, the land seldom rising above 60 ft.; Eua (Tasman's Middelburg), 9 m. south-east and 67 sq. m. in area, is 1078 ft. in extreme height, and much more picturesque, being diversified by rocks and woods. Vavau, in the northern group, is 55 sq. m. in extent and 300 ft. high. Next to these come the coral islands Nomuka and Lifuka in the Hapai group; Tofua, 2846 ft., Late or Lette, 1800 ft. and Kao, 3020 ft. high, which are volcanic and smaller. The numerous islets of the central group are very fertile. It is along the western side of the northern half of the chain that the line of volcanic action is apparent; the islands here (of which some are active volcanoes) are lofty. To the east the whole chain is bounded by a profound trough in the ocean bed, which extends south- westward, east of the Kermadec Islands, towards New Zealand. The majority of the Tonga Islands, however, are level, averaging 40 ft. high, with hills rising to 600 ft.; their sides are generally steep. The surface is covered with a rich mould unusual in coral islands, mixed towards the sea with sand, and having a substratum of red or blue clay. The soil is thus very productive, although water is scarce and bad. Barrier reefs are rare; fringing reefs are numerous, except on the east side, which is nearly free, and there are many small isolated reefs and volcanic banks among the islands. If the reefs impede navigation they form some good harbours. The best is on the south-western side of Vavau; another is on the north of Tongatabu. Earthquakes are not infrequent. From 1845 to 1857 volcanic eruptions were very violent, and islands once fertile were devastated and nearly destroyed. A new island rose from the sea, and was at once named " Wesley," but disappeared again. In 1886 there was a serious volcanic eruption in the outlying island of Niuafoou, and at the same time Falcon Reef, normally awash at high water, discharged sufficient scoriae and pumice to form a new island 50 ft. high. In 1898 the island had been washed away, but in 1900 H.M.S. " Porpoise " found that a solid core of black rock had been extruded 6 ft. above high water. All the volcanoes in the group were then quiescent. Geology. — The line of volcanic action extends along the western side of the northern half of the chain. Some of the islands are built of TONGA volcanic rocks alone; such are Hongu-tonga and Hongu-hapai, which appear to be fragments of a single ancient crater, Tofua, Kao, Late, Metis, Amargua and Falcon Island. The lava is a basic au'gite- andesite. Another group of islands consists of elevated masses of submarine volcanic deposits, upon some of which coral-reef limestone forms a more or less complete covering; such are Tonumeia and the Nomuka group (Mango, Tonua, Nomuka-iki). All the volcanic rocks of these islands are submarine stratified tuffs which are penetrated here and there by andesite or diabase dikes. The Vavau group consists entirely of coral limestone, which is occasionally crystalline, and contains stalactitic caves of great beauty. Climate, Flora, Fauna. — The climate is healthy for Europeans, being dry and cool as compared with that of Samoa and Fiji. There are frequent alternations of temperature, which averages 75° to 77° F., though considerably higher in the wet season. Cool south- east trade winds blow, sometimes with great violence, from April to December. During the rest of the year the winds blow from west-north-west and north, with rain and occasional destructive hurricanes. A cyclone which devastated Vavau in April 1900 was the most destructive ever recorded in the group, but hurricanes are rare. The average rainfall for the year is about 80 ins. The vegetation is similar to that of Fiji, but more definitely Indo-Malayan in character; it embraces all the plants of the groups to the east with many that are absent there. Ferns abound*, some of them peculiar, and tree ferns on the higher islands, and all the usual fruit trees and cultivated plants of the Pacific are found. There are several kinds of valuable timber trees. The only indigenous land mammalia are a small rat and a few curious species of bats. The dog and the pig were no doubt introduced by man. Of birds some 30 kinds are known, an owl being the only bird of prey; parrots, pigeons, kingfishers, honey-suckers, rails, ducks, and other water birds are numerous. There are snakes and small lizards, but no frogs or toads. Of insects there are relatively few kinds; but ants, beetles and mosquitoes abound. The fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are varied and numerous. Turtle and sea-snakes abound, as do mollusca, of which a few are peculiar, and zoophytes. Inhabitants. — The population of the archipelago is about 19,000, of whom about 370 are whites or half-castes. The natives, a branch of the Polynesian race, are the most progressive and most intellectual in the Pacific Islands, except the Hawaiians. They have exercised an influence over distant neighbours, especially in Fiji, quite out of proportion to their numbers. Their conquests have extended as far as Niu6, or Savage Island, 200 m. east, and to various other islands to the north. In Captain Cook's time Poulaho, the principal chief, considered Samoa to be within his dominions. This pre- eminence may perhaps be due to an early infusion of Fijian blood: it has been observed that such crosses are always more vigorous than the pure races in these islands; and this influence seems also traceable in the Tongan dialect, and appears to have been partially transmitted thence to the Samoan. Various customs, traditions and names of places also point to a former relation with Fiji. Their prior conversion to Christianity gave the Tongans material as well as moral advantages over their neighbours. Crime is infrequent, and morality, always above the Polynesian average, has improved. The people have strict notions of etiquette and gradations of rank. In disposition they are amiable and courteous, but arrogant, lively, inquisitive and inclined to steal — their attacks in earlier days on Europeans, when not caused by misunderstandings, being due probably to their coveting property which to them was of immense value. They are brave and not unenergetic, though the soft climate and the abundance of food discourage industry. They value children, and seldom practised infanticide, and cannibalism was rare. Their women are kindly treated, and only do the lighter work. Agriculture, which is well understood, is the chief industry. They are bold and skilful sailors and fishermen; other trades, as boat and house building, carving, cooking, net and mat making, are usually hereditary. Their houses are slightly built, but the surrounding ground and roads are laid out with great care and taste. There were formerly (till the early l8th century) two sovereigns; the higher of these, called Tui Tonga (chief of Tonga), was greatly reverenced but enjoyed little power. The real ruler and the chief officers of _the state were members of the Tubou family, from which also the wife of the Tui Tonga was always chosen, whose descendants through the female line had special honours and privileges, under the title of tamaha, recalling the vasu of Fiji. The explanation of the dual kingship is probably this — the Tui Tonga were regarded as the direct descendants of the original head of the family from which the people sprang; regarded with reverence, and possessing unlimited power, they came to misuse this and discontent resulted, whereupon, to protect themselves, they appointed an executive deputy. Below these came the Eiki or chiefs, and next to them the class called Matabule. These were the hereditary counsellors and companions of the chiefs, and conveyed to the people the decisions formed at their assemblies. They also directed the national cere- monies, and preserved the popular traditions. While, under the control of Europeans, the Tongans have shown some aptitude for administration, they fail when left to themselves. They pick up superficial acquirements with astonishing ease, but seem to be incapable of mastering any subject. They write shorthand, but speak no English; they have a smattering of higher mathematics, yet are ignorant of book-keeping. Their government, effective enough when dealing with natives, breaks down in all departments concerned with Europeans, and becomes the prey of designing traders. Their ambition is to rank as a civilized state, and the flattery lavished on them by their teachers has spoiled them. There are some ancient stone remains in Tongatabu, burial places (feitoka) built with great blocks, and a remarkable monument consisting of two large upright blocks morticed to carry a transverse one, on which was formerly a circular basin of stone. Administration and Trade. — In May 1900 the group became a British protectorate under the native flag, the appointment of the consul and agent being transferred to the government of New Zealand. In 1904 the financial and legal administration was put into the hands of the British High Commissioner for the Western Pacific. The native king is assisted by a legislative assembly consisting, in equal numbers, of hereditary nobles and popular (elected) representatives. The wisdom of King George Tubou in refusing to alienate an acre of land, except upon lease, has resulted in Tonga having been the last native state in the Pacific to lose its independence. There is a revenue of about £21,000 annually derived chiefly from a poll-tax, leases and customs. The principal exports are copra, bananas, oranges and fungus, and the annual values of exports and imports are £80,000 and £70,000 respectively on an average, though both fluctuate considerably. British coin is legal tender (since 1905). There are five churches in Tonga — the Free Wesleyans, embracing the great majority of the inhabitants, Wesleyans, Roman Catholics, and Seventh Day Adventists. These last are few; a still smaller number of natives are nominally Anglicans. History. — In 1616 the vessels of Jacob Lemaire and Willem Cornelis Schouten reached the island of Niuatobutabu, and had a hostile encounter with the natives. In 1643 Abel Tasman arrived at Tongatabu and was more fortunate. The next visit was that of Samuel Wallis in 1767, followed in 1773 by that of Captain Cook. In 1777 Cook returned, and stayed seven weeks among the islands. In 1799 a revolution, having its origin in jealousy between two natives of high rank, broke out. Civil war dragged on for many years — long after the deaths of the first leaders — but Taufaahau, who became king in 1845 under the name of George Tubou I., proved a strong ruler. In 1822 a Methodist missionary had arrived in the island, and others followed. The attempt to introduce a new faith led to renewed strife, this time between converts and pagans, but King George (who fully appreciated the value of intercourse with foreigners) supported the missionaries, and by 1852 the rebels were subdued. The missionaries, finding their position secure, presently began to take action in political affairs, and persuaded the king to grant a constitution to the Tongans, who welcomed it with a kind of childish enthusiasm, but were far from fitted to receive it. A triennial parliament, a cabinet, a privy council, and an elaborate judicial system were established, and the cumbrous machinery was placed in the hands of a " prime minister," a retired Wesleyan missionary, Mr Shirley Baker. Treaties of friendship were concluded with Germany, Great Britain, and the United States of America. Baker induced the king to break off his connexion with the Wesleyan body in Sydney, and to set up a state church. Persecution of members of the old church followed, and in 1890 the missionary-premier had to be removed from the group by the high commissioner. He afterwards returned to initiate a new sect called the " Free Church of England," which for a time created further divisions among the people. • King George Tubou died in 1893 at the age of ninety-six, and was succeeded by his great-grandson under the same title. TONGKING Mr Basil Thomson (who after Baker's deportation had carried out reforms which the natives, when left alone, were incapable of maintaining) was sent in 1900 to conclude the treaty by which the king placed his kingdom under British protection. See Captain Cook's Voyages and other early narratives; Martin, Mariner's account of the Tonga Islands (Edinburgh, 1827) ; Vason, Four Years in Tongatabu (London, 1815) ; A. Monfort, Les Tonga, ou Archipel des Amis (Lyons, 1893); B. H. Thomson, The Diversions of a Prime Minister (London, 1894). TONGKING,1 a province of French Indo-China, and protec- torate of France, situated between 20° and 235° N. and 102° and 1085° E., and bounded N. by the Chinese provinces of Kwang- Tung, Kwang-Si and Yun-nan, W. by Laos, S. by Annam, and E. by the Gulf of Tongking. Area, about 46,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at 6,000,000, including 33,000 Chinese and about 4000 Europeans. Geographically, Tongking com- prises three regions: (i) the delta of the Song-Koi (Red river), which, beginning at Son-Tay and coalescing with the delta of the Thai-Binh, widens out into the low-lying and fertile plain within which are situated the principal cities. (2) Two moun- tainous tracts, to the north and west of the delta, running approximately from north-west to south-east, one separating the basins of the Song-Koi and the Canton river, the other those of the Song-Koi and the Mekong. (3) A region of plateaus and low hills forming a transition between the delta and the mountains. The main geographical feature in the country is the Song-Koi, which, taking its rise near Tali Fu, in Yun-nan, enters Tongking at Lao-Kay (the Lao boundary), and flows thence in a south-easterly direction to the Gulf of Tongking. It was this river which mainly, in the first instance, attracted the French to Tongking, as it was believed by the explorers that, forming the shortest route by water to the rich province of Yun-nan, it would prove also to be the most convenient and expeditious means of transporting the tin, copper, silver and gold which are known to abound there. This belief, however, has proved fallacious. The upper course of the stream is constantly impeded by rapids, the lowest being about thirty miles above Hung-Hoa. Beyond Lao-Kay navigation is impracticable during the dry season, and at all other times of the year goods have to be there transferred into light junks. Below Lao-Kay larger junks, and in the summer months steam launches of shallow draught use the river. Within the limits of Yun-nan the navigation is still more difficult. Near Son-Tay the Song-Koi receives the waters of the Song-Bo (Black river) and the Song-Ka (Clear river), parallel affluents rising in Yun-nan, and from that point divides into a network of waterways which empty themselves by countless outlets into the sea. The Song-Cau rises in north-eastern Tongking and below the town of Sept Pagodes, where it is joined by the Song- Thuong to form the Thai-Binh, divides into numerous branches, communicating with the Song-Koi by the Canal des Rapides and the Canal des Bambous. The coast line of Tongking from Mon-Kay on the Chinese frontier to Thanh-Hoa, near that of Annam, has a length of 375 m. From Mon-Kay as far as the estuary of the Song-Koi it is broken, rugged and fringed with islands and rocky islets. The bay of Tien-Hien, to the south of which lies the island of Ke-Bao, and the picturesque bay of Along, are the chief indentations. Beyond the island of Cac-Ba, south of the Bay of Along, the coast is low, flat and marshy, and tends to advance as the alluvial deposits of the delta accumulate. The climate of Tongking is less trying to Europeans than that of the rest of French Indo-China. During June, July and August, the temperature ranges between 82° and 100° F., but from October to May the weather is cool. The country is subject to typhoons in August and September. In the wooded regions of the mountains the tiger, elephant and panther are found, and wild buffalo, deer and monkeys are common. The delta is the home of ducks and many other varieties of aquatic birds. Tea, cardamom, and mulberry grow wild, and in general the flora approximate to that of southern China. The Annamese (see ANNAM), who form the bulk of the population of Tongking, are of a somewhat better physique than those of the 1 See also INDO-CHINA, FRENCH, and ANNAM. rest of Indo-China. Savage tribes inhabit the northern districts — the Muongs the mountains bordering the Black river, the Th6s the regions bordering the Clear river and the Thai-Binh. The Muongs are bigger and stronger than the Annamese. They have square foreheads, large faces and prominent cheek-bones, and their eyes are often almost straight. Rice, which in some places furnishes two crops annually, is incom- parably the most important product of the delta. Elsewhere there are plantations of coffee, tobacco, ramie, paper-tree (Daphne odora), cotton, jute, sugar-cane, pepper and mulberry. The cultivation of silkworms is of growing importance. Gold, copper, tin, lead and other metals are found in the higher regions of Tongking, but only gold and tin are exploited, and these only to a very limited extent. There is a large output of coal of inferior quality from Hon-Gay on the bay of Along and there are coal-workings on the island of Ke-Bao. Hanoi, Hai-phong and Nam-Dinh carry on cotton-spinning, and Hanoi and Nam-Dinh are well known for the manufacture of carved and inlaid furniture. The natives are skilful at enamelling and the chasing and ornamentation of gold and other metals. The manu- facture of paper from the fibrous bark of the paper-tree is a wide- spread industry and there are numerous distilleries of rice-spirit. The imports of Tongking, which in 1905 reached a value of £3,501,422, comprise railway material, cereals, flour, liquors, woven goods, petroleum, glassware, paper, prepared skins, clocks and watches, arms and ammunition, &c. Exports (valued at £1,393,674 in 1905) comprise rice, rubber, manila hemp, ramie, lacquer and badian oils, raw skins, silk-waste, coal, Chinese drugs, rattan, mats, gamboge. The transit trade via Tongking between Hong-Kong and the province of Yun-nan in southern China is of considerable importance, reaching in 1905 a value of £1,146,000. This trade is entirely in the hands of Chinese houses, the tin of the Yun-nan mines and cotton yarns from Hong-Kong constituting its most important elements. Goods in transit enjoy a rebate of 80% of the customs duties. Goods are carried on the Song-Koi to Lao-Kay or Man-Hao, thence on mules. The waterways of the delta are lined with em- bankments, the causeways along which form the chief means of land communication of the region. (For railways, see INDO-CHINA, FRENCH.) The protectorate of Tongking approaches nearer to direct admin- istration than that of Annam, where the conditions of the protector- ate are more closely observed. Till 1897 the emperor of Annam was represented in Tongking by a viceroy (kinh-luoc), but now the native officials are appointed by and are directly under the control of the resident-superior, who resides at Hanoi, presides over [the (pro- tectorate council, and is the chief territorial representative of France. Tongking is divided into nineteen provinces, in each of which there is a resident or a vice-resident, and four military territories, the latter administered by commandants. In each province there is a council of native " notables," elected by natives and occupied with the discussion of the provincial budget and public works. There is also a deliberative council of natives (instituted 1907) fof the whole of Tongking. The provincial administration, local government and educational system are analogous to those of Annam (g.t;.). Two chambers of the court of appeal of Indo-China and a criminal court sit at Hanoi; there are tribunals of first instance and tribunals of commerce at Hanoi and Hai-Phong. When both parties to a suit are Annamese, it comes within the jurisdiction of the An-Sat or native judge of the province. The following is a summary of the budgets of 1899 and 1904: — Receipts. Expenditure. 1899 1904 £ 461,235 756,648 £ 427,993 494,034 The chief source of revenue is the direct taxes (including especially the poll-tax and land-tax), which amounted in 1904 to £417,723, while the chief items of expenditure are the cost of the residencies and general staff, public works and the civil guard. For the early history of Tongking, see ANNAM and INDO-CHINA, FRENCH. Tongking was loosely united to Annam until 1801, when Gia-long, king of Annam, brought it definitely under his sway. Having, by the treaty of 1862 and the annexation of Cochin China, firmly established themselves in Annames* territory, the French began to turn their attention to Tongking, attracted by the reported richness of its mineral wealth. They found a pretext for interfering in its affairs in the disturbances arising from the invasion of its northern provinces by the disbanded followers of the Taiping rebels. The Franco-German War of 1870-71 put an end to the project for a time, but the return of peace in Europe was the signal for the renewal of hos- tilities in the East. The appearance of Garnier's work on his expedition up the Mekong again aroused an interest in Tongking, TONGKING and the reported wealth of the country added the powerful motive of self-interest to the yearnings of patriotism. Already Jean Dupuis, a trader who in the pursuit of his calling had penetrated into Yun-nan, was attempting to negotiate for the passage up the Song-Koi of himself and a cargo of military stores for the Chinese authorities in Yun-nan. Meanwhile Captain Senez appeared from Saigon, having received instructions to open the route to French commerce. But to neither the trader nor the naval officer would the Tongkingese lend a favourable ear, and in default of official permission Dupuis determined to force his way up the river. This he succeeded in doing, but arrived too late, for he found the Taiping rebellion crushed and the stores no longer wanted. On the return of Dupuis to Hanoi, the Tongkingese general at that place wrote to the king of Annam, begging him to induce the governor of Cochin-China to remove the intruder. An order was thereupon issued calling upon Dupuis to leave the country. This he declined to do, and, after some negotiations, Francis Gamier with a detachment was sent to Hanoi to do the best he could in the difficult circumstances. Gamier threw himself heart and soul into Dupuis's projects, and, when the Tongkingese authorities refused to treat with him except on the subject of Dupuis's expulsion, he attacked the citadel in November, 1873, and carried it by assault. Having thus secured his position, he sent to Saigon for reinforcements, and meanwhile sent small detachments against the five other important fortresses in the delta (Hung-yen, Phu-Ly, Hai-Duong, Ninh-Binh and Nam- Dinh), and captured them all. The Tongkingese now called in the help of Lu-Vinh-Phuoc, the leader of the " Black Flags," l who at once marched with a large force to the scene of action. Within a few days he recaptured several villages near Hanoi, and so threatening did his attitude appear that Gamier, who had hurried back after capturing Nam-Dinh, made a sortie from the citadel. The movement proved a disastrous one, and resulted in the death of Gamier and of his second in command, Balny d'Avricourt. Meanwhile the news of Garnier's hostilities had alarmed the governor of Saigon, who, having no desire to be plunged into a war, sent Philastre, an inspector of native affairs, to offer apologies to the king of Annam. When, however, on arriving in Tongking Philastre heard of Garnier's death, he took command of the French forces, and at once ordered the evacuation of Nam-Dinh, Ninh-Binh and Hai-Duong — a measure which, however advantageous it may have been to the French at the moment, was most disastrous to the native Christian population, the withdrawal of the French being the signal for a general massacre of the converts. In pursuance of the same policy Philastre made a convention with the authorities (March, 1874) by which he bound his countrymen to withdraw from the occu- pation of the country, retaining only the right to trade on the Song-Koi and at Hanoi and Hai-Phong, and agreed to put an end to Dupuis's aggressive action. For a time affairs remained in stai/u quo, but in 1882 Le Myre deVillers, the governor of Cochin-China, sent Henri Riviere with a small force to open up the route to Yun-nan by the Song-Koi. With a curious similarity the events of Garnier's campaign were repeated. Finding the authorities intractable, Riviere stormed and carried the citadel of Hanoi, and then, with very slight loss, he captured Nam-Dinh, Hai-Duong, and other towns in the delta. And once again these victories brought the Black Flags into the neighbourhood of Hanoi. As Gamier had done, so Riviere hurried back from Nam-Dinh on news of the threatened danger. Like Gamier also he headed a sortie against his enemies, and like Gamier he fell a victim to nis own impetuosity (May, 1883). In the meantime the Annamese court had been seeking to enlist the help of the Chinese in their contest with the French. The tie which bound the tributary nation to the sovereign state had been for many generations slackened or drawn closer as circumstances determined, but it had never been entirely dissevered, and from the Annamese point of view this was one 1 Bands of Chinese rebels who infested the mountainous region of Tongking. of the occasions when it was of paramount importance that it should be acknowledged and acted upon. With much more than usual regularity, therefore, the king despatched presents and letters to the court of Peking, and in 1880 he sent a special embassy, loaded with unusually costly offerings, and bearing a letter in which his position of a tributary was emphatically asserted. Far from ignoring the responsibility thrust upon him, the emperor of China ordered the publication of the letter in the Peking Gazette. The death of Riviere and the defeat of his troops had placed the French in a position of extreme difficulty. M. Jules Ferry, who had become premier of France in February 1883, determined on a vigorous forward policy. But for the moment the outlying garrisons, except those of Nam-Dinh and Hai-Phong, had to be withdrawn and Hanoi itself was besieged by the Black Flags. Reinforcements brought by Admiral Courbet and General Bouet were insufficient to do more than keep them at bay. So con- tinued was the pressure on the garrison that Bouet determined to make an advance upon Son-Tay to relieve the blockade. .He attacked Vong, a fortified village, but he met with such resistance that, after suffering considerable loss, he was obliged to retreat to Hanoi. In the lower delta fortune sided with the French, and almost without a casualty Hai-Duong and Phu-Binh fell into their hands. Meanwhile, in order to put more effective pressure upon the court of Hue, Dr Harmand, commissary- general, supported by Courbet, proceeded with a naval force to the Hue river. They found that, though King Tu Due was dead, his policy of resistance was maintained, and therefore stormed the city. After a feeble defence it was taken, and Harmand concluded a treaty with the king (August 1883) in which the French protectorate was fully recognized, the king further binding himself to recall the Annamese troops serving in Tong- king, and to construct a road from Saigon to Hanoi. Though this treaty was exacted from Annam under pressure, the French lost no time in carrying out that part of it which gave them the authority to protect Tongking, and Bouet again advanced in the direction of Son-Tay. But again the resistance he met with compelled him to retreat, after capturing the fortified post of Palan. Meanwhile, on the determination to attack Son-Tay becoming known in Paris, the Chinese ambassador warned the ministry that, since Chinese troops formed part of the garrison, he should consider it as tantamount to a declaration of war. But his protest met with no consideration. On the arrival of reinforcements an advance was again made; and on the i6th of December 1883, after some desperate fighting, Son-Tay fell. During 1884 the French made themselves masters of the lower delta. Throughout the campaign Chinese regulars fought against the French, who thus found themselves involved in war with China. While hostilities were in progress M. Fournier, (he French consul at Tientsin, had been negotiating for peace, so far as China was concerned, with Li Hung-chang, and in May 1884 had signed and sealed a memorandum by which the Chinese plenipotentiary agreed that the Chinese troops should evacuate the northern provinces of Tongking " immediatement." In the following month another treaty, signed at Hue, confirmed the French protectorate over Annam and Tongking. It was not, however, followed by a cessation of military operations. A misunderstanding arose between the French and the Chinese as to the exact date for the evacuation of their posts by the Chinese, and in June General Millot, then commander-in-chief of the French forces, dispatched Colonel Dugenne at the head of a strong force to occupy Lang-Son. The expedition was badly arranged; the baggage train was far too unwieldy; and the pace at which the men were made to march was too quick for that scorching time of the year. They advanced, however, to Bac-Le, within 25 m. of Lang-Son, when they suddenly came upon a Chinese camp. An irregular engagement began, and, in the pitched battle which ensued, the Chinese broke the French lines, and drove them away in headlong flight. This brought the military operations for the season to a close. During the rainy season fevers of all kinds became alarmingly TONGS— TONGUE prevalent, and the number of deaths and of men invalided was very large. In the meantime, however, an expedition, led by Colonel Donnier, against the Chinese garrison at Chu, about 10 m. south-east from Lang-kep, was completely successful; and in a battle fought near Chu the Chinese were defeated, with a loss of 3000 killed, the French loss being only 20 killed and 90 wounded. In the skirmishes which followed the French were generally victorious, but not to such a degree as to warrant any enlargement of the campaign. In January 1885 large reinforcements arrived and Briere de 1'Isle, who had succeeded Millot as commander-in-chief, ordered an advance towards Lang-Son. The difficulties of transport greatly impeded his movements, still the expedition was successful. On the 6th of February three forts at Dong- Song, with large supplies of stores and ammunition, fell into the hands of the French. Three days' heavy fighting made them masters of a defile on the road, and on the i3th Lang-Son was taken, the garrison having evacuated the town just before the entrance of the conquerors. With his usual energy General Negrier, who commanded a division under Briere de 1'Isle, pressed on in pursuit to Ki-Hea, and even captured the frontier town of Cua-Ai. But Briere de 1'Isle had now to hurry back to the relief of Tuyen-Kwan, which was doggedly resisting the attacks of an overwhelming Chinese force, and Negrier was left in command at Lang-Son. The withdrawal of Briere de ITsle's division gave the Chinese greater confidence, and, though for a time Negrier was able to hold his own, on the 22nd and 23rd of March he sustained a severe check between Lang-Son and That-Ke, which was finally converted into a complete rout, his troops being obliged to retreat precipitately through Lang- Son to Than-Moi and Dong-Song. Briere de 1'Isle reached Tuyen-Kwan, the garrison of which was commanded by Colonel Domine, on the 3rd of March, and effected its relief. The disaster at Lang-Son caused the downfall of the Ferry ministry (March 30). Shortly afterwards Sir Robert Hart succeeded in negotiating peace with China. By the terms agreed on at Tientsin (June, 1885), it was stipulated that France was to take Tongking and Annam under its protection and to evacuate Formosa and the Pescadores. (For further history, see INDO- CHINA.) See J. Dupuis, Le Tong-kin et I' intervention fran^aise (Paris, 1898); C. B. Norman, Tonkin or France in the Far East (London, 1884); Prince Henri d'Orl&ms, Autour du Tonkin (Paris, 1896); J. Ferry, Le Tonkin et la mere-palrie (Paris, 1890); J. Chailley, Paul Bert au Tonkin (Paris, 1887) ; E. Lunet de Lajonquiere, Ethnographic du Tonkin Septentrional (Paris, 1906) ; A. Gaisman, L'CEuvre de la France au Tonkin (Paris, 1906) ; also the bibliography under INDO-CHINA, FRENCH. TONGS (O. Eng. tange, M. Eng. longe, cf. Du. tang, Ger. Zange, from base tang, to bite, cf. Gr. SaKveiv), a gripping and lifting instrument, of which there are many forms adapted to their specific use. Some are merely large pincers or nippers, but the greatest number fall into three classes: the first, as in the com- mon fire-tongs, used for picking up pieces of coal and placing them on a fire, which have long arms terminating in small fiat circular grippers and are pivoted close to the handle; the second, as in the sugar-tongs, asparagus tongs, and the like, consisting of a single band of metal bent round or of two bands joined at the head by a spring, and third, such as the blacksmith's tongs or the crucible-tongs, in which the pivot or joint is placed close to the gripping ends. A special form of tongs is that known as the " lazy-tongs," consisting of a pair of grippers at the end of a series of levers pivoted together like scissors, the whole being closed or extended by the movement of the handles communi- cated to the first set of levers and thence to the grippers, the whole forming an extensible pair of tongs for gripping and lifting things at a distance. TONGUE (O. Eng. tunge), in anatomy, a movable organ situated in the floor of the mouth, and serving for the sensation of taste besides helping in the mastication of food, in articulate speech, and in feeling the exact position of any structure within the mouth. The tongue is divided into a main part or body, a base which looks backward toward the pharynx, a dorsum or upper surface, a root by which it is attached to the hyoid bone and floor of the mouth, a tip which is free and an inferior free surface in contact with the front part of the floor of the mouth and with the lower incisor teeth. Owing to the large amount of muscle in its com- position the shape of the tongue varies considerably from time to time. The dorsum of the tongue is covered by stratified squamous epithelium, and, when at rest, is convex both antero- posteriorly and transversely; it is thickly studded with papillae, of which four kinds are recognized. Filiform papillae are minute conical projections covering the whole of the dorsum, by which term the true upper surface is meant, as well as the tip and borders of the tongue. They are very numerous and contain a short core of subepithelial mucous mem- brane covered by a thick coating of epithelial cells, which coating may divide at its tip into a number of thread-like processes. Fungiform papillae are less numerous than the last, and somewhat resemble "button mushrooms"; they generally contain special taste buds. Circumiiallate papillae are usually from seven to ten in number and are arranged in the form of a V, the apex of which points down the throat. They lie quite at the back of the upper surface of the tongue and each consists of a little flat central mound surrounded by a deep moat, the outer wall of which is slightly raised above the surface, and it is to this that the papillae owe their name. Both sides of the moat have taste buds embedded in them, while into the bottom small serous glands open. Foliate papillae are only vestigial in man and consist of a series of vertical ridges occupying a small oval area on each side of the tongue near its base and just in front of the attachment of the anterior pillars of the fauces. (See PHARYNX.) The posterior surface or base of the tongue forms part of the anterior wall of the pharynx and has a quite different appearance to that of the dorsum. On it are found numerous circular or oval elevations of the mucous membrane caused by lymphoid tissue (lymphoid follicles), on the summit of the most of which is a mucous crypt or depression. The division between the superior or oral surface of the tongue and the posterior or pharyngeal is sharply marked by a V-shaped shallow groove called the sulcus terminals which lies just behind and parallel to the V-shaped row of circumvallate papillae. At the apex of this V is a small blind pit, the foramen caecum. At the lower part of the pharyngeal surface three folds of mucous membrane, called glosso-epiglottic folds, run backward ; the middle one passes to the centre of the front of the epiglottis, while the two lateral ones, in modern anatomy often called pharyngo-epiglottic folds, pass backward and outward to the fossa of the tonsil. On the inferior free surface of the tongue, that is to say, the surface which is seen when the mouth is looked into and the tongue turned up, there is a median fold of mucous membrane called the fraenum linguae, which is attached below to the floor of the mouth. On each side of this the blue outlines of the ranine veins are seen, while close to these a little fold on each side, known as a plica fimbriata, is often found. It must not, however, be confused with the plica sublin- gualis described in the article MOUTH AND SALIVARY GLANDS. The substance of the tongue is composed almost entirely of striped muscle fibres which run in different directions. Some of these bundles, such as the superficial, deep, transverse and oblique linguales are confined to the tongue and are spoken of as intrinsic muscles. Other muscles, such as the hyo-glossus, stylo-glossus, &c. come from elsewhere and are extrinsic; these are noticed under the head of MUSCULAR SYSTEM. The arteries of the tongue are derived from the lingual, a branch of the external carotid (see ARTERIES), while the veins from the tongue return the blood, by one or more veins on each side, into the internal jugular vein (see VEINS). The nerves to the tongue are the (i) lingual or gustatory, a branch of the fifth (see NERVES •.•Cranial) which supplies the anterior two- thirds with ordinary sensation and also, by means of the chorda tymphani which is bound up with it, with taste sensation; (2) the glossopharyngeal which supplies the circumvallate papillae and posterior third of the tongue with taste and ordinary sensation ; (3) a few twigs of the superior laryngeal branch of the vagus to the pharyngeal surface of the tongue; and (4) the hypoglossal which is the motor nerve to the muscles. Embryology. The mucous membrane covering the second and third visceral arches fuses to form the furcula (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). Just in front of this a rounded eminence appears at an early date in the ventral wall of the pharynx to form the tuberculum impar which is separated from the furcula by the depression known as the sinus arcuatus. This tuberculum impar gradually grows to form the central part of the tongue in front of the foramen caecum, while the anterior part of the organ is derived from two lateral swellings which appear in the floor of the mouth and surround the tuberculum impar antero-laterally. The posterior third, or pharyngeal part, is developed from the anterior part of the furcula 8 TONGUE in the middle line, that is to say from the third visceral arch. The sinus arcuatus becomes gradually shallower as these two parts of the tongue grow together and eventually is indicated by the sulcus terminalis; in the mid line, however, the isthmus of the thyroid grows down from it, forming the thyro-glossal duct the remains of which are seen in the foramen caecum (see DUCTLESS GLANDS). It will be seen that the tongue is developed in connexion with the first, second and third visceral arches, and it is therefore to be expected that the fifth, seventh and ninth nerves which supply those arches would help to supply it, but the vagus from the fourth arch reaches it in addition, while the fact that most of the muscular substance of the tongue is supplied by the hypoglossal nerve is explained on the theory that some of the cervical skeletal muscula- ture has grown cephalad into the tongue and has carried its nerve with it. Comparative Anatomy. The tongue is present in fishes but it is an immovable swelling in the floor of the mouth and is practically devoid of muscles. In the hag (Myxine) among the Cyclostomata, and pike (Esox) among the Internal jugular vein Spinal accessory nerve Digastric muscle | Hypoglossal nerve Internal carotid artery | Pneumogastric nerve I | Sympathetic Ascending phoryngeal artery Odontoid proc Styloltyoid Glosso- pharyngeal nerve Parotid gland Temporo- maxillary vein External carotid artery Slyloglossu Ascending palatine artery Internal pterygoid Epiglottis Frenulum epiglottidis Massetei Pharyftgeal portioi of tongu Post-pharyngeal lymphatic gland Superior constrictor muscle Posterior palatine arch Pharyngo-epiglottic fold Anterior palatine arch • Fuogiform Buccinat Fungiform papill (From Ambrose Birmingham in Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.} Horizontal Section through Mouth and Pharynx at the Level of the Tonsils. Teleostei, teeth are developed on the tongue. In the Amphibia the tailed forms (Urodela) usually have tongues like fishes, though in the genus Spelerpes the organ is very free and can be protruded for a great distance. In the majority of the Anura the tongue is usually attached close to the front of the floor of the mouth so that it can be flapped forward with great rapidity. There are, however, two closely allied families of frogs (Xenopodidae and Pipidae) which form the order of Aglossa, because in them the tongue is suppressed. In the reptiles the tongue is generally very movable, though this is not the case in the Crocodilia and many of the Chelonia. The forked tongues of snakes and many lizards and the highly specialized telescopic tongue of the chameleon are familiar objects. In_ birds the tongue is usually covered with horny epithelium and is poorly supplied with muscles. When it is very protrusible, as in the woodpecker, the movement is due to the hyoid, with the base of the tongue attached, moving forward. In the Mammalia the tongue is always movable by means of well- developed extrinsic and intrinsic muscles, while papillae and glands are numerous. The filiform papillae reach their maximum in the feline family of the Carnivora where they convert the tongue into a rasp by which bones can be licked clean of all flesh attached to them. Foliate papillae are best seen in the rodents, and when they are well developed the circumvallate papillae are few, often only one on each side. In the lemurs an under tongue or sub lingua is found, which is probably represented by the plicae fimbriatae under the human tongue, and by some morphologists is regarded as the homologue of the whole tongue of the lower vertebrates, the greater part of the mammalian tongue being then looked upon as a new formation. For further details and literature see R. Wiedersheim's Compara- tive Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London, 1907) ; C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1901); A. Oppel, Lehrb. vergleich. mikroskop. Anat. der Wirbelthiere, Teil 3 (Jena, 1900); Parker and Haswell, Text Book of Zoology (London, 1897). (F. G. P.) Surgery of the Tongue. During infancy it is sometimes noticed that the little band of membrane (fraenum) which binds the under part of the tongue to the middle line of the floor of the mouth is unusually short. The condition will probably, right itself as the front part of the tongue takes on its natural growth. In some children the tongue is so large that it hangs out of the mouth, scratching itself upon the teeth. This condition is likely to be associated with weak intellect. Acute inflammation of the tongue may be caused by the sting of a wasp or by the entrance of septic germs through a wound, and the trouble may end in an abscess. Chronic inflammation of the tongue may be caused by syphilis, by the irritation of decayed teeth or of a badly-fitting plate of artificial teeth, or by excessive smoking. The con- dition is one of danger in that it may lead eventually to the tongue becom- ing the seat of cancer. The treatment demands the removal of every source of irritation. The teeth must be made sound and smooth and must be kept so. Smoking must be absolutely and entirely given up, and salt, mustard, pickles, spirits, aerated waters, and everything else which is likely to be a cause of irritation must be avoided. Cancer of the tongue is the result of chronic irritation which produces an excessive growth of the scaly covering of the tongue and causes an invasion of the deeper parts of the tongue by the scales. It is more often found in men than women and is usually asso- ciated with a hard swelling at one side of the tongue — perhaps near a jagged tooth or at the spot where the end of the pipe-stem approaches the tongue. The nerves of the tongue being caught and compressed in the growth, pain is constant and severe, and the move- ments during mastication cause great distress. The swelling gradually in- creases in size and, spreading to the floor of the mouth, hinders the free movements of the tongue. In due course it breaks down in the middle and a hard-walled ulcer appears. All this time the small scales of the cancer are finding their way along the lymph-channels and causing a secondary enlargement in the glands just below the jaw and along the side of the neck. Enlargement of the cervical glands is a very serious complication of cancer of the tongue. The only treatment for cancer of the tongue which is at present known in surgery is the early removal by operation. It not seldom happens that because there is a certain amount of doubt as to the exact nature of the growth in the early weeks delay in operating is reasonably permitted, but during this time there is the risk of the cells of the disease finding their way to the lymphatic system. Still, inasmuch as there may be great difficulty in determining the diagnosis from tertiary syphilitic disease, a course of treatment by iodide of potassium may well be recommended. Syphilis is often the precursor of lingual cancer, and it is impossible to say exactly when the syphilitic lesion becomes malignant. In the case of a cancerous tumour of the tongue being so deeply or so widely attached that its removal cannot be recommended, relief may be afforded by the extraction of most, or all of the teeth, by limiting the food to the most simple and unirritating kinds, and possibly by dividing the great sensory nerves of the tongue. Cancer of the tongue is now operated on in advanced cases such as in former years would not have been dealt with by a radical operation. An incision is made beneath the jaw and through the floor of *he Raphe of tongue Conical papillae TONGUES, GIFT OF mouth, by which the tongue is drawn out and rendered easily accessible, the arteries being leisurely secured as the tissues are cut across. The upper part of the gullet is plugged by a sponge so that no blood can enter the lungs, and unimpeded respiration is provided for by the preliminary introduction of a tube into the windpipe. Through the incision which is made below the jaw the infected lymphatic glands are removed. To Dr Kocher of Berne the profes- sion and the public are indebted for this important advance in the treatment of this disease. (E. O*.) TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (y^Sxraa, tongue, \a\fiv, speak), a faculty of abnormal and inarticulate vocal utterance, under stress of religious excitement, which was widely developed in the early Christian circles, and has its parallels in other religions. In the New Testament such experiences are recorded in Caesarea (Acts x. 46), at Corinth (Acts xix. 6; i Cor. xii., xiv.), Thessalonica (i Thess. v. 19), Ephesus (Eph. v. 18), and universally (Mark xvi. 17). From the epistles of Paul, who thanked God that he spake with tongues more than all or any of his Corinthian converts, we can gather a just idea of how he regarded this gift and of what it really was. Firstly, then, it was a grace (charisma) of the spirit, yet not of the holy or pure spirit only, but of evil spirits also who on occasions had been known to take possession of the larynx of a saint and exclaim, " Jesus is Anathema." As no one could curse Jesus except under the influence of a devilish afflatus, so none could say " Jesus is Lord " except he was inspired by the Holy Spirit. But, secondly, the pneumatic utterances techni- cally known as speaking with tongues failed to reach this level of intelligibility; for Paul compares " a tongue " to a material object which should merely make a noise, to a pipe or harp twanged or blown at random without tune or time, to a trumpet blaring idly and not according to a code of signal notes. Unless, therefore, he that has the gift of tongues also possess the gift of interpreting his exclamations, or unless some one present can do so for him, he had not better exercise it in church. He is a barbarian to others and they to him, since they cannot under- stand what is spoken by him. Paul discriminates between the Spirit which during these paroxysms both talks and prays to God and the nous or understanding which informs a believer's psalm, teaching, revelation or prophesy, and renders them intelligible, edifying and profitable to the assembly. Accordingly Paul lays down rules which he regarded as embodying the Lord's commandment. A man " that speaketh in a tongue speaketh not unto men, but unto God; for no man understandeth;" and therefore it is expedient that he keep this gift for his private chamber and there pour out the mysteries. In church it is best that he should confine himself to prophesying, for that brings to others " edification and comfort and consolation." If, however, tongues must be heard in the public assembly, then let not more than three of the saints exhibit the gift, and they only in succession. Nor let them exhibit it at all, unless there is some one present who can interpret the tongues and tell the meeting what it all means. If the whole congregation be talking with tongues all at once, and an unbeliever or one with no experience of pneumatic gifts come in, what will he think, asks Paul. Surely that " you are mad." So at Pentecost on the occasion of the first outpouring of the Spirit the saints were by the bystanders accused of being drunk (Acts ii. 15). In the church meeting, says Paul, " I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that I might instruct others also, than ten thousand words in a tongue." The writer of Acts ii., anxious to prove that Providence from the first included the Gentiles in the Messianic Kingdom, assumes that the gift of tongues was a miraculous faculty of talking strange languages without having previously learned them. Augustine accordingly held that each of the disciples talked all languages miraculously; Chrysostom that each talked one other than his own. The Pentecostal inspiration has been construed as a providential antithesis to the confusion of tongues — an idea which Grotius expressed in the words: " Poena linguarum dispersit homines; donum linguarum disperses in unum populum collegit." Competent critics to-day recognize that such a view is impossible; and it has been suggested with much probability that in the second chapter of Acts the words in ». 5: " Now there were dwelling . . . under heaven " as well as . 6-i i : " because that every man . . . mighty works of God " were interpolated by Luke in the document he transcribed.1 The faithful talking with tongues were taken by bystanders for drunken men, but intoxicated men do not talk in languages of which they are normally ignorant.2 Paul on the whole discouraged glossolaly. " Desire earnestly the greater gifts," he wrote to the Corinthians. The gift of tongues was suitable rather to children in the faith than to the mature. Tongues were, he felt, to cease whenever the perfect should come; and the believer who spoke with the tongues of men and of angels, if he had not love, was no better than the sounding brass and clanging cymbal of the noisy heathen mysteries. It was clearly a gift productive of much disturbance in the Church (i Cor. xiv. 23). He would not, however, entirely forbid and quench it (i Thess. v. 19), so long as decency and order were preserved. It is not then surprising that we hear little of it after the apostolic age. It faded away in the great Church, and probably Celsus was describing Montanist circles (though Origen assumed that they were ordinary believers) when he wrote 3 of the many Christians of no repute who at the least provocation, whether within or without their temples, threw themselves about like inspired persons; while others did the same in cities or among armies in order to collect alms, roaming about cities or camps. They were wont to cry out, each of himself, " I am God; I am the Son of God; or I am the divine Spirit." They would indulge in prophecies of the last judgment, and back their threats with a string of strange, half-frantic and utterly unmeaning sounds, the sense of which no one with any intelligence could discover; for they were obscure gibberish, and merely furnished any fool or impostor with an occasion to twist the utterances as he chose to his own purposes. In the above we get a glimpse both of the glossalist and of his interpreter as they appeared to the outside world; and the impression made on them is not unlike that which Paul appre- hended would be left on outsiders by an indiscriminate use of the gift. Tertullian early in the 3rd century testifies that glossolaly still went on in the Montanist Church which he had joined; for we must so interpret the following passage in his De anima, cap. ix.: " There is among us at the present time a sister who is endowed with the charismatic gift of revelations, which she suffers through ecstasy in the spirit during the Sunday service in church. She converses with angels, sometimes even with the Lord, and both hears and see mysteries." The magical papyri teem with strings of senseless and barbaric words which probably answer to what certain of the Fathers called the language of demons. It has been suggested that we here have recorded the utterances of glossolalists. The attitude of Paul toward glossolaly among his converts strikingly resembles Plato's opinion as expressed in the Timaeus, p. 7 2, of the enthusiastic ecstasies of the ancient >&VT« (sooth- sayer) . " God," he writes, " has given the art of divination not to the wisdom, but to the foolishness of man ; for no man, when in his wits, attains prophetic truth and inspiration; but when he receives the inspired word either his intelligence is enthralled by sleep, or he is demented by some distemper or possession. And he who would understand what he remembers to have been said, whether in a dream or when he was awake, by the prophetic and enthusiastic nature, or what he has seen, must first recover his wits; and then he will be able to explain rationally what all 1 This misunderstanding of Acts ii. has influenced the official Roman doctrine of demoniacal possession. The Sacerdotale indi- cates as one of the symptoms of possession the ability of the possessed to talk other tongues than his own. Cf. the Fustis daempnum, cap. xi. Venetus (1606): " Aliqui sermonem alienum a patria sua loquuntur etsi nunquam e laribus paternis recesserint." 2 It is noteworthy that in Eph. v. 18 Paul contrasts the being filled with the Spirit with the foolishness of intoxication with wine, and remarks that those filled with the Spirit speak to themselves in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs and give thanks always for all things. 3 Orieen, Contra Celsum, vii. 9. IO TONK— TONNAGE such words and apparitions mean, and what indications they afford to this man or that, of past, present or future good and evil. But, while he continues demented, he cannot judge of the visions which he sees or the words which he utters. . . . And for this reason it is customary to appoint diviners or interpreters to be judges of the true inspiration."1 From such passages as the above we infer that the gift of tongues and of their inter- pretation was not peculiar to the Christian Church, but was a repetition in it of a phase common in ancient religions. The very phrase y\6xrffcu.s XaXsTc, " to speak with tongues," was not invented by the New Testament writers, but borrowed from ordinary speech. Virgil (Aen. vi. 46, 98) draws a life-like picture of the ancient prophetess " speaking with tongues." He depicts her quick changes of colour, her dishevelled hair, her panting breast, her apparent increase of stature as the god draws nigh and fills her with his divine afflatus. Then her voice loses its mortal's ring: " nee mortale sonans." The same morbid and abnormal trance utterances recur in Christian revivals in every age, e.g. among the mendicant friars of the i3th century, among the Jansenists, the early Quakers, the converts of Wesley and Whitefield, the persecuted protestants of the Cevennes, the Irvingites. Oracular possession of the kind above described is also common among savages and people of lower culture; and Dr Tylor, in his Primitive Culture, ii. 14, gives examples of ecstatic utterance interpreted by the sane. Thus in the Sandwich Islands the god Oro gave his oracles through a priest who " ceased to act or speak as a voluntary agent, but with his limbs convulsed, his features distorted and terrific, his eyes wild and strained, he would roll on the ground foaming at the mouth, and reveal the will of the god in shrill cries and sounds violent and indis- tinct, which the attending priests duly interpreted to the people." See E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture; H. Weinel, Die Wirkungen des Geisles und der Geister (Freiburg, 1899); Shaftesbury's Letter on Enthusiasm; Mrs Oliphant, Life of Irving, vol. ii. (F. C. C.) TONK, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency. It consists of six isolated tracts, some of which are under the Central India agency. Total area, 2553 sq. m.; total population (1901), 273,201; estimated revenue £77,000. No tribute is payable. The chief, whose title is nawab, is a Mahommedan of Afghan descent. The founder of the family was Amir Khan, the noto- rious Pindari leader at the beginning of the igth century, who received the present territory on submitting to the British in 1817. The nawab Mahommed Ibrahim Ali Khan, G.C.I.E., succeeded in 1867, and was one of the few chiefs who attended both Lord Lytton's Durbar in 1877 and the Delhi Durbar of 1903 as rulers of their states. The late minister, Sir Sahibzada Obeidullah Khan, was deputed on political duty to Peshawar during the Tirah campaign of 1897. Grain, cotton, opium and hides are the chief exports. Two of the outlying tracts of the state are served by two railways. Distress was caused by drought in 1899-1900. The town of Tonk is situated 1462 ft. above sea-level, 60 m. by road south from Jaipur, near the right bank of the river Banas. Pop. (1901), 38,759. It is surrounded by a wall, with a mud fort. It has a high school, the Walter female hospital under a lady superintendent, and a hospital for males. There is another town in India called Tonk, or Tank, in Dera Ismail Khan district, North-West Frontier Province; pop. (1901), 4402. It is the residence of a nawab, who formerly exercised semi-independent powers. Here Sir Henry Durand, lieutenant- governor of the Punjab, was killed in 1870 when passing on an elephant under a gateway. TONNAGE. The mode of ascertaining the tonnage of mer- chant ships is settled by the Merchant Shipping Acts. But before explaining the method by which this is computed, it is well to remark that there are several tonnages employed in different connexions. Displacement tonnage is that which is invariably used in respect of warships, and is the actual weight of water displaced by the vessel whose tonnage is being dealt 1 Jowett's translation. with. Men-of-War are designed to carry all their weights, including coal, guns, ammunition, stores and water in tanks and in boilers, at a certain draught, and the tonnage attributed to them is the weight of water which at that designed draught they actually displace. This displacement tonnage is therefore a total made up of the actual weight of the ship's fabric and that of everything that is on board of her. It can be found by ascertaining the exact cubic space occupied by the part of her body which is immersed (including her rudder, propellers and external shafting) at the draught under consideration in cubic feet, and dividing this by 35, since 35 cubic feet of sea-water weigh one ton. Of course there is nothing to prevent displace- ment tonnage from being used in describing the size of merchant ships, and indeed in regard to the performances of fast steam- ships on trial it is usual to give their draught on the occasion when they are tested, and to state what was their actual displace- ment under these trial conditions. But it is obvious, from what has been said as to the components which go to make up the displacement at load draught, that this tonnage must, in respect of any individual ship, be the greatest figure which can be quoted in regard to her size. It is usual for dues to be assessed against merchant vessels in respect of their registered tonnage. This must therefore be fixed by authority, and at present vessels are measured by the officer of customs according to the rules laid down in the second schedule to the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. As will be seen from the explanation of the method adopted, this is a somewhat arbitrary process, and even the gross registered tonnage affords little indication of the actual size of the ship, whilst the under-deck and net tonnages are still less in accord with the extreme dimensions. As to length for tonnage, the measurements start with the tonnage deck, which in vessels with less than three decks is the upper, and in vessels of three or more decks is the second from below. The length for tonnage is measured in a straight line along this deck from the inside of the inner plank at the bow to the inside of the inner plank at the stern, making allowance for the rake, if any, which the midship bow and stern timbers may have in the actual deck. When this is measured it is apparent into which of five classes the ship's tonnage-length places her. If she be under 50 ft. in length she falls into the first class, while if she be over 225 ft. in length she falls into the fifth class, the remaining three classes being intermediate to these. Vessels of the first class are measured as in four equal sections, and vessels of the larger class as in twelve equal sections, according to their length. Then at each of the points of division so marked off transverse areas are taken. This is done by measuring the depth in feet from a point at a distance of one- third of the round of the beam below the tonnage deck to the upper side of the floor timbers. Where the vessel has a ceiling and no water-ballast tanks at the point of measurement, 25 in. is allowed for ceiling. But where there are such tanks the measurement is taken from the top of the tank and no allowance is made for ceiling, whether there in fact be any or not. If the midship depth so found exceeds 16 ft., each depth is divided into six equal parts, and the horizontal breadths are measured at each point of division and also at the upper and lower points of the depth, extending each measurement to the average thickness of that part of the ceiling which is between the points of measure- ment. They are then numbered from above, and the second, fourth and sixth multiplied by four, whilst the third and fifth are multiplied by two. The products are then added together. To the sum are added the first and the seventh breadths. This total having been multiplied by one-third the common interval between the breadths, the resultant is the transverse area. The transverse areas so obtained at each point of the vessel's length are numbered from the bow aft. Omitting the first and last, the second and every even area so obtained are multiplied by four, whilst the third and every odd area are multiplied by two. These products are added together, as are also those of the first and last areas if they yield anything, and the figure thus reached is multiplied by one-third of the common interval between the areas. This product is reckoned as the cubical capacity of the TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE— TONSILLITIS ii ship in feet. When divided by 100 the result is the registered under-deck tonnage of the ship — subject to the additions and deductions ordered by the act. Directions of a kind similar to those already set out are given whereby the tonnage in the space enclosed between the tonnage and upper decks may be ascertained, and also for the measuring of any break, poop or other permanent closed-in space on the upper deck available for stores, and the sum of the capacity of these must be added to the under-deck tonnage to arrive at the gross registered tonnage. But an express proviso is enacted that no addition shall be made in respect of any building erected for the shelter of deck pas- sengers and approved by the board of trade. In the process of arriving at the net tonnage the main deduction allowed from the gross tonnage is that of machinery space in steamships. The method of measurement here is similar to that by which the under-deck tonnage is reached. Where the engines and boilers are fitted in separate compartments, each compartment is measured separately, as is the screw shaft tunnel in the case of steamships propelled by screws. The tonnage of these spaces is reckoned, not from the tonnage deck, but from the crown of the space; whilst, if it has previously been reckoned in the gross tonnage, there may be an allowance for the space above the crown, if enclosed for the machinery or for the admission of light and air. Allowances are only made in respect of any machinery space if it be devoted solely to machinery or to light and air. It must not be used for cargo purposes or for cabins. Further, by the act itself in the case of paddle steamships, where the machinery space is above 20% and under 30% of the gross tonnage, it is allowed to be reckoned as 37% °f such gross tonnage; whilst similarly, in the case of screw steamships, where such machinery space is over 13 % and under 20 % of the gross tonnage, it is allowed to be reckoned as 32%. Further deductions are also made in respect of space used solely for the accommodation of the master and the crew, and for the chart-room and signal- room, as well as for the wheel- house and chain cable locker and for the donkey-engine and boiler, if connected with the main pumps of the ship, and in sailing vessels for the sail locker. The space in the double bottom and in the water-ballast tanks, if these be not available for the carriage of fuel stores or cargo, is also deducted if it has been reckoned in the gross tonnage in the first instance. From the rules above laid down it follows that it is possible for vessels, if built with a full midship section, to have a gross registered tonnage considerably below what the actual cubical capacity of the ship would give, whilst in the case of steam tugs of high power it is not unprecedented, owing to the large allowances for machinery and crew spaces, for a vessel to have a registered net tonnage of nil. Suez Canal dues being charged on what is practically the registered tonnage (though all deductions permitted by the British board of trade are not accepted), it is usual, at all events in the British navy, for warships to be measured for what would be their registered tonnage if they were merchant ships, so that in case they may wish to pass through the canal a scale of payment may be easily reached. But such tonnage is never spoken of in considering their size relative to other vessels. Two other tonnages are also made use of in connexion with merchant ships, especially when specifications for vessels are being made. The first of these is measurement capacity. This is found by measuring out the true cubic capacity of the holds, whereby it is found what amount of light measurement goods can be carried. The second is deadweight capacity. This is generally given as excluding what is carried in the coal bunkers, and it is therefore the amount of deadweight which can be carried in the holds at load draught when the vessel is fully charged with coals and stores. (B. W. G.) TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE, in England, customs duties anciently imposed upon exports and imports, the former being a duty upon all wines imported in addition to prisage and butlerage, the latter a duty imposed ad valorem at the rate of twelve- pence in the pound on all merchandise imported or exported. The duties were levied at first by agreement with merchants (poundage in 1302, tonnage in 1347), then granted by parliament in *373> at first for a limited period only. They were considered to be imposed for the defence of the realm. From the reign of Henry VI. until that of James I. they were usually granted for life. They were not granted to Charles I., and in 1628 that king took the unconstitutional course of levying them on his own authority, a course denounced a few years later by 16 Car. I. c. 18 (1640), when the Long Parliament granted them for two months. After the Restoration they were granted to Charles II. and his two successors for life. By acts of Anne and George I. the duties were made perpetual, and mortgaged for the public debt. In 1 787 they were finally abolished, and other modes of obtaining revenue substituted, by 27 Geo. III. c. 13 (1787). Poundage also signifies a fee paid to an officer of a court for his services, e.g. to a sheriff's officer, who is entitled by 29 Eliz. c. 4 (1586-1587) to a poundage of a shilling in the pound on an execution up to £100, and sixpence in the pound above that sum. TONNERRE, a town of north-central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Yonne, 52 m. S.E. of Sens on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906), 3974. It is situated on a slope of the vineclad hills on the left bank of the Armangon. At the foot of the hill rises the spring of Fosse-Dionne, enclosed in a circular basin 49 ft. in diameter. The town has two interest- ing churches. That of St Pierre, which crowns the hill, possesses a fine lateral portal of the Renaissance period to which the church, with the exception of the choir (1351), belongs. The church of Notre-Dame is mainly Gothic, but the facade is a fine specimen of Renaissance architecture. The Salle des Malades, a large timber-roofed apartment in the hospital, dates from the end of the I3th century and is used as a chapel. It is 330 ft. long and contains the tombs of Margaret of Burgundy, wife of Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, and foundress of the hospital, and of Frangois-Michel Le Tellier, marquis of Louvois, war minister of Louis XIV. The hospital itself was rebuilt in the igth century. The Renaissance Hotel d'Uzes was built in the i6th century. Tonnerre is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance. The vineyards of the vicinity produce well- known wines. The trade of the town is chiefly in wine, in the good building-stone found in the neighbourhood and in Portland cement. Cooperage is carried on. Its ancient name of Tornodorum points to a Gallic or Gallo- Roman origin for Tonnerre. In the 6th century it became the capital of the region of Tonnerrois and in the loth century of a countship. After passing into the possession of several noble families, it was bought from a count of Clermont-Tonnerre by Louvois, by whose descendants it was held up to the time of the Revolution. TONQUA BEAN. The Tonqua, Tonka or Tonquin bean, also called the coumara nut, is the seed of Dipterix odorala, a leguminous tree growing to a height of 80 ft., native of tropical South America. The drupe-like pod contains a single seed possessed of a fine sweet " new-mown hay " odour, due to the presence of coumarin (q.v.}. Tonqua beans are used principally for scenting snuff and as an ingredient in perfume sachets and in perfumers' " bouquets." TONSBERG, a fortified seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg- Laurvik ami (county), situated on a bay on the south coast, near the entrance to Christiania Fjord, 72 m. S. by W. of Christi- ania on the Skien railway. Pop. (1900), 8620. It is one of the most ancient towns in Norway. It is the headquarters of a sealing and whaling fleet. The principal industries are refineries for preparing whale and seal oil and saw-mills. An interesting collection of antiquities and whaling implements is preserved in the Slotstaarn on Castle Hill. TONSILLITIS, acute inflammation of the tonsils, or quinsy, due to the invasion of the tonsil, or tonsils, by septic micro- organisms which may have gained access through the mouth or by the blood-stream. Sometimes the attack comes on as the result of direct exposure to sewer gas, and it is not at all an uncommon affection of house surgeons, nurses and others who have to spend most of their time in a hospital. The association of quinsy with rheumatism may be the result of the 12 TONSON— TONTINE infection of the tonsils by the micro-organisms or the toxins of that disease. Acute tonsillitis is very apt to run on to the formation of abscess. Quinsy may begin with a feeling of chilliness or with an attack of shivering. Then comes on a swelling in the throat with pain, tenderness and difficulty in swallowing. Indeed, if both tonsils are acutely inflamed it may be impossible to swallow even fluid and the breathing may be seriously embarrassed. The temperature may be raised several degrees. There is pain about the ear and about the jaw, and there is a swelling of the glands in the neck. The breath is offensive and the tongue is thickly coated. There may be some yellowish markings on the surface of the tonsil, but these differ from the patches of " false membrane " of diphtheria in that they can be easily brushed off by a swab, but often a true diagnosis can only be made by bacteriological examination. The treatment consists in giving a purgative, and in encouraging the patient to use an inhaler containing hot carbolized water. Hot compresses also may be applied to the neck. As regards medicines, the most trustworthy are salicylic acid, iron and quinine. As soon as abscess threatens, a slender-bladed knife should be thrust from before backward deeply into the swollen mass. And if, as most likely happens, matter then escapes, the patient's distress speedily ends. Con- valescence having set in, a change of air and course of tonic treatment will be advisable. Chronic tonsillitis is often associated with adenoid vegetations at the back of the throat of tuberculous or delicate children, such children being spoken of as being " liable to sore throat." Chronic enlargement of the tonsils may seriously interfere with a child's general health and vigour and, should the condition not subside under general measures such as a stay at a bracing seaside place and the taking of cod-liver oil and iron, it will be well to treat the tonsils by operation. (E. O.*) TONSON, the name of a family of London booksellers and publishers. Richard and Jacob Tonson (c. 1656-1736), sons of a London barber-surgeon, started in 1676 and 1677 indepen- dently as booksellers and publishers in London. In 1679 Jacob, the better known of the two, bought and published Dryden's Troilus and Cressida, and from that time was closely associated' with Dryden, and published most of his works. He published the Miscellany Poems (1684-1708) under Dryden's editorship, the collection being known indifferently as Dryden's or Tonson's Miscellany, and also Dryden's translation of Virgil (1697). Serious disagreements over the price paid, however, arose between poet and publisher, and in his Faction Displayed (1705) Dryden described Tonson as having " two left legs, and Judas-coloured hair." Subsequently the relations between the two men improved. The brothers jointly published Dryden's Spanish Friar (1683). Jacob Tonson also published Congreve's Double Dealer, Sir John Vanbrugh's The Faithful Friend and The Confederacy, and the pastorals of Pope, thus justifying Wycherly's description of him as "gentleman usher to the Muses." He bought also the valuable rights of Paradise Lost, half in 1683 and half in 1690. This was his first profitable venture in poetry. In 1712 he became joint publisher with Samuel Buckley of the Spectator, and in the following year published Addison's Cato. He was the original secretary and a prominent member of the Kit-Cat Club. About 1720 he gave up business and retired to Herefordshire, where he died on the and of April 1736. His business was carried on by his nephew, Jacob Tonson, jun. (d. 1735), and subsequently by his grand-nephew, also Jacob (d. 1767). TONSURE (Lat. tonsura, from tondere, to shave), a religious observance in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Eastern Churches, consisting of the shaving or cutting part of the hair of the head as a sign of dedication to special service. The reception of the tonsure in these churches is the initial ceremony which marks admission to orders and to the rights and privileges of clerical standing. It is administered by the bishop with an appropriate ritual. Candidates for the rite must have been confirmed, be adequately instructed in the elements of the Christian faith, and be able to read and write. Those who have received it are bound (unless in exceptional circumstances) to renew the mark, consisting of a bare circle on the crown of the head, at least once a month, otherwise they forfeit the privileges it carries. The practice is not a primitive one; Ter- tullian simply advises Christians to avoid vanity in dressing their hair, and Jerome deprecates both long and closely cropped hair. According to Prudentius (IlepuT. xiii. 30) it was customary for the hair to be cut short at ordination. Paulinus of Nola (c. 490) alludes to the tonsure as in use among the (Western) monks; from them the practice quickly spread to the clergy. For Gaul about the year 500 we have the testimony of Sidonius ApoUinaris (iv. 13), who says that Germanicus the bishop had his hair cut " in rotae speciem." The earliest instance of an ecclesiastical precept on the subject occurs in can. 41 of the Council of Toledo (A.D. 633) : " omnes clerici, detonso superius capite toto, inferius solam circuli coronam relin- quant." Can. 33 of the Quinisext council (692) requires even singers and readers to be tonsured. Since the 8th century three tonsures have been more or less in use, known respectively as the Roman, the Greek and the Celtic. The first two are sometimes distinguished as the tonsure of Peter and the tonsure of Paul. The Roman or St Peter's tonsure prevailed in France, Spain and Italy. It consisted in shaving the whole head, leaving only a fringe of hair supposed to symbolize the crown of thorns. Late in the middle ages this tonsure was lessened for the clergy, but retained for monks and friars. In the Eastern or St Paul's tonsure the whole head was shaven, but when now practised in the Eastern Church this tonsure is held to be adequately shown when the hair is shorn close. In the Celtic tonsure (tonsure of St John, or, in contempt, tonsure of Simon Magus) all the hair in front of a line drawn over the top of the head from ear to ear was shaven (a fashion common among the Hindus). The question of the Roman or Celtic tonsure was one of the points in dispute in the early British Church, settled in favour of the Roman fashion at the Council of Whitby (664). The tonsure at first was never given separately, and even children when so dedicated were appointed readers, as no one could belong to the clerical state without at least a minor order. From the 7th century, however, children were tonsured without ordination, and later on adults anxious to escape secular jurisdiction were often tonsured without ordination. Till the loth century the tonsure could be given by priests or even by laymen, but its bestowal was gradually restricted to bishops and abbots. TONTINE, a system of life insurance owing its name to Lorenzo Tonti, an Italian banker, born at Naples early in the i7th century, who settled in France about 1650. In 1653 he proposed to Cardinal Mazarin a new scheme for promoting a public loan. A total of 1,025,000 livres was to be subscribed in ten portions of 102,500 livres each by ten classes of subscribers, the first class consisting of persons under 7, the second of persons above 7 and under 14, and so on to the tenth, which consisted of persons between 63 and 70. The annual fund of each class was to be divided among the survivors of that class, and on the death of the last individual the capital was to fall to the state. This plan of operations was authorized under the name of "tontine royale" by a royal edict, but this the parlement refused to register, and the idea remained in abeyance till 1689, when it was revived by Louis XIV., who established a tontine of 1,400,000 livres divided into fourteen classes of 100,000 each, the subscription being 300 livres. This tontine was carried on till 1726, when the last bene- ficiary died — a widow who at the time of her decease was drawing an annual income of 73,500 livres. Several other government tontines were afterwards set on foot; but in 1763 restrictions were introduced, and in 1770 all tontines at the time in existence were wound up. Private tontines continued to flourish in France for some years, the " tontine Lefarge," the most cele- brated of the kind, being operled in 1791 and closed in 1889. The tontine principle has often been applied in Great Britain, at one time in connexion with government life annuities. Many such tontines were set on foot between the years 1773 and 1789, those of 1773, 1775 and 1777 being commonly called the Irish tontines, as the money was borrowed under acts of the Irish parlia- ment. The most important English tontine was that of 1789, which was created by 29 Geo. III. c. 41. Under this act over a million was raised in 10,000 shares of £100, 53. It was also often applied to the purchase of estates or the erection of buildings. The investor staked his money on the chance of his own life or the life of his nominee enduring for a longer period than the other lives involved in the speculation, in which case he expected to win a large prize. It was occasionally introduced into life assurance, more particularly by American life offices, but newer and more ingenious forms of contract fiave now made the tontine principle practically a thing of the past. (See NATIONAL DEBT; INSURANCE.) TOOKE, J. H. TOOKE, JOHN HORNE (1736-1812), English politician and philologist, third son of John Home, a poulterer in Newport Market, whose business the boy when at Eton happily veiled under the title of a " Turkey merchant," was born in Newport Street, Long Acre, Westminster, on the 25th of June 1736. After passing some time at school in Soho Square, and at a Kentish village, he went from 1744 to 1746 to Westminster School and for the next five or six years was at Eton. On the 1 2th of January 1754 he was admitted as sizar at St John's College, Cambridge, and took his degree of B.A. in 1758, as last but one of the senior optimes, Richard Beadon, his lifelong friend, afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells, being a wrangler in the same year. Home had been admitted on the 9th of November 1756, as student at the Inner Temple, making the friendship of John Dunning and Lloyd Kenyon, but his father wished him to take orders in the English Church, and he was ordained deacon on the 23rd of September 1759 and priest on the 23rd of November 1760. For a few months he was usher at a boarding school at Blackheath, but on the 26th of September 1760 he became perpetual curate of New Brentford, the incumbency of which his father had purchased for him, and he retained its scanty profits until 1773. During a part of this time (1763-1764) he was absent on a tour in France, acting as the bear-leader of a son of the miser Elwes. Under the excitement created by the actions of Wilkes, Home plunged into politics, and in 1765 brought out a scathing pamphlet on Lords Bute and Mansfield, entitled " The Petition of an Englishman." In the autumn of 1765 he escorted to Italy the son of a Mr Taylor. In Paris he made the acquaintance of Wilkes, and from Montpellier, in January 1766, addressed a letter to him which sowed the seeds of their personal antipathy. In the summer of 1767 Home landed again on English soil, and in 1768 secured the return of Wilkes to parliament for Middlesex. With inexhaustible energy he promoted the legal proceedings over the riot in St George's Fields, when a youth named Allen was killed, and exposed the irregularity in the judge's order for the execution of two Spital- fields weavers. His dispute with George Onslow, member for Surrey, who at first supported and then threw over Wilkes for place, culminated in a civil action, ultimately decided, after the reversal of a verdict which had been obtained through the charge of Lord Mansfield, in Home's favour, and in the loss by his opponent of his seat in parliament. An influential association, called " The Society for Supporting the Bill of Rights," was founded, mainly through the exertions of Home, in 1769, but the members were soon divided into two opposite camps, and in 1771 Home and Wilkes, their respective leaders, broke out into open warfare, to the damage of their cause. On the ist of July 1771 Home obtained at Cambridge, though not without some opposition from members of both the political parties, his degree of M.A. Earlier in that year he claimed for the public the right of printing an account of the debates in parliament, and after a protracted struggle between the ministerial majority and the civic authorities, the right was definitely established. The energies of the indefatigable parson knew no bounds. In the same year (1771) he crossed swords with Junius, and ended in disarming his masked antagonist. Up to this time Home's fixed income consisted of those scanty emoluments attached to a position which galled him daily. He resigned his benefice in 1773 and betook himself to the study of the law and philology. An accidental circumstance, however, occurred at this moment which largely affected his future. His friend Mr William Tooke had purchased a considerable estate, including Purley Lodge, south of the town of Croydon in Surrey. The possession of this property brought about frequent disputes with an ad- joining landowner, Thomas de Grey, and, after many actions in the courts, his friends endeavoured to obtain, by a bill forced through the houses of parliament, the privileges which the law had not assigned to him (February 1774). Home, thereupon, by a bold libel on the Speaker, drew public atten- tion to the case, and though he himself was placed for a time in the custody of the serjeant-at-arms, the clauses which were injurious to the interest of Mr Tooke were eliminated from the bill. Mr Tooke declared his intention of making Home the heir of his fortune, and, if the design was never carried into effect, during his lifetime he bestowed upon him large gifts of money. No sooner had this matter been happily settled than Home found himself involved in serious trouble. For his conduct in signing the advertisement soliciting subscriptions for the relief of the relatives of the Americans " murdered by the king's troops at Lexington and Concord," he was tried at the Guildhall on the 4th of July 1777, before Lord Mansfield, found guilty, and committed to the King's Bench prison in St George's Fields, from which he only emerged after a year's durance, and after a loss in fines and costs amounting to £1200. Soon after his deliverance he applied to be called to the bar, but his application was negatived on the ground that his orders in the Church were indelible. Home thereupon tried his fortune, but without success, on farming some land in Hunting- donshire. Two tracts about this time exercised great influence in the country. One of them, Fads Addressed to Landholders, &c. (1780), written by Home in conjunction with others, criticizing the measures of Lord North's ministry, passed through numerous editions; the other, A Letter on Parliamentary Reform (1782), addressed by him to Dunning, set out a scheme of reform, which he afterwards withdrew in favour of that advocated by Pitt. On his return from Huntingdonshire he became once more a frequent guest at Mr Tooke's house at Purley, and in 1782 assumed the name of Home Tooke. In 1786 Home Tooke conferred perpetual fame upon his bene- factor's country house by adopting, as a second title of his elaborate philological treatise of "Eirta impoevTa, the more popular though misleading title of The Diversions of Purley. The treatise at once attracted attention in England and the Continent. The first part was published in 1786, the second in 1805. The best edition is that which was published in 1829, under the editorship of Richard Taylor, with the additions written in the author's interleaved copy. Between 1782 and 1790 Tooke gave his support to Pitt, and in the election for Westminster, in 1784, threw all his energies into opposition to Fox. With Fox he was never on terms of friendship, and Samuel Rogers, in his Table Talk, asserts that their antipathy was so pronounced that at a dinner party given by a prominent Whig not the slightest notice was taken by Fox of the presence of Home Tooke. It was after the election of Westminster in 1788 that Tooke depicted the rival statesmen (Lord Chatham and Lord Holland, William Pitt and C. J. Fox) in his celebrated pamphlet of Two Pair of Portraits. At the general election of 1790 he came forward as a candidate for that distinguished constituency, in opposition to Fox and Lord Hood, but was defeated; and, at a second trial in 1796, he was again at the bottom of the poll. Meantime the excesses of the French republicans had provoked reaction in England, and the Tory ministry adopted a policy of repression. Home Tooke was arrested early on the morning of the i6th of May 1794, and conveyed to the Tower. His trial for high treason lasted for six days (i7th to 22nd of November) and ended in his acquittal, the jury only taking eight minutes to settle their verdict. His public life after this event was only distinguished by one act of importance. Through the influence of the second Lord Camel- ford, the fighting peer, he was returned to parliament in 1801 for the pocket borough of Old Sarum. Lord Temple endeavoured to secure his exclusion on the ground that he had taken orders in the Church, and one of Gilray's caricatures delineates the two politicians, Temple and Camelford, playing at battledore and shuttlecock, with Home Tooke as the shuttlecock. The ministry of Addington would not support this suggestion, but a bill was at once introduced by them and carried into law, which rendered all persons in holy orders ineligible to sit in the House of Commons, and Home Tooke sat for that parliament only. The last years of Tooke's life were spent in retirement in a house on the west side of Wimbledon Common. The traditions of his Sunday parties have lasted unimpaired to this day, and the most pleasant pages penned by his biographer describe the. politicians and the men of letters who gathered round his 14 hospitable board. His conversational powers rivalled those of Dr Johnson; and, if more of his sayings have not been chronicled for the benefit of posterity, the defect is due to the absence of a Boswell. Through the liberality of his friends, his last days were freed from the pressure of poverty, and he was enabled to place his illegitimate son in a position which soon brought him wealth, and to leave a competency to his two illegitimate daughters. Illness seized him early in 1810, and for the next two years his sufferings were acute. He died in his house at Wimbledon on the i8th of March 1812, and his body was buried with that of his mother at Baling, the tomb which he had prepared in the garden attached to his house at Wimbledon being found unsuitable for the interment. An altar-tomb still stands to his memory in Ealing churchyard. A catalogue of his library was printed in 1813. The Life of Horne Tooke, by Alexander Stephens, is written in an unattractive style and was the work of an admirer only admitted to his acquaintance at the close of his days. The notice in the Quarterly Review, June 1812, of W. Hamilton Reid's compilation, is by J. W. Ward, Lord Dudley. The main facts of his life are set out by Mr J. E. Thorold Rogers, in his Historical Gleanings, 2nd series. Many of Horne Tooke 's wittiest sayings are preserved in the Table Talk of Samuel Rogers and S. T. Coleridge. (W. P. C.) TOOKE, THOMAS (1774-1858), English economist, was born at St Petersburg on the 2Qth of February 1774. Entering a large Russian house in London at an early age, he acquired sound practical experience of commercial matters and became a recognized authority on finance and banking. He was one of the earliest advocates of free trade and drew up the Merchants' Petition presented to the House of Commons by Alexander Baring, afterwards Lord Ashburton. He gave evidence before several parliamentary committees, notably the committee of 1821, on foreign trade, and those of 1832, 1840 and 1848 on the Bank Acts. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1821. He died in London on the 26th of February 1858. Tooke was the author of Thoughts and Details on the High and Low Prices of the last Thirty Years (1823), Considerations on the State of the Currency (1826), in both of which he showed his hostility to the policy afterwards carried out in the Bank Act of 1844, but he is best known for his History of Prices and of the State of the Circulation during the Years 1703-1856 (6 vols., 1838-1857). In the first four volumes he treats (a) of the prices of corn, and the circumstances affecting prices; (b) the prices of produce other than corn; and (c) the state of the circulation. The two final volumes, written in conjunction with W. Newmarch (q.v.), deal with railways, free trade, banking in Europe and the effects of new discoveries of gold. TOOL (O. Eng. 161, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth, taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather), an implement or appliance used by a worker in the treatment of the substances used in his handicraft, whether in the preliminary operations of setting out and measuring the materials, in reducing his work to the required form by cutting or otherwise, in gauging it and testing its accuracy, or in duly securing it while thus being treated. For the tools of prehistoric man see such articles as ARCHAEOLOGY ; FLINT IMPLEMENTS; and EGYPT, § Art and Archaeology. In beginning a survey of tools it is necessary to draw the distinction between hand and machine tools. The former class includes any tool which is held and operated by the unaided hands, as a chisel, plane or saw. Attach one of these to some piece of operating mechanism, and it, with the environment of which it is the central essential object, becomes a machine tool. A very simple example is the common power-driven hack saw for metal, or the small high-speed drill, or the wood-boring auger held in a frame and turned by a winch handle and bevel-gears. The difference between these and a big frame-saw cutting down a dozen boards simultaneously, or the immense machine boring the cylinders of an ocean liner, or the great gun lathe, or the hydraulic press, is so vast that the relationship is hardly apparent. Often the tool itself is absolutely dwarfed by the machine, of which nevertheless it is the central object and around which the machine is designed and built. A milling machine weighing several tons will often be seen rotating a tool of but two or three dozen pounds' weight. Yet the machine is fitted with elaborate slides and self-acting movements, and provision for taking up wear, TOOKE, T.— TOOL and is worth some hundreds of pounds sterling, while the tool may not be worth two pounds. Such apparent anomalies are in constant evidence. We propose, therefore, first to take a survey of the principles that underlie the forms of tools, and then pursue the subject of their embodiment in machine tools. HAND TOOLS The most casual observation reveals the fact that tools admit of certain broad classifications. It is apparent that by far the larger number owe their value to their capacity for cutting or removing portions of material by an incisive or wedge-like action, leaving a smooth surface behind. An analysis of the essential methods of operation gives a broad grouping as follows: — I. The chisel group . . Typified by the chisel of the woodworker. II. The shearing group . „ „ scissors. III. The scrapers . . „ „ cabinet-maker's scrape. IV" ThdeetrrjveSgiVoeuP ^ \ " " "" and the I"™*- V. The moulding group . „ „ trowel. The first three are generally all regarded as cutting tools, notwithstanding that those in II. and III. do not operate as wedges, and therefore are not true chisels. But many occupy a border-line where the results obtained are practically those due to cutting, as in some of the shears, saws, milling cutters, files and grinding wheels, where, if the action is not directly wedge-like, it is certainly more or less incisive in character. Cutting Tools. — The cutting edge of a tool is the practical outcome of several conditions. Keenness of edge, equivalent to a small degree of angle between the tool faces, would appear at first sight to be the prime element in cutting, as indeed it is in the case of a razor, or in that of a chisel for soft wood. But that is not the prime condition in a tool for cutting iron or steel. Strength is of far greater importance, and to it some keenness of edge must be sacri- ficed. All cutting tools are wedges; but a razor or a chisel edge, included between angles of 15° or 20°, would be turned over at once if presented to iron or steel, for which angles of from 60° to 75° are required. Further, much greater rigidity in the latter, to resist spring and fracture, is necessary than in the former, because the resistance to cutting is much greater. A workman can operate a turning tool by hand, even on heavy pieces of metal-work. Formerly all turning, no matter how large, was done by hand-operated tools, and after great muscular exertion a few pounds of metal might be removed in an hour. But coerce a similarly formed tool in a rigid guide or rest, and drive it by the power of ten or twenty men, and it becomes possible to remove say a hundredweight of chips in an hour. Or, increase the size of the tool and its capacity for endurance, and drive by the power of 40 or 60 horses, and half a ton of chips may be removed in an hour. All machine tools of which the chisel is the type operate by cutting ; that is, they act on the same principle and by the same essential method as the knife, razor or chisel, and not by that of the grind- stone. A single tool, however, may act as a cutting instrument at one time and as a scrape at another. The butcher's knife will afford a familiar illustration. It is used as a cutting tool when sever- ing a steak, but it becomes a scrape when used to clean the block. The difference is not therefore due to the form of the knife, but to the method of its application, a distinction which holds good in reference to the tools used by engineers. There is a very old hand too} once much used in the engineer's turnery, termed a graver." This was employed for cutting and for scraping indiscriminately, simply by varying the angle of its presentation. At that time the question of the best cutting angles was seldom raised or discussed, because the manipulative instinct of the turner settled it as the work pro- ceeded, and as the material operated on varied in texture and degree of hardness. But since the use of the slide rest holding tools rigidly fixed has become general, the question of the most suitable tool formation has been the subject of much experiment and discussion. The almost unconscious experimenting which goes on every day in every workshop in the world proves that there may be a difference of several degrees of angle in tools doing similar work, without having any appreciable effect upon results. So long as certain broad principles and reasonable limits are observed, that is sufficient for practical purposes. Clearly, in order that a tool shall cut, it must possess an incisive form. In fig. I, A might be thrust over the surface of the plate of metal, but no cutting action could take place. It would simply grind and polish the surface. If it were formed like B, the grinding action would give place to scraping, by which some material would be removed. Many tools are formed thus, but there is still no incisive or knife-like action, and the tool is simply a scrape and not a cutting tool. But C is a cutting tool, possessing penetrative capacity. If now B were tilted backwards as at D, it would at HAND TOOLS] TOOL once become a cutting tool. But its bevelled face would rub and grind on the surface of the work, producing friction and heat, and interfering with the penetrative action of the cutting edge. On the other hand, if C were tilted forwards as at E its action would approximate to that of a scrape for the time being. But the high angle of the hinder bevelled face would not afford adequate support to the cutting edge, and the latter would therefore become worn off almost instantly, precisely as that of a razor or wood-working chise! would crumble away if operated on hard metal. It is obvious FIG. i. A, Tool which would burnish F, G, H, Presentations of tools only. for planing, turning and B, Scrape. boring respectively. C, Cutting tool. J, K, L, Approximate angles of D and E, Scraping and cutting tools; a, clearance angle, or tools improperly presented. bottom rake ; b, front or top rake; c, tool angle. therefore that the correct forirt for a cutting tool must depend upon a due balance being maintained between the angle of the front and of the bottom faces — " front " or " top rake," and "bottom rake " or " clearance " — considered in regard to their method of presentation to the work. Since, too, all tools used in machines are held rigidly in one position, differing in this respect from hand- operated tools, it follows that a constant angle should be given to instruments which are used for operating on a given kind of metal or alloy. It does not matter whether a tool is driven in a lathe, or a planing machine, or a sharper or a slotter; whether it is cutting on external or internal surfaces, it is always maintained in a direction perpendicularly to the point of application as in fig. I, F, G, H, planing, turning and boring respectively. It is consistent with reason and with fact that the softer and more fibrous the metal, the keener must be the formation of the tool, and that, conversely, the harder and more crystalline the metal the more obtuse must be the cutting angles, as in the extremes of the razor and the tools for cutting iron and steel already instanced. The three figures J, K, L show tools suitably formed, for wrought iron and mild steel, for cast iron and cast steel, and for brass respectively. Cast iron and cast steel could not be cut properly with the first, nor wrought iron and fibrous steel with the second, nor either with the third. The angles given are those which accord best with general practice, but they are not constant, being varied by conditions, especially by lubrication and rigidity of fastenings. The profiles of the first and second tools are given mainly with the view of having material for grinding away, without the need for frequent reforgmg. But there are many tools which are formed quite differently when used in tool-holders and in turrets, though the same essential principles of angle are observed. The angle of clearance, or relief, a, in fig. I, is an important detail of a cutting tool. It is of greater importance than an exact angle of top rake. But, given some sufficient angle of clearance, its exact amount is not of much moment. Neither need it be uniform for a given cutting edge. It may vary from say 3° to 10°, or even 20°, and under good conditions little or no practical differences will result. Actually it need never vary much from 5° to 7°. The object in giving a clearance angle is simply to prevent friction between the non-cutting face immediately adjacent to the edge and the surface of the work. The limit to this clearance is that at which insufficient support is afforded to the cutting edge. These are the two facts, which if fulfilled permit of a considerable range in clear- ance angle. The softer the metal being cut the greater can be the clearance; the harder the material the less clearance is permissible because the edge requires greater support. The front, or top rake, b in fig. I, is the angle or slope of the front, or top face, of the tool; it is varied mainly according as materials are crystalline or fibrous. In the turnings and cuttings taken off the more crystalline metals and alloys, the broken appearance of the chips is distinguished from the shavings removed from the fibrous materials. This is a feature which always distinguishes cast iron and unannealed cast steel from mild steel, high carbon steel from that low in carbon, and cast iron from wrought iron. It indicates too that extra work is put on the tool in breaking up the chips, following immediately on their severance, and when the comminu- tions are very small they indicate insufficient top rake. This is a result that turners try to avoid when possible, or at least to minimize. Now the greater the slope of the top rake the more easily will the cuttings come away, with the minimum of break in the crystalline materials and absolutely unbroken over lengths of many feet in the fibrous ones. The breaking up, or the continuity of the cuttings, therefore affords an indication of the suitability of the amount of top rake to its work. But compromise often has to be made between the ideal and the actual. The amount of top rake has to be limited in the harder metals and alloys in order to secure a strong tool angle, without which tools would lack the endur- ance required to sustain them through several hours without regrinding. The too/ angle, c, is the angle included between top and bottom faces, and its amount, or thickness expressed in degrees, is a measure of the strength and endurance of any tool. At extremes it varies from about 15° to 85°. It is traceable in all kinds of tools, having very diverse forms. It is difficult to place some groups in the cutting category; they are on the border-line between cutting and scraping instruments. Typical Tools. — A bare enumeration of the diverse forms in which tools of the chisel type occur is not even possible here. The grouped illustrations (figs. 2 to 6) show some of the types, but it will be understood that each is varied in dimensions, angles and outlines to suit all the varied kinds of metals and alloys and conditions of operation. For, as every tool has to be gripped in a holder of some kind, as a slide-rest, tool-box, turret, tool-holder, box, cross-slide, &c., this often determines the choice of some one form in preference to another. A broad division is that into roughing and finishing FIG. 2. — Metal-turning Tools. A , Shape of tool used for scrap- E, Diamond or angular-edge tool ing brass. for cutting all metals. B, Straightforward tool for turn- F, Plan of finishing tool. ing all metals. G, Spring tool for finishing. C, Right- and left-hand tools for H, Side or knife tool. all metals. J, Parting or cutting-off tool. D, A better form of same. K, L, Round-nose tools. M, Radius tool. FIG. 3. — Group of Planer Tools. Planer type of tool, cranked E, Parting or cutting-off or grooving tool. F, V tool for grooves. G, Right- and left-hand tools for V-slots. H , Ditto for T-slots. /, Radius tool held in holder. to avoid digging into the metaj. B, Face view of roughing tool. C, Face view of finishing tool. D, Right- and left-hand knife or side tools. i6 TOOL [HAND TOOLS tools. Generally though not invariably the edge of the first is narrow, of the second broad, corresponding with the deep cutting and fine traverse of the first and the shallow cutting and broad B I FIG. 4. — Group of Slotter Tools. A, Common roughing tool. B, Parting-off or grooving tool. C, Roughing or finishing tool in a holder. D, Double-edged tool for cutting opposite sides of a slot. FIG. 5. — Group of Tool-holders. A, Smith & Coventry swivelling holder. B, Holder for square steel. C, D, right- and left-hand forms of same. E, Holder for round steel. F, Holder for narrow parting-off tool. traverse of the second. The following are some of the principal forms. The round-nosed roughing tool (fig. 2) B is of straight- forward type, used for turning, planing and shaping. As the correct tool angle can only occur on the middle plane of the tool, it is usual to employ cranked tools, C, D, E, right- and left-handed, for heavy and moderately heavy duty, the direction of the crank- ing corresponding with that in which the tool is required to traverse. Tools for boring are cranked and many for planing (fig. 3). The slotting tools (fig. 4) embody the same principle, but their shanks are in line with the direction of cutting. Many roughing and finishing tools are of knife type H. Finishing tools have broad edges, F, G, H. They occur in straightforward and right- and left-hand types. These as a rule remove less than FIG. 6. — Group of Chisels. A, Paring chisel. B, Socket chisel for heavy duty. C, Common chipping chisel. in. in depth, while the rough- ing tools may cut an inch or D, Narrow cross-cut or cape chisel, more into the metal. But the E, Cow-mouth chisel, or gouge. traverse of the first often exceeds F, Straight chisel or sett. C, Hollow chisel or sett. an inch, while in that of the second J in. is a yery coarse amount of feed. Spring tools, G, used less now than formerly, are only of value for imparting a smooth finish to a surface. They are finishing tools only. Some spring tools are formed with considerable top rake, but generally they act by scraping only. Solid Tools v. Tool-holders. — It will be observed that the fore- going are solid tools ; that is, the cutting portion is forged from a solid bar of steel. This is costly when the best tool steel is used, hence large numbers of tools comprise points only, which are gripped in permanent holders in which they interchange. _ Tool^ steel usually ranges from about J in. to 4 in. square; most engineers' work is done with bars of from J in. to li in. square. It is in the smaller and medium sizes of tools that holders prove of most value. Solid tools, varying from 2\ in. to 4 in. square, a,re used for the heaviest cutting done in the planing machine. Tool-holders are not employed for very heavy work, because the heat generated would not get away fast enough from small tool points. There are scores of holders; per- haps a dozen good approved types are in common use. They are divisible into three great groups: those in which the top rake of the tool point is embodied in the holder, and is constant; those in which the clearance is similarly embodied; and those in which neither is provided for, but in which the tool point is ground to any angle. Charles Babbage designed the first tool-holder, and the essential type survives in several modern forms. The best-known holders now are the Tangye, the Smith & Coventry, the Armstrong, some by Mr C. Taylor, and the Bent. The Smith & Coventry (fig. 5), used more perhaps than any other single design, includes two forms. In one E the tool is a bit of round steel set at an angle which gives front rake, and having the top end ground to an angle of top rake. In the other A the tool has the section of a truncated wedge, set for constant top rake, or cutting angle, and having bottom rake or clearance angle ground. The Smith & Coventry round tool is not applicable for all classes of work. It will turn plain work, and plane level faces, but will not turn or plane into corners or angles. Hence the invention of the tool of V-section, and the swivel tool- holder. The round tool-holders are made right- and left-handed, the swivel tool-holder has a universal movement. The amount of projection of the round tool points is very limited, which impairs their utility when some overhanging of the tool is necessary. The V-tooIs can be slid out in their holders to operate on faces and edges situated to some considerable distance inwards from the end of the tool-holder. Box Tools. — In one feature the box tools of the turret lathes resemble tool-holders. The small pieces of steel used for tool points are gripped in the boxes, as in tool-holders, and all the advantages which are derived from this arrangement of separating the point from its holder are thus secured (fig. 7). But in all other FIG. 7.— Box Tool for Turret Lathe. (Alfred Herbert, Ltd., Coventry.) A, Cutting tool. B, Screw for adjusting radius of cut. C C, V-steadies supporting the work in opposition to A. D, Diameter of work. E, Body of holder. F, Stem which fits in the turret. respects the two are dissimilar. Two or three tool-holders of different sizes take all the tool points used in a lathe, but a new box has to- be devised in the case of almost every new job, with the exception of those the principal formation of which is the turning down of plain bars. The explanation is that, instead of a single point, several are commonly carried in a box. As complexity increases with the number of tools, new designs and dimensions of boxes become necessary, even though there may be family resemblances in groups. A result is that there is not, nor can there be: anything like finality in these designs. Turret work has become one of the most highly specialized departments of machine-shop practice, and the design of these boxes is already the work of specialists. More and more of the work of the common lathe is being constantly appropriated by the semi- and full-automatic machines, a result to which the magazine feeds for castings and forgings that cannot pass through a hollow spindle have contributed greatly. New work is constantly being attacked in the automatic machines that was deemed impracticable a short time before ; some of the commoner jobs are produced with greater economy, while heavier castings and forgings, longer and larger bars, are tooled in the turret lathes. A great deal of the efficiency of the box tools is due to the support which is afforded to the cutting edges in opposition to the stress of cutting. V-blocks are introduced in most cases as in fig. 7, and these not only resist the stress of the cutting, but gauge the diameter exactly. Shearing Action. — In many tools a shearing operation takes place, by which the stress of cutting is lessened. Though not very apparent, it is present in the round-nosed roughing tools, in the knife tools, in most milling cutters, as well as in all the shearing tools proper — the scissors, shears, &c. Planes. — We pass by the familiar great chisel group, used by wood- workers, with a brief notice. Generally the tool angles of these lie between 15° and 25°. They include the chisels proper, and the gouges in numerous shapes and proportions, used by carpenters, HAND TOOLS] TOOL cabinet-makers, turners, stone-masons and allied tradesmen. These are mostly thrust by hand to their work, without any mechanical control. Other chisels are used percussively, as the stout mortise chisels, some of the gouges, the axes, adzes and stone-mason's tools. The large family of planes embody chisels coerced by the mechanical control of the wooden (fig. 8) or metal stock. These also differ FIG. 8. — Section through Plane. A, Cutting iron. B, Top or back iron. C, Clamping screw. D, Wedge. E, Broken shaving. F, Mouth. from the chisels proper in the fact that the face of the cutting iron does not coincide with the face of the material being cut, but lies at an angle therewith, the stock of the plane exercising the necessary coercion. We also meet with the function of the top or non-cutting B 'c 'D 'E^ " 'F' FIG. 9. — Group of Wood-boring Bits. A, Spoon bit. B, Centre-bit. C, Expanding centre-bit. Gilpin or Gedge auger. E, Jennings auger. ' F, Irwin auger. D. IT a i F k \ I HI 1 1 Tl it — i — \ 1 FIG. 10. — Group of Drills for Metal. A, Common flat drill. 5, Twist drill. C, Straight fluted drill. D, Pin drill for flat countersinking. E, Arboring or facing tool. F.. Tool for boring sheet-metal. iron in breaking the shaving and conferring rigidity upon the cutting iron. This rigidity is of similar value in cutting wood as in cutting metal though in a less marked degree. Drilling and Boring Tools. — Metal and timber are bored with equal facility; the tools (figs. 9 and 10) embody similar differences to the cutting tools already instanced for wood and metal. All the wood- working bits are true cutting tools, and their angles, if analysed, will be found not to differ much from those of the razor and common chisel. The drills for metal furnish examples both of scrapers and cutting tools. The common drill is only a scraper, but all the twist drills cut with good incisive action. An advantage possessed by all drills is that the cutting forces are balanced on each side of the centre of rotation. The same action is embodied in the best wood- boring bits and augers, as the Jennings, the Gilpin and the Irwin — much improved forms of the old centre-bit. But the balance is impaired if the lips are not absolutely symmetrical about the centre. This explains the necessity for the substitution of machine grinding for hand grinding of the lips, and great developments of twist drill grinding machines. Allied to the drills are the D-bits, and the reamers (fig. n). The first-named both initiate and finish a hole; B FIG. II. A, D-bit. B, Solid reamer. C, Adjustable reamer, having six flat blades forced outward by the tapered plug. Two lock-nuts at the end fix the blades firmly after adjustment. the second are used only for smoothing and enlarging drilled holes, and for correcting holes which pass through adjacent castings or plates. The reamers remove only a mere film, and their action is that of scraping. The foregoing are examples of tools operated from one end and unsupported at the other, except in so far as they receive support within the work. One of the objectionable features of tools operated in this way is that they tend to " follow the hole," and if this is cored, or rough-drilled out of truth, there is risk of the boring tools following it to some extent at least. With the one exception of the D-bit there is no tool which can be relied on to take out a long bore with more than an approximation to concentricity throughout. Boring tools (fig. 12) held in the slide-rest will spring and bend and chatter, and unless the lathe is true, or careful com- pensation is made for its want of truth, they will bore bigger at one end than the other. Boring tools thrust by the back centre are liable to wabble, and though they are variously coerced to prevent them from turning round, that does not check the to-and-fro wabbly FIG. 12. — Group of Boring Tools. A, Round boring tool held in V-blocks on slide-rest. B, C, Square and V-pointed boring tools. D, Boring bar with removable cutters, held straight, or angularly. motion from following the core, or rough bore. In a purely reaming tool this is permitted, but it is not good in tools that have to initiate the hole. This brings us to the large class of boring tools which are supported at each end by being held in bars carried between centres. There are two main varieties: in one the cutters are fixed directly in the bar (fig. 13, A to D), in the other in a head fitted on the bar i8 TOOL [HAND TOOLS (fig. 13, E), hence termed a " boring head." As lathe heads are fixed, the traverse cannot be imparted to the bars as in boring machines. The boring heads can be traversed, or the work can be FIG. 13. — Group of Supported Boring Tools. A, Single-ended cutter in boring bar. B, Double-ended ditto. C, Flat single-ended finishing cutter. D, Flat double-ended finishing cutter. E, Boring head with three cutters and three steady blocks. traversed by the* mechanism of the lathe saddle. The latter must be done when cutters are fixed in bars. A great deal of difference exists in the details of the fittings both of bars and heads, but they are not so arbitrary as they might seem at first sight. The principal differences are those due to the number of cutters used, their shapes, and their method of fastening. Bars receiving their cutters direct include one, two or four, cutting on opposite sides, and therefore balanced. Four give better balance than two, the cutters being set at right angles. If a rough hole runs out of truth, a single cutter is better than a double-ended one, provided a tool of the roughing shape is used. The shape of the tools varies from roughing to finishing, and their method of attachment is by screws, wedges or nuts, but we cannot illustrate the numerous differences that are met with. Saws. — The saws are a natural connecting link between the chisels and the milling cutters. Saws are used for wood, metal and stone. Slabs of steel several inches I in thickness are sawn through as readily as, though more slowly than, timber planks. Circular and band saws are common in the smithy and the boiler and machine shops for cutting off bars, forgings and rolled sections. But the tooth shapes are not those used for timber, nor is the cutting speed the same. In the individual saw-teeth both cutting and scraping actions are illustrated (fig. 14). Saws which cut tim- ber continuously with the grain, as rip, hand, band, circular, have incisive teeth. For though many are desti- tute of front rake, the method of sharpening at an angle imparts a true shearing cut. But all cross- cutting teeth scrape only, the teeth being either of triangular or of M-form, variously modified. Teeth for metal cutting also act strictly by scraping. The pitching of the teeth is related to the nature of the material and the for timber than for metal, AA7VAA nrtnnn FIG. 14.— Typical Saw Teeth. Teeth of band and ripping saws. Teeth of circular saw for hard wood shows set. Ditto for soft wood. D, Teeth of cross-cut saw. E, M-teeth for ditto. A B C, direction of cutting. It is coarser coarser for ripping or sawing with the grain than forVross' cutting,' coarser for soft than for hard woods. The setting of teeth or the bending over to right and left, by which the clearance is provided for the blade of the saw, is subject to similar variations. It is greatest for soft woods and least for metals, where in fact the clearance is often secured without set, by merely thinning But it is greater for cross cutting than for the blade backwards. ripping timber. Gulleting follows similar rules. The softer the timber, the greater the gulleting, to permit the dust to escape freely. Milling Cutters. — Between a circular saw for cutting metal and a thin milling cutter there is no essential difference. Increase the thickness as if to produce a very wide saw, and the essential plain edge milling cutter for metal results. In its simplest form the milling cutter is a cylinder with teeth lying across its periphery, or parallel with its axis — the edge tnill (fig. 15), or else a disk with teeth radiating on its face, or at right angles with its axis — the end mill (fig. 16). Each is used indifferently for producing flat faces and edges, and for cutting grooves which are rectangular in cross-section. These milling cutters invade the province of the single-edged tools of the planer, shaper and slotter. Of these two typical forms the FIG. 15. — Group of Milling Cutters, mill, with A, Narrow edge straight teeth. B, Wide edge mill with spiral teeth. C, Teeth on face and edges. D, Cutter having teeth like C. E, Flat teeth held in with screws and wedges. F, Large inserted tooth mill; with taper pins secure cutters. FIG. 16.— Group of End Mills. /• cV • Wlth stra'ght teeth. B, Ditto with spiral teeth. C, bhowing method of holding shell cutter on arbor, with screw and key. D, T-slot cutter. HAND TOOLS] TOOL changes are rung in great variety, ranging from the narrow slitting tools which saw off bars, to the broad cutters of 24 in. or more in width, used on piano-millers. When more than about an inch in width, surfacing cylindrical cutters are formed with spiral teeth (fig. 15, B), a device which is A, Straddle Mill, cutting faces and edges. B, Set of three mills cutting grooves. FIG. 18. — Group of Angular Mills. A, Cutter with single slope. B, Ditto, producing teeth in another cutter. C, Double Slope Mill, with unequal angles. essential to sweetness of operation, the action being that of shearing. These have their teeth cut on universal machines, using the dividing and spiral head and suitable change wheels, and after hardening they are sharpened on universal grinders. When cutters exceed about 6 in. in length the difficulties of hardening and grinding render the " gang " arrangement more suitable. Thus, two, three or more similar edge mills are set end to end on an arbor, with the spiral teeth running in reverse directions, giving a broad face with balanced endlong cutting forces. From these are built up the numerous gang mills, comprising plane faces at right angles with each other, of which the straddle mills are the best known (fig. 17, A). A common element in these combinations is the key seat type B having teeth on the periphery and on both faces as in fig. 15, C, D. By these combinations half a dozen faces or more can be tooled simul- taneously, and all alike, as long as the mills retain their edge. The advantages over the work of the planer in this class of work are seen in tooling the faces and edges of machine tables, beds and slides, in shaping the faces and edges of caps to fit their bearing blocks. In a single cutter of the face type, but having teeth on back and edge also, T-slots are readily milled (fig. 1 6, D) ; this if done on the planer would require re-settings of awkwardly cranked tools, and more measurement and testing with templets than is required on a milling machine. When angles, curves and profile sections are introduced, the capacity of the milling cutter is infinitely increased. The making of the cutters is also more difficult. Angular cutters (fig. 18) are used for producing the teeth of the mills themselves, for shaping the teeth of ratchet wheels, and, in combination with straight cutters in gangs, for angular sections. With curves, or angles and curves in combination, taps, reamers and drills can be fluted or grooved, the teeth of wheels shapeo!, and in fact any outlines imparted (fig. 19). Here the work of the fitter, as well as that of the planing and allied machines, is invaded, for much of this work if prepared on these machines would have to be finished laboriously by the file. There are two ways in which milling cutters are used, by which their value is extended; one is to transfer some of their work proper to the lathe and boring machine, the other is by duplication. A good many light circular sections, i r FIG. 19. A, Convex Cutter. B, Concave Cutter. C, Profile Cutter. as wheel rims, hitherto done in lathes, are regularly prepared in the milling machine, gang mills being used for tooling the peri- phery and edges at once, and the wheel blank being rotated. Similarly, holes are bored by a rotating mill of the cylindrical type. Internal screw threads are done similarly. Duplication occurs when milling sprocket wheels in line, or side by side, in milling nuts on an arbor, in milling a number of narrow faces arranged side by side, in cutting the teeth of several spur-wheels on one arbor and m milling the teeth of racks several at a time. One of the greatest advances in the practice of milling was that of making backed-off cutters. The sectional shape behind the tooth face is continued identical in form with the profile of the edge, the outline being carried back as a curve equal in radius to that of the cutting edge (fig. 20). The result is that the cutter may be sharpened on the front faces of the teeth without interfering with the shape which willbe milled, because the periphery is always con- stant in outline. After re- peated sharpenings the teeth would assume the form indi- cated by the shaded portion on two of the teeth. The FlG. 2o.— Relieved Teeth of Milling limit of grinding is reached Cutter, when the tooth becomes too thin and weak to stand up to its work. But such cutters will endure weeks or months of constant service before becoming useless. The -/.CD FIG. 21. — Group of Scrapes. A, MetaJ- worker's scrape, pushed D, Diamond point used by straightforward. wood-turners. B, Ditto, operated laterally. E, F, Cabinet-makers' scrapes. C, Round-nosed tool used by wood-turners. chief advantage of backing-off or relieving is in its application to cutters of intricate curves, which would be difficult or impossible to sharpen along their edges. Such cutters, moreover, if made with A, Warding. B, Mill. C, Flat. D, Pillar. E, Square. F, G, Swaged reapers. H, Mill. FIG. 22. — Cross-sectional Shapes of Files. P, Q, J, Topping. K, Reaper. L, Knife. M, Three-square. N, Cant. 0, Slitting or feather-edge. ordinary teeth would soon be worn down, and be much weaker than the strong form of teeth represented in fig. 20. The relieving is usually done in special lathes, employing a profile tool which cuts the surface Round. Pit-saw or frame-saw. R, Half-round. 5, T, Cabinet. U, Tumbler. V, Crossing. -/I IfA H Ij UK L A , Parallel or blunt. B, Taper bellied. C, Knife reaper. D, Tapered square. E, Parallel triangular. FIG. 23. — Longitudinal Shapes of Files. F, Tapered triangular. K, Tapered half- G, Parallel round. round. H, Taper or rat-tail. L, Riffler. /, Parallel half- round. 20 of the teeth back at the required radius. Relieved cutters can of course be strung together on a single arbor to form gang mills, by which very complicated profiles may be tooled, beyond the capacity of a single solid mill. Scrapes. — The tools which operate by scraping (fig. 21) include many of the broad finishing tools of the turner in wood and metal (cf. fig. 2), and the scrape of the wood worker and the fitter. The practice of scraping surfaces true, applied to surface plates, machine slides and similar objects, was due to Sir Joseph Whitworth. It superseded the older and less accurate practice of grinding to a mutual fit. Now, with machines of precision, the practice of grinding has to a large extent displaced the more costly scraping. Scraping is, however, the only method available when the most perfect contact is desired. Its advantage lies in the fact that the efforts of the work- man can be localized over the smallest areas, and nearly infinitesimal amounts removed, a mere fine dust in the last stages. Files. — These must in strictness be classed with scrapes, for, although the points are keen, there is never any front rake. Collec- tively there is a shearing action because the rows of teeth are cut diagonally. The sectional forms (fig. 22) and the longitudinal forms (fig. 23) of the files are numerous, to adapt them to all classes of work. In addition, the method of cutting, and the degrees of coarseness of the teeth, vary, being single, or float cut, or double cut (fig. 24). The rasps are another group. Degrees of coarse- ness are designated as rough, middle cut, bastard cut, second cut, smooth, double dead smooth; the first named is the coarsest, the last the finest. The terms are relative, since the larger a file is the coarser are its teeth, though of the same name as the teeth in a shorter file, which are finer. Screwing Tools. — The forms of these will be found discussed under SCREW. They can scarcely be ranked among cutting tools, yet the best kinds remove metal with ease. This is due in great measure to the good clearance allowed, and to the narrowness of the cutting portions. Front rake is generally absent, though in some of the best screwing dies there is a slight amount. Shears and Punches. — These maybe of cutting or non-cutting types. Shears (fig. 25) have no front rake, but only a slight clearance. They a slight shearing cut, because the blades do not TOOL [HAND TOOLS FIG. 24.— File Teeth. A, B, Float cut. Double cut. C, Rasp cut. generally give _ _^_— lie parallel, but the cutting begins at one end and continues in detail to the other. But strictly the shears, like the punches, act by a I. I J FlG. 25. — Shear Blades. a, a, Blades. b, Plate being sheared. FIG. 26. — Punching. a, Punch, b, Bolster. c, Plate being punched. severe detrusive effort; for the punch, with its bolster (fig. 26), forms a pair of cylindrical shears. Hence a shorn or punched edge is always rough, ragged, and covered with minute, shallow cracks. Both processes are therefore dangerous to iron and steel. The metal being unequally stressed, fracture starts in the annulus of metal. Hence the advantage of the practice of reamering out this annulus, which is completely removed by enlargement by about an f in. diameter, so that homogeneous metal is left throughout the entire unpunched section. The same results follow reamering both in iron and steel. Annealing, according to many experiments, has the same effect as reamering, due to the rearrangement of the molecules of metal. The perfect practice with punched plates is to punch, reamer, and finally to anneal. The effect of shearing is practically identical with that of punching, and planing and annealing shorn edges has the same influence as reamering and annealing punched holes. Hammers. — These form an immense group, termed percussive, from the manner of their use (fig. 27). Every trade has its own peculiar shapes, the total of which number many scores, each with its own appropriate name, and ranging in size from the minute forms of the jeweler to the sledges of the smith and boiler maker and the planishing hammers of the coppersmith. Wooden hammers are termed mallets, their purpose being to avoid bruising tools or the surfaces of work. Most trades use mallets of some form or another. Hammer handles are rigid in all cases except certain percussive tools of the smithy, which are handled with withy rods, or iron rods flexibly attached to the tools, so that when struck by the sledge they shall not jar the hands. The fullering tools, and flatters, and setts, though not hammers strictly, are actuated by percussion. The dies of the die forgers are actuated percussively, being closed by powerful hammers. The action of caulking tools is percussive, and so is that of moulders' rammers. A, Exeter type. B, Joiner's hammer. JW KW I), FIG. 27. — Hammers. F, Ditto, straight pane. G, Sledge hammer, straight C, Canterbury claw hammer pane. (these are wood-workers' H, Ditto, double-faced, hammers). /, K, L, M, Boiler makers' ham- D, Engineer's hammer, ball pane. mers. E, Ditto, cross-pane. N, Scaling hammer. Moulding Tools. — This is a group of tools which, actuated either by simple pressure or percussively, mould, shape and model forms in the sand of the moulder, in the metal of the smith, and in press work. All the tools of the moulder (fig. 28) with the exception of the rammers and vent wires act by moulding the sand into shapes FIG. 28.— Moulding Tools. /, Button sleeker. K, Pipe smoother. A , Square trowel. E, Flange bead. B, Heart trowel. F, Hollow bead. C, D, Cleaners. G, H, Square corner sleekers. by pressure. Their contours correspond with the plane and curved surfaces of moulds, and with the requirements of shallow and deep work. They are made in iron and brass. The fullers, swages and flatters of the smith, and the dies used with hammer and presses, all mould by percussion or by pressure, the work taking the counter- part of the dies, or of some portion of them. The practice of die forging consists almost wholly of moulding processes. Tool Steels. — These now include three kinds. The common steel, the controlling element in which is carbon, requires to be hardened and tempered, and must not be overheated, about 500° F. being the highest temperature permissible- — the critical tempera- ture. Actually this is seldom allowed to be reached. The dis- advantage of this steel is that its capabilities are limited, because the heat generated by heavy cutting soon spoils the tools. The second is the Mushet steel, invented by R. F. Mushet in 1868, a carbon steel, in which the controlling element is tungsten, of which it contains from about ;> to 8%. It is termed self-hardening, because it is cooled in air instead of being quenched in water. Its value consists in its endurance at high temperatures, even at a low red heat. Until the advent of the high-speed steels, Mushet steel was reserved for all heavy cutting, and for tooling hard tough steels. It is made in six different tempers suitable for various kinds of duty. Tools of Mushet steel must not be forged below a red heat. It is hardened by reheating the end to a white heat, and blowing cold in an air blast. The third kind of steel is termed high-speed, because much higher cutting speeds are practicable with these than with other steels. Tools made of them are hardened in a blast of cold air. The controlling elements are numerous and vary in the practice of different manufacturers, to render the MACHINE TOOLS] TOOL 21 tools adaptable to cutting various classes of metals and alloys. Tungsten is the principal controlling element, but chromium is essential, and molybdenum and vanadium are often found of value. The steels are forged at a yellow tint, equal to about 1850° F. They are raised to a white heat for hardening, and copied in an air blast to a bright red. They are then often quenched in a bath of oil. The first public demonstration of the capacities of high speed steels was made at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. Since that time great advances have been made. It has been found that the section of the shaving limits the practicable speeds, so that, although cutting speeds of 300 and 400 ft. a minute are practicable with light cuts, it is more economical to limit speeds to less than 100 ft. per minute with much heavier cuts. The use of water is not absolutely essential as in using tools of carbon steel. The new steels show to much greater advantage on mild steel than on cast iron. They are more useful for roughing down than for finishing. The removal of 20 tb of cuttings per minute with a single tool is common, and that amount is often exceeded, so that a lathe soon becomes half buried in turnings unless they are carted away. The horse-power absorbed is proportionately large. Ordinary heavy lathes will take from 40 to 60 h.p. to drive them, or from four to six times more than is required by lathes of the same centres using carbon steel tools. Many remarkable records have been given of the capacities of the new steels. Not only turning and planing tools but drills and milling cutters are now regularly made of them. It is a revelation to see these drills in their rapid descent through metal. A drill of I in. in diameter will easily go through 5 in. thickness of steel in one minute. MACHINE TOOLS The machine tools employed in modern engineering factories number many hundreds of well-defined and separate types. Besides these, there are hundreds more designed for special functions, and adapted only to the work of firms who handle specialities. Most of the first named and many of the latter admit of grouping in classes. The following is a natural classification: I. Turning Lathes. — These, by common consent, stand as a class alone. The cardinal feature by which they are distin- guished is that the work being operated on rotates against a tool which is held in a rigid fixture — the rest. The axis of rotation may be horizontal or vertical. II. Reciprocating Machines. — The feature by which these are characterized is that the relative movements of tool and work take place in straight lines, to and fro. The recipro- cations may occur in horizontal or vertical planes. III. Machines which Drill and Bore Holes. — These have some features in common with the lathes, inasmuch as drilling and boring are often done in the lathes, and some facing and turning in the drilling and boring machines, but they have become highly differentiated. In the foregoing groups tools having either single or double cutting edges are used. IV. Milling Machines. — This group uses cutters having teeth arranged equidistantly round a cylindrical body, and may therefore be likened to saws of considerable thickness. The cutters rotate over or against work, between which and the cutters a relative movement of travel takes place, and they may therefore be likened to reciprocating machines, in which a revolving cutter takes the place of a single-edged one. V. Machines for Cutting the Teeth of Gear-wheels. — These comprise two sub-groups, the older type in which rotary milling cutters are used, and the later type in which reciprocating single-edged tools are employed. Sub-classes are designed for one kind of gear only, as spur-wheels, bevels, worms, racks, &c. VI. Grinding Machinery. — This is a large and constantly extending group, largely the development of recent years. Though emery grinding has been practised in crude fashion for a century, the difference in the old and the new methods lies in the embodiment of the grinding wheel in machines of high precision, and in the rivalry of the wheels of corundum, car- borundum and alundum, prepared in the electric furnace with those of emery. VII. Sawing Machines. — In modern practice these take an important part in cutting iron, steel and brass. Few shops are without them, and they are numbered by dozens in some establishments. They include circular saws for hot and cold metal, band saws and hack saws. VIII. Shearing and Punching Machines. — These occupy a border line between the cutting and non-cutting tools. Some must be classed with the first, others with the second. The detrusive action also is an important element, more especially in the punches. IX. Hammers and Presses. — Here there is a percussive action in the hammers, and a purely squeezing one in the presses. Both are made capable of exerting immense pressures, but the latter are far more powerful than the former. X. Portable Tools. — This large group can best be classified by the common feature of being readily removable for operation on large pieces of erection that cannot be taken to the regular machines. Hence they are all comparatively small and light. Broadly they include diverse tools, capable of performing nearly the whole of the operations summarized in the pre- ceding paragraphs. XI. Appliances. — There is a very large number of articles which are neither tools nor machine tools, but which are in- dispensable to the work of these; that is, they do not cut, or shape, or mould, but they hold, or grip, or control, or aid in some way or other the carrying through of the work. Thus a screw wrench, an angle plate, a wedge, a piece of packing, a bolt, are appliances. In modern practice the appliance in the form of a templet or jig is one of the principal elements in the interchangeable system. XII. Wood-working Machines. — This group does for the conversion of timber what the foregoing accomplish for metal. There is therefore much underlying similarity in many machines for wood and metal, but still greater differences, due to the conditions imposed on the one hand by the very soft, and on the other by the intensely hard, materials operated on in the two great groups. XIII. Measurement. — To the scientific engineer, equally with the astronomer, the need for accurate measurement is of paramount importance. Neither good fitting nor interchange- ability of parts is possible without a system of measurement, at once accurate and of ready and rapid application. Great advances have been made in this direction lately. I. — LATHES,1 The popular conception of a lathe, derived from the familiar machine of the wood turner, would not give a correct idea of the lathe which has been developed as the engineer's machine tool. This has become differentiated into nearly fifty well-marked.types, until in some cases even the term lathe has been dropped for more precise definitions, as vertical boring machine, automatic machine, while in others prefixes are necessary, as axle lathe, chucking lathe, cutting-off lathe, wheel lathe, and so on. With regard to size and mass the height of centres may range from 3 in. in the bench lathes to 9 or 10 ft. in gun lathes, and weights will range from say 50 Ib to 200 tons, or more in exceptional cases. While in some the mechanism is the simplest possible, in others it is so complicated that only the specialist is able to grasp its details. Early Lathes. — Space will not permit us to trace the evolution of the lathe from the ancient bow and card lathe and the pole lathe, in each of which the rotary movement was alternately for- ward, for cutting, and backward. The curious thing is that the wheel-driven lathe was a novelty so late as the lAth and isth centuries, and had not wholly displaced the ancient forms even in the West in the igth century, and the cord lathe still survives in the East. Another thing is that all the old lathes were of dead centre, instead of running mandrel type; and not until 1794 did the use of metal begin to take the place of wood in lathe construction. Henry Maudslay (1771-1831) did more than any other man to develop the engineer's self-acting lathe in regard to its essential mechanism, but it was, like its immediate successors for fifty years after, a skeleton-like, inefficient weakling by comparison with the lathes of the present time. Broad Types. — A ready appreciation of the broad differences in lathe types may be obtained by considering the differences in the great groups of work on which lathes are designed to operate. Castings and forgings that are turned in lathes vary not only in size, but also in relative dimensions. Thus a long piece of driving shafting, or a railway axle, is very differently proportioned in length and diameter from a railway wheel or a wheel tire. Further, while the shaft has to be turned only, the wheel or the tire has to be turned and bored. Here then we have the first cardinal distinction between lathes, viz. those admitting work between centres (fig. 29) and face and boring lathes. In the first the piece of work is pivoted and driven between the centres of head-stock and tail-stock or loose poppet; in the second, it is held and gripped only by the dogs or 22 TOOL [LATHES jaws of a face-plate, on the head-stock spindle, the loose poppet being omitted. These, however, are broad types only, since proportions of length to diameter differ, and with them lathe designs are modified whenever there is a sufficient amount of work of one class to justify the laying down of a special machine or machines to deal with it. Then further, we have dupli- cate designs, in which, for example, provision is made in one lathe for turning two or three long shafts simultane- ously, or for turning and boring two wheels or tires at once. Further, the position of the axis of a face lathe need not be horizontal, as is necessary when the turning of long pieces has to be done between centres. There are obvious advantages in arranging it vertically, the princi- pal being that castings and forgings can be more easily set and secured to a horizontal chuck than to one the face of which lies vertically. The chuck is also better sup- ported, and higher rates of turning are practicable. In recent years these vertical lathes or vertical turning and • boring mills (fig. 30) have been greatly increasing in num- bers; they also occur in several designs to suit either general or special duties, some of them being used for boring only, as chucking lathes. Some are of immense size, capable of boring the field magnets of electric generators 40 ft. in diameter. Standard Lathes. — But for doing what is termed the general work of the engineer's turnery, the stan- dard lathes (fig. 29) predominate, i.e. self-acting, sliding and surfacing lathes with headstock, loose poppet and slide-rest, centres, face plates and chucks, and an equip- ment by which long pieces are turned, either between centres or on the face chucks, and bored. One of the greatest objections to the employment of these standard types of lathes for indiscriminate duty is due to the limited height of the centres or axis of the head- stock, above the face of the bed. This is met generally by providing a gap or deep recess in the bed next the fast headstock, deep enough to take face work of large diameter. The device is very old and very common, but when the volume of work warrants the employment of separate lathes for face-work and for that done between centres it is better to have them. Screw-cutting.^ — A most important section of the work of the engineer's turnery is that of cutting screws (see SCREW). This has resulted in differentiation fully as great as that existing between centres and face-work. The slide-rest was designed with this object, though it is also used for plain turning. The standard " self- acting sliding, surfacing and screw-cutting lathe " is essentially the standard turning lathe, with the addi- tion of the screw-cutting mechanism. This includes a master screw — the lead or guide screw, which is gripped with a clasp nut, fastened to the travelling carriage of the slide-rest. The lead-screw is connected to the headstock spindle by change wheels, which are the variables through which the relative rates of move- ment of the spindle and the lead-screw, and therefore of the screw-cutting tool, held and traversed in the slide-rest, are effected. By this beautiful piece of mechanism a guide screw, the pitch of which is per- manent, is made to cut screw-threads of an almost infinite number of possible pitches, both in whole and fractional numbers, by virtue of rearrangements of the variables, the change wheels. The objection to this method is that the trains of change wheels have to be recalculated and rearranged as often as a screw of a different pitch has to be cut, an operation which takes some little time. To avoid this, the nest or cluster system of gears has been largely adopted, its most successful embodiment being in the Hendey- Norton lathe. Here all the change wheels are arranged in a series permanently on one shaft underneath the headstock, and any one of them is put into engagement by a sliding pinion operated by the simple movement of a lever. Thus the lead-screw is driven at different rates without removing any wheel from its spindle. This has been extensively applied to both small and large lathes. But a moment's thought will show that even this device is too cumbrous when large numbers of small screws are required. There is, for example, little in common between the screw, say of 5 or 6 ft. in length, for a massive penstock or valve, and J-in. bolts, or the small screws required in thousands for electrical fittings. Clearly while the self-acting screw-cutting lathe is the best possible machine to use for the first it is unsuitable for the last. So here at once, from the point of view of screw cutting only, an important diver- gence takes place, and one which has ultimately led to very high specialization. Small Screws. — When small screws and bolts are cut in LATHES] TOOL large quantities, the guide-screw and change wheels give place to other devices, one of which involves the use of a separate master-screw for every different pitch, the other that of encircling cutting in- struments or dies. The first are represented by the chasing lathe, the second by the screwing lathes and automatics. Though the principles of operation are thus stated in brief, the details in design are most extensive and varied. In a chasing lathe the master-screw or hob, which may be either at the rear of the headstock or in front of the slide-rest, receives a hollow clasp-nut or a half-nut, or a star-nut containing several pitches, which, partaking of the traverse movement of the screw- thread, imparts the same horizontal movement to the cutting tool. The latter is sometimes carried in a hinged holder, sometimes in a common slide-rest. The attendant throws it into engagement at the beginning of a traverse, and out when completed, and also this is an economical system, but in others not. It cannot be considered so when bolts, screws and allied forms are of small dimensions. Hollow Mandrel Lathes. — It has been the growing practice since the last decade of the igth century to produce short articles, re- quired in large quantities, from a long bar. This involves making the lathe with a hollow mandrel; that is, the mandrel of the head- stock has a hole drilled right through it, large enough to permit of the passage through it of the largest bar which the class of work requires. Thus, if the largest section of the finished pieces should require a bar of ij in. diameter, the hole in the mandrel would be made if in. Then the bar, inserted from the rear-end, is gripped by a chuck or collet at the front, the operations of turning, screwing and cutting off done, and the bar then thrust farther through to the exact length for the next set of identical operations to be FIG. 30. — Boring and Turning Mill, vertical lathe. (Webster Bennett, Ltd., Coventry.) A, Table, running with stem in vertical bearing. B, Frame of machine. C, Driving cones. D, Handle giving the choice of two rates, through concealed sliding gears, shown dotted. E, Bevel-gears driving up to pinion gearing with ring of teeth on the table. F, Saddle moved on cross-rail G. changes the hobs for threads of different sections. The screwed stays cf locomotive fire-boxes are almost invariably cut on chasing lathes of this class. In the screwing machines the thread is cut with dies, which encircle the rotating bar; or alternatively the dies rotate round a fixed pipe, and generally the angular lead or advance of the thread draws the dies' along. These dies differ in no essentials from similar tools operated by a hand lever at the bench. There are many modifications of these lathes, because the work is so highly special- ized that they are seldom used for anything except the work of cutting screws varying but little in dimensions. Such being the case they can hardly be classed as lathes, and are often termed screwing machines, because no provision exists for preliminary turning work, which is then done elsewhere, the task of turning and threading being divided between two lathes. In some cases H, Vertical slide, carrying turret J. K, Screw feeding F across. L, Splined shaft connecting to H for feeding the latter up or down. M, M, Worm-gears throwing out clutches N, N at predeter- mined points. O, Cone pulley belted up to P, for driving the feeds of saddle and down-slide. performed, and so on. This mechanism is termed a wire feed, because the first lathes which were built of this type only operated on large wires; the heavy bar lathes have been subsequently developed from it. In the more advanced types of lathes this feeding through the hollow spindle does not require the intervention of the attendant, but is performed automatically. The amount of preliminary work which has to be done upon a portion of a bar before it is ready for screwing varies. The simplest object is a stud, which is a parallel piece screwed up from each end. A bolt is a screw with a head of hexagonal, square or circular form, and the production of this involves turning the shank and shoulder and imparting convexity to the end, as well as screwing. But screw-threads have often to be cut on objects which are not primarily bolts, but which are spindles of various kinds used on mechanisms and machine tools, and in which reductions in the form TOOL [LATHES of steps have to be made, and recesses, or flanges, or other features produced. Out of the demands for this more complicated work, as well as for plain bolts and studs, has arisen the great group of turret or capstan lathes (fig. 31) and the automatics or automatic screw machines which are a high development of the turret lathes. Turret Lathes. — The turret or capstan (fig. 32) is a device for grip- ping as many separate tools as there are distinct operations to be performed on a piece of work; the number ranges from four to as many as twenty in some highly elaborated machines, but five or six is the usual number of holes. These tools are brought round FIG. 31. — Turret, Lathe. _ (Webster & Bennett, Ltd., Coventry.) A, B, C, D, E, F, H, J, K, M, Bed. Waste oil tray. Headstock. Hollow mandrel. Cones keyed to D. Split tapered close-in chuck, actuated by tube G. Toggle dogs which push G. Coned collar acting on H. Handle to slide / through sleeve on bar L. Rack slid on release of chuck, moving bearing /V lorward. 0, P, ft 5, T, V, Bearing to feed the work through mandrel (constituting the wire or bar feed). A collar is clamped on the work, and is pushed by the bearing N at each time of feeding. Cross-slide. Hand-wheel operating screw to travel 0. Turret-slide. Cross-handle moving Q to and fro. Turret or capstan. U, Sets of fast and loose pulleys, for open and crossed belts. Cone belted down to E on lathe. I FIG. 32.— Plan of Set of Turret Tools. (A. Herbert, Ltd.) A, B, C, Turret. Tool for first operation or chucking. Cutting tools for second operation, starting or point- ing. D, Box tool carrying two cutters for third operation, rough turning. E, Similar tool for fourth opera- tion, finish turning. F, Screwing tools in head for final operation of screwing. in due succession, each one doing its little share of work, until the cycle of operations required to produce the object is complete, the cycle including such operations as turning and screwing, rough- ing and finishing cuts, drilling and boring. Severance of the finished piece is generally done by a tool or tools held by a cross-slide between the headstpck and turret, so termed because its movements take place at right angles with the axis of the machine. This also often performs the duty of " forming," by which is meant the shap- ing of the exterior portion of an object of irregular outline, by a tool the edge of which is an exact counterpart of the profile required. The exterior of a cycle hub is shaped thus, as also are numerous handles and other objects involving various curves and shoulders, &c. The tool is fed perpendicularly to the axis of the rotat- ing work and completes outlines at once: if this were done in ordinary lathes much tedious manipulation of separate tools would be involved. Automatics. — But the marvel of the modern automatics (fig. 33) lies in the mechanism by which the cycle of operations is rendered absolutely independent of attendance, beyond the first adjustments and the insertion of a fresh bar as often as the previous one becomes used up. The movements of the rotating turret and of the cross- slide, and the feeding of the bar through the hollow spindle, take place within a second, at the conclusion of the operation preceding. These movements are effected by a set of mechanism independent of that by which the headstock spindle is rotated, viz. by cams or cam drums on a horizontal cam shaft, or other equivalent device, differing much in arrangement, but not principle. Move- ments are hastened or retarded, or pauses of some moments may ensue, according to the cam arrangements devised, which of course have to be varied for pieces of different proportions and dimensions. But when the machines with their tools are once set up, they will run for days or weeks, repeating precisely the same cycle of opera- tions; they are self-lubricating, and only require to be fed with fresh lengths of bar and to have their tools resharpened occasionally. Of these automatics alone there are something like a dozen distinct types, some with their turrets vertical, others horizontal. Not only so but the use of a single spindle is not always deemed suffi- ciently economical, and some of these designs now have two, three and four separate work spindles grouped in one head. LATHES] TOOL Specialized Lathes. — Outside of these main types of lathes there are a large number which do not admit of group classification. They are designed for special duties, and only a representative list can be given. Lathes for turning tapered work form a limited FIG. 33. — Automatic Lathe or Screw Machine. (A. Herbert, Ltd.) A, Main body. B, Waste oil tray. C, Headstock. D, Wire-feed tube. E, Slide for closing chuck. F, Shaft for ditto. G, Feed-slide. H, Piece of work. J, Turret wich box tools. K, Turret slide. L, Saddle for ditto, adjustable along bed. M, Screw Tor locating adjustable slide. N, Cut-off and forming cross- slide. O, 0, Back and front tool-holders on slide. P, Cam shaft. Q, Cam drum for operating chuck. R, Cam drum for operating turret. S, Cam disk for actuating cross-slide. a, a, a, Cams for actuating chuck movements through pins b, b. The cam which re- turns D is adjustable but is not in view. c, Feeding cam for turret. d,y means of cams or equivalent devices. Each type of chuck occurs in a large range of dimensions to suit lathes of all centres, besides which every lathe includes several chucks, large and small, in its equip- ment. The range of dia- meters which can be taken by any one chuck is limited, though the jaws are made with steps, in addition to the range afforded by the ope- rating screws. The " Taylor " spiral chucks (fig. 41) differ essentially from the scroll types in having the actuating threads set spirally on the sloping interior of a cone. The result is that the outward pressure of each jaw is received behind the body, because the spiral rises up at the back. In the ordinary scroll chucks the pressure is taken only at the bottom of each jaw, and the tendency to tilt and pull the teeth out of shape is very noticeable. The spiral, moreover, enables a stronger form of tooth to be used, together with a finer pitch of threads, so that the wearing area can be increased. The foregoing may be termed the standard chucks. But in addition there are large numbers for dealing with special classes of work. Brass finishers have several. Most of the hollow spindle lathes and automatics have draw-in or push-out chucks, in which the jaws are operated simultaneously by the conical bore of the encircling nose, so that their action is instantaneous and self-centring. They are either operated by hand, as in fig. 31, or automatically, as in fig. 33. There is also a large group used for drills and reamers — the drill chucks employed in lathes as well as in drilling machines. II. — RECIPROCATING MACHINE TOOLS This is the only convenient head under which to group three great classes of machine tools which possess the feature of reciprocation in common. It includes the planing, shaping and slotting machines. The feature of reciproca- tion is that the cutting tool is operative only in one direction; that is, it cuts during one stroke or movement and is idle during the return stroke. It is, therefore, in precisely the same condition as a hand tool such as a chisel, a carpenter's plane or a hand saw. We shall return again to this feature of an idle stroke and discuss the devices that exist to avoid it. Planing Machines. — In the standard planer for general shop purposes (fig. 42) the piece of work to be operated on is attached to a horizontal o table moving to and fro on a rigid bed, and passing under- neath the fixed cutting tool. The tool is gripped in a box having certain neccssary'ad- justments and movements, so that the tool can be carried or fed transversely across the work, or at right angles with the direction of its travel, to take successive cuts, and also downwards or in a vertical direction. The tool-box is carried on a cross-slide which has capacity for several feet of vertical adjustment on up- right members to suit work of varying depths. These up-(j , rights or housings are bolted to the sides of the bed, and the whole framing is so rigidly designed that no perceptible tremor or yielding takes place under the heaviest duty im- posed by the stress of cutting. liv •s 0 3 ess oj C oj Z rt-C 1) .-BC 3«>£^ aji a T ; 3*2 tj"ft3 "2 5 1 | .H 8 ill? 1 hll ? J C 4-. .0 r-=^so> U1 CO J (I _ 'i .......... J.4....4J ----- .-... ',.,,,~, . PH 0-i Cu r_/) ,2° .,. !fJJt.& 28 TOOL [RECIPROCATING MACHINES Moreover, after the required adjustments have been made and the machine started, the travel and the return of the work- table and the feeding of the tool across the surface are performed by self-acting mechanism actuated by the reciprocations of the table itself, the table being driven from the belt pulleys. To such a design there are objections, which, though their im- portance has often been exaggerated, are yet real. First, the cross- rail and housings make a rigid enclosure over the table, which sometimes prevents the admission of a piece that is too large to pass under the cross-rail or between the housings. Out of this FIG. 43. — 2O-in. Side Planing Machine. A, Bed. B, B, Feet. C, C, Work tables adjustable vertically on the faces D, D, by means of screws E, E, from handles F, F, through bevel gears. (G. Richards & Co., Ltd., Manchester.) G, Tool-box on travelling arm H, travelled by fast and loose pulleys J for cutting, and by pulleys K for quick return. L, Feed-rod with adj ustable dogs a, a, for effecting reversals through the belt forks b, b. M, Brickwork pit to receive deep objects. FIG. 44. — 8-in. Shaping Machine. A, Base. B, Work-table, having vertical movement on carriage C, which has horizontal movement along the face of A, D, Screw for effecting vertical movement, by handle E and bevel gears. F, Screw for operating longitudinal movement with feed by hand or power. G, Tool ram. H, Tool-box. a, Worm-gear for setting tool-holder at an angle. b, Crank handle spindle for operating ditto. c, Handle for actuating down feed of tool. (Cunliffe & Croom, Ltd., Manchester.) J, Driving cone pulley actuating pinion d, disk wheel e, with slotted disk, and adjustable nut moving in the slot of the crank /, which actuates the lever g, connected to the tool ram G, the motion constituting the Whitworth quick return; g is pivoted to a block which is adjustable along a slot in G, and the clamping of this block in the slot regulates the position of the ram G, to suit the position of the work on the table. k, Feed disk driven by small gears from cone pulley. j, Pawl driven from disk through levers at various rates, and con- trolling the amount of rotation of the feed screw F. K, Conical mandrel for circular shaping, driven by worm and wheel /. RECIPROCATING MACHINES] TOOL 29 objection has arisen a new design, the side planer (fig. 43), in which the tool-box is carried by an arm movable along a fixed bed or base, and overhanging the work, which is fastened to the side of the base, or on angle brackets, or in a deep pit alongside. Here the important difference is that the work is not traversed under the tool as in the ordinary planer, but the tool moves over the work. But an evil results, due to the overhang of the tool arm, which being a cantilever supported at one end only is not so rigid when cutting as the cross-rail of the ordinary machine, supported at both ends on housings. The same idea is embodied in machines built in other respects on the reciprocating table model. Sometimes one housing is omitted, and the tool arm is carried on the other, being therefore unsupported at one end. Sometimes a housing is made to be removable at pleasure, to be temporarily taken away only when a piece of work of unusual dimensions has to be fixed on the table. Another objection to the common planer is this. It seems unmechanical in this machine to reciprocate a heavy table and piece of work which often weighs several tons, and let the tool and its holder of a few hundredweights only remain stationary. The mere reversal of the table absorbs much greater horse-power there is no limitation whatever to the length of the work, since it may extend to any distance beyond the base-plate. Shaping Machines. — The shaping machine (fig. 44) does for com- paratively small pieces that which the planer does for long ones. It came later in time than the planer, being one of James Nasmyth's inventions, and beyond the fact that it has a reciprocating non- cutting return stroke it bears no resemblance to the older machine. Its design is briefly as follows: The piece of work to be shaped is attached to the top, or one of the vertical side faces, of a right- angled bracket or brackets. These are carried upon the face of a main standard and are adjustable thereon in horizontal and vertical directions. In small machines the ram or reciprocating arm (see fig. 44, G) slides in fixed guides on the top of the pillar, and the necessary side traverse is imparted to the work table B. To the top of the main standard, in one design, a carriage is fitted with hori- zontal traverse to cover the whole breadth, within the capacity of the machine, of any work to be operated on. In the largest machines two standards support a long bed, on which the carriage, with its ram, traverses past the work. These machines are frequently made double-headed, that is carriages, rams and work tables are dupli- FIG. 45. — 12-in. Stroke Slotting Machine A, Main framing. B, Driving cone. C, D, Gears driven by cones. E, Shaft of L. F, Tool ram driven from shaft E through disk G and rod H , with quick return mechanism D. J, Counter-balance lever to ram. than the actual work of cutting. Hence a strong case is often stated for the abandonment of the common practice. But, on the other hand, the centre of gravity of the moving table and work lies low down, while when the cross-rail and housings with the cut- ting tool are travelled and reversed, their centre of gravity is high, and great precautions have to be taken to ensure steadiness of movement. Several planers are made thus, but they are nearly all of extremely massive type — the pit planers. The device is seldom applied to those of small and medium dimensions. But there is a great group of planers in which the work is always fixed, the tools travelling. These are the wall planers, vertical planers or wall creepers, used chiefly by marine engine builders. They are necessary, because many of the castings and forgings are too massive to be put on the tables of the largest standard machines. They are therefore laid on the base-plate of the wall planer, and the tool-box travels up and down a tall pillar bolted to the wall or standing independently, and so makes vertical cutting strokes. In some designs horizontal strokes are provided for, or either vertical or horizontal as required. Here, as in the side planer, (Greenwood & Batley, Ltd., Leeds.) K, Flywheel. L, Driving-disk. M, N, Feed levers and shaft operated from disk, actuating linear movements of slides 0, P, and circular movement of table E, through gears R. ed motions to table. T, Countershaft. cated, and the operator can set one piece of work while the other is being shaped. In all cases the movement of the reciprocating arm, to the outer end of which the tool is attached, takes place in a direction transversely to the direction of movement of the carriage, and the tool receives no support beyond that which it receives from the arm which overhangs the work. Hence the shaper labours under the same disadvantages as the side planer — it cannot operate over a great breadth. A shaper with a 24-in. stroke is one of large capacity, 16 in. being an average limit. Although the non-cutting stroke exists, as in the planer, the objection due to the mass of a reciprocating table does not exist, so that the problem does not assume the same magnitude as in the planer. The weak point in the shaper is the overhang of the arm, which renders it liable to spring, and renders heavy cutting difficult. Recently a novel design has been introduced to avoid this, the draw-cut shaper, in which the cutting is done on the inward or return stroke, instead of on the outward one. Slotting Machines. — In the slotting machine (fig. 45) the cutting takes place vertically and there is a lost return stroke. All the TOOL [DRILLING MACHINES necessary movements save the simple reciprocating stroke are im- parted to the compound table on which the work is carried. These include two linear movements at right angles with each other and a circular motion capable of making a complete circle. Frequently a tilting adjustment is included to permit of slotting at an angle. The slotting machine has the disadvantage of an arm unsupported beyond the guides in which it moves. But the compound movements of the table permit of the production of shapes which cannot be done on planers and shapers, as circular parts and circular arcs, in com- bination with straight portions. Narrow key grooves in the bores of wheels are also readily cut, the wheels lying on the horizontal table, which would only be possible on planer and shaper by the use of awkward angle brackets, and of specially projecting tools. Quick return in planers is accomplished by having two distinct sets of gearing — a slow set for cutting and a quick train for return, each operated from the same group of driving pulleys. The return travel is thus accomplished usually three, often four, times more quickly than the forward rate; sometimes even higher rates are arranged for. In the shaper and slotter such acceleration is not practicable, a rate of two to one being about the limit, and this is obtained not by gears, but by the slotted crank, the Whitworth return, on shapers and slotters, or by elliptical toothed wheels on slotters. The small machines are generally unprovided with this acceleration. The double-cutting device seems at first sight the best solution, and it is adopted on a number of machines, though still in a great minority. The pioneer device of this kind, the rotating tool-box of Whitworth, simply turns the tool round through an angle of 180° at the termination of each stroke, the movement being self-acting. In some later designs, instead of the box being rotated to reverse the tool, two tools are used set back to back, and the one that is not cutting is relieved for the time being, that is tilted to clear the work. Neither of these tools will plane up to a shoulder as will the ordinary ones. Allied Machines. — The re- ciprocation of the tool or the work, generally the former, is adopted in several machines besides the standard types named. The plate-edge planer is used by platers and boiler makers. It is a side planer, the plates being bolted to a bed, and the tool traversing and cutting on one or both strokes. Provision is often included for planing edges at right angles. The key-seaters are a special type, designed the speed of the tools, and this controls the design of the driving and feeding mechanism. Another important difference is that between drilling or boring one or more holes simultaneously. With few exceptions the tool rotates and the work is stationary. The notable exceptions are the vertical boring lathes already mentioned. Obviously the demands made upon drilling machines are nearly as varied as those on lathes. There is little in common between the machines which are serviceable for the odd jobs done in the general shop and those which are required for the repetitive work of the shops which handle specialities. Provision often has to be made for drilling simultaneously several holes at certain centres or holes at various angles or to definite depths, while the mass of the spindles of the heavier machines renders counter-balancing essential. Bench Machines are the simplest and smallest of the group. They are operated either by hand or by power. In the power machines generally, except in the smallest, the drill is also fed downwards by power, by means of toothed gears. The upper part of the drilling ~~\ A, Base-plate. B, Pillar. C, Radial arm. D, Spindle carriage. E, Drill spindle. F, Main driving cones driving vertical shaft G through mitre-gears H. J, Spur-wheels, driving from C to vertical shaft K. L, Mitre-wheels, driving from K to horizontal shaft M, having its bearings in the radial arm. N, Nest of mitre-wheels driving the wheel spindle E from M. O, Feed-gears to drill spindle, actuated by hand- wheel P or worm-gears Q. FIG. 46.— Pillar Radial Drilling Machine, 5 ft. radius. R, R, Feed cones driving from shaft M to worm- shaft S, for self-acting feed of drill. T, Change-speed gears. U, Hand-wheel for racking carriage D along radial arm C. V, Clutch and lever for reversing direction of rotation of spindle. W, Worm-gear for turning pillar B. d, Handle for turning worm. X, Screw for adjusting the height of the radial arm. Y, Gears for actuating ditto from shaft C. i, Rod with handle for operating elevating gear. mainly to remove the work of cutting key grooves in the bores of wheels and pulleys from the slotting machine. The work is fixed on a table and the keyway cutting tool is drawn downwards through the bore, with several resulting practical advantages. Many planing machines are portable so that they may be fixed upon very massive work. Several gear-wheel cutting machines embody the reciprocating tool. III. — DRILLING AND BORING MACHINES The strict distinction between the operations of drilling and boring is that the first initiates a hole, while the second enlarges one already existing. But the terms are used with some latitude. A combined drilling and boring machine is one which has provision for both functions. But when holes are of large dimensions the drilling machine is useless because the proportions and gears are unsuitable. A 6-in. drill is unusually large, but holes are bored up to 30 ft. or more in diameter. Types of Machines. — The distinction between machines with vertical and horizontal spindles is not vital, but of convenience only. 1 he principal controlling element in design is the mass of the work, which often determines whether it or the machine shall be adjusted relatively to each other. Also the dimensions of a hole determine spindle being threaded is turned by an encircling spur-wheel, operated very slowly by a pinion and hand-wheel by the right hand of the attendant, the movement being made independent of the rotation of the spindle. A rack sleeve encircling the spindle is also common. In the power machines gears are also used, but a belt on small cone pulleys drives from the main cone shaft at variable speeds. From three to four drilling and feeding speeds are provided for by the respective cone pulleys. Work is held on or bolted to a circular table, which may have provision for vertical adjustment to suit pieces of work of different depths, and which can usually be swung aside out of the way to permit of deep pieces of work being introduced, resting on the floor or on blocking. Watt Machines. — One group of these machines resembles the bench machines in general design, but they are made to bolt to a wall instead of on a bench. Their value lies in the facilities which they afford for drilling large pieces of work lying on the floor a on block- ing, which could not go on the tables of the bench machines. Some- times a compound work-table is fastened to the floor beneath; and several machines also are ranged in line, by means of which long plates, angles, boilers or castings may be brought under the simul- taneous action of the group of machines. Another type is the radial arm machine, with or without a table beneath. In each case DRILLING MACHINES] TOOL an advantage gained is that a supporting pillar or standard is not required, its place being taken by the wall. Self-contained Pillar Machines include a large number having the above-named feature in common. In the older and less valuable types the framework is rigid, and the driving and feeding are by belt cones. But the machines being mostly of larger capacities than those just noted, back-gears similar to those of lathes are generally in- troduced. The spindles also are usually counterbalanced. The machine framing is bolted to a bed-plate. A circular work-table may or may not be included. When it is, provision is made for elevating the table by gears, and also for swinging it aside when deep work has to be put on the base-plate. Radial Arm Machines, — In these (fig. 46) the drilling mechanism is carried on a radial arm which is pivoted to the pillar with the object of moving the drill over the work, when the latter is too massive to permit of convenient adjustment under the drill. The driving takes place through shafts at right angles, from a horizontal shaft carrying the cones and back-geared to a vertical one, thence to a horizontal one along the radial arm, whence the vertical drilling makers and platers. In others the spindles are adjustable in circles of varying radii, as in those employed for drilling the bolt holes in pipe flanges. In many of these the spindles are horizontal. Some very special multiple-spindle machines have the spindles at different angles, horizontal and vertical, or at angles. Universal Machines are a particular form of the pillar type in which the spindle is horizontal, moving with its carriage on a pillar capable of traversing horizontally along a bed; the carriage has ver- tical adjustment on its pillar and so commands the whole of the face of a large piece of work bolted to a low bed-plate adjacent to the machine. The term " universal " signifies that the machine com- bines provision for drilling, boring, tapping screws and inserting screw studs, facing and in some cases milling. The power required for boring is obtained by double and treble gears. These machines are used largely in marine engine works, where very massive castings and forgings must be operated on with their faces set vertically. Boring Machines. — Many machines are classified as suitable for drilling and boring. That simply means that provision is made on FIG. 47. — Lincoln Milling Machine. A, Bed. B, B, Legs. C, Upright. D, Spindle or arbor. E, Headstock, carrying bearings for spindle D. F, Tailstock, carrying point centre for tail end of spindle. G, Hand-wheel for effecting adjustment in height of headstock, through bevel-gears H and screw ./. K, Cross-bar connecting head- and tail-stocks, and ensuring equal vertical adjustment of the spindle bearings from the screw /. spindle is driven. The latter has its bearings in a carriage which can be traversed along the arm for adjustment of radius. The spindle is counterbalanced. Hand as well as power adjustments are included. In the work-tables of radial and rigid machines there is a great diversity, so that work can be set on top, or at the sides, or at an angle, or on compound tables, so covering all the requirements of practice. Sensitive Machines have developed greatly and have superseded many of the older, slower designs. The occasion for their use lies in the drilling of small holes, ranging up to about an inch in diameter. They are belt-driven, without back-gears, and usually without bevel-gears to change the direction of motion. The feed is by lever moving a rack sleeve. A slender pillar with a foot supports the entire mechanism, and the work-table, with a range of vertical adjustment. Multiple Spindle Machines. — Many of the sensitive machines are fitted with two, three or more spindles operated in unison with a belt common to all. In other machines the multiple spindles are capable of adjustment for centres, as in the machines used by boiler (John Holroyd & Co., Ltd., Milnrow.) L, Speed cones for driving spindle, through pinion M and wheel N. 0, Frame, carrying the bearings for the cone pulley L, and pivoted to the bed at a, and to the headstock E. This device keeps the gears M and N in engagement in all variations in the height of the spindle D. P, Q, Cones for driving the table R through worm-gears S, T, and spurs U, V, to the table screw. W, Stop for automatic knock-off to feed. X, Hand-wheel for turning the same screw through worm-gears Y, Z. a drilling machine for boring holes of moderate size, say up to 8 or 10 in., by double and treble back-gears. But the real boring machine is of a different type. In the horizontal machines a splined bar actuated by suitable gears carries a boring head which holds the cutters, which head is both rotated with, and traversed or fed along the bar. The work to be bored is fixed on a table which has pro- vision for vertical adjustment to suit work of different dimensions. The boring-bar is supported at both ends. In the case of the largest work the boring-bar is preferably set with its axis vertically, and the framing of the machine is arch-like. The bar is carried in a bearing at the crown of the arch and driven and fed there by suit- able gears, while the other end of the bar rotates in the table which forms the base of the machine. Some boring machines for small engine cylinders and pump barrels have no bar proper, but a long boring spindle carrying cutters at the further end is supported along its entire length in a long stiff boss projecting from the headstock of the machine — the snout machine. The work is bolted on a carriage which slides along a bed similar to a lathe bed. Many of these machines have two bars for boring two cylinders simultaneously. TOOL [MILLING MACHINES IV. — MILLING MACHINES In milling machines rotary saw-like cutters are employed. To a certain extent these and some gear-cutting machines overlap because they have points in common. Many gear-wheel teeth are produced by rotary cutters on milling machines. In many machines designed for gear cutting only, rotary cutters alone are used. For this reason the two classes of machines are conveniently and naturally grouped together, notwithstanding that a large and increasing group of gear- cutting machines operate with reciprocating tools. The French engineer, Jacques de Vaucanson (1709-1782), is credited with having made the first milling cutter. The first very crude milling machine was made in 1818 at a gun factory in Connecti- cut. To-day the practice of milling ranks as of equal economic value with that of any other department of the machine shop, and the varieties of milling machines made are as highly differentiated as are those of any other group. An apparent incongruity which is rather striking is the relative disproportion between the mass of these machines and the small dimensions of the cutters. The failures of many of the early machines were largely due to a lack of appreciation of the intensity of the stresses involved in milling. A single-edged cutting tool has generally a very narrow edge in operation. Milling cutters are as a rule very wide by comparison, and several teeth in deep cuts are often in simultaneous operation. The result is that the machine spindle and the arbor or tool mandrel are subjected to severe stress, the cutter tends to spring away from the surface being cut, and if the framings are of light proportions they vibrate, and in- accuracy and chatter result. Even with the very stiff machines now made it is not possible to produce such accurate results on wide sur- faces as with the planer using a narrow-edged tool. Because of this great resistance and stress, cutters of over about an inch in width are always made with the teeth arranged spirally, and wide cutters which are intended for roughing down to compete with the planer always have either inserted cutters or staggered teeth. Hence the rotary cutter type of machine has not been able to displace the planing machine in wide work when great accuracy is essential. Its place lies in other spheres, in some of which its position is unassailable. Nearly all pieces of small and medium dimensions are machined as well by milling as by single-edged tools. All pieces which have more than one face to be operated on are done better in the milling machine than elsewhere. All pieces which have profiled outlines involving combinations of curves and plane faces can generally only be pro- duced economically by milling. Nearly all work that involves equal divisions, or pitchings, as in the manufacture of the cutters themselves, or spiral cutting, or the teeth of gear-wheels when pro- duced by rotary cutters, must be done in milling machines. Beyond these a large quantity of work lies on the border-line, where the choice between milling and planing, shaping, slotting, &c., is a matter for individual judgment and experience. It is a matter for some sur- prise that round the little milling cutter so many designs of machines have been built, varying from each other in the position of the tool spindles, in their number, and in the means adopted for actuating them and the tables which carry the work. A very early type of milling machine, which remains extremely popular, was the Lincoln. It was designed, as were all the early machines, for the small arms factories in the United States. The necessity for all the similar parts of pistols and rifles being inter- changeable, has had the paramount influence in the development of the milling machine. In the Lincoln machine as now made (fig. 47) the work is attached to a table, or to a vice on the table, which has horizontal and cross traverse movements on a bed, but no capacity for vertical adjustment. The cutter is held and rotated on an arbor driven from a headstock pulley, and supported on a tail- stock centre at the other end, with capacity for a good range of ver- tical adjustment. This is necessary both to admit pieces of work of different depths or thicknesses between the table and the cutter, and to regulate the depth of cutting (vertical feed). Around this general design numerous machines small and large, with many variations in detail, are built. But the essential feature is the ver- tical movement of the spindle and cutter, the support of the arbor (cutter spindle) at both ends, and the rigidity afforded by the bed which supports head- and tail-stock and table. The pillar and knee machines form another group which divides favour about equally with the Lincoln, the design being nearly of an opposite character. The vertical movements for setting and feed are imparted to the work, which in this case is carried on a bracket or knee that slides on the face of the pillar which supports the headstock. Travelling and transverse movements are imparted to the table slides. The cutter arbor may or may not be supported away from the headstock by an arched overhanging arm. None of these machines is of large dimensions. They are made in two leading designs — the plain and the universal. The first embodies rectangular relations only, the second is a marvellous instrument both in its range of movements and fine degree of precision. The first machine of this kind was exhibited at Paris in 1867. The design permits the cutting of spiral grooves, the angle of which is embodied in the adjustment of a swivelling table and of a headstock thereon (universal or spiral head). The latter embodies change-gears like a screw-cutting lathe and worm-gear for turning the head, in com- bination with an index or dividing plate having several circles of holes, which by the insertion of an index peg permit of the work spindle being locked during a cut. The combinations possible with the division plate and worm-gear number hundreds. The head also has angular adjustments in the vertical direction, so that tapered work can be done as well as parallel. The result is that there is nothing in the range of spiral or parallel milling, or tapered work or spur or bevel-gear cutting, or cutter making, that cannot be done on this type of machine, and the_ accuracy of the results of equal divisions of pitch and angle of spiral do not depend on the human element, but are embodied in the mechanism. FIG. 48. — Vertical Spindle Milling Machine. (James Archdale & Co., Ltd.) A, Main framing. B, Knee. C, Spindle, having its vertical position capable of adjustment by the sliding of D on A. E, Driving cone, belt driving over guide pulleys F to spindle pulley G. H, Enclosed gears for driving spindle by back gear. J, Hand-wheel for adjusting spindle vertically. K, K, Pulleys over which spindle is counterbalanced. L, Feed pulley, driven from counter shaft. M, Vertical feed shaft, driven from L through mitre-gears. N, Change gear box. O, Horizontal feed shaft, operating longitudinal and transverse feed of table through spiral and spur-gears. P, P, Handles for operating changes in feed speeds, nine in number. Q, Handle for reversing direction of motion of table R. S, Hand-wheel for longitudinal movement of table. T, Hand-wheel for effecting cross adjustments. V, Spiral gears indicated for effecting self-acting rotation of circular table W. X, Hand-wheel for rotation of table. Y, Hand-wheel for vertical movements of knee B on screw Z. Machines with vertical spindles (fig. 48) form another great group, the general construction of which resembles that either of the com- mon drilling machine or of the slotting machine. In many cases the horizontal position is preferable for tooling, in others the vertical, but often the matter is indifferent. For general purposes, the heavier class of work excepted, the vertical is more convenient. But apart from the fitting of a special brace to the lower end of the spindle which carries the cutter, the spindle is unsupported there and is thus liable to spring. But a brace can only be used with a milling cutter that operates by its edges, while one advantage of the vertical spindle machine is that it permits of the use of end or face cutters. One of the greatest advantages incidental to the vertical position of the spindle is that it permits of profile milling being done. One of the most tedious operations in the machine shop is the production of outlines which are not those of the regular geometric figures, as rectangles and circles, or combinations of the same. There is GEAR-CUTTING MACHINES] TOOL 33 only one way in which irregular forms can be produced cheaply and interchangeably, and that is by controlling the movements of the tool with an object of similar shape termed a "form" or " former," as in the well-known copying lathes, in the cam grinding machine, and in the forming adjuncts fitted to vertical spindle milling machines, so converting those into profiling machines. The prin- ciple and its application are alike simple. An object (the form) is made in hardened steel, having the same outlines as the object to be milled, and the slide which carries the cutter spindle has a hardened former pin or roller, which is pulled hard against the edges of the form by a suspended weight, so causing the tool to move and cut in the same path and in the same plane around the edges of the work. Here the milling machine holds a paramount place. No matter how many curves and straight portions may be combined in a piece, the machine reproduces them all faultlessly, and a hundred or a thousand others all precisely alike without any tentative corrections. Piano-millers, also termed slabbing machines, form a group that grows in value and in mass and capacity. They are a comparatively late development, becoming the chief rivals to the planing machines, for all the early milling was of a very light character. In general outlines the piano-millers closely resemble the planing machines, having bed, table, housings and cross-rail. The latter in the piano- miller carries the bearings for the cutter spindle or spindles under which the work travels and reciprocates. These spindles are ver- tical, but in some machines horizontal ones are fitted also, as in planers, so that three faces at right or other angles can be operated on simultaneously. The slabbing operations of the piano-millers do not indicate the full or even the principal utilities of these machines. To understand these it must be remembered that the cross-sections of very many parts which have to be tooled do not lie in single planes merely, but in combinations of plane surfaces, horizontal, vertical or angular. In working these on the planing machine separate settings of tools are required, and often successive settings. But milling cutters are built up in " gangs " to deal with such cases, and in this way the entire width of profile is milled at once. Horizontal faces, and vertical and angular edges and grooves, are tooled simul- taneously, with much economy in time, and the cutter profile will be accurately reproduced on numbers of separate pieces. Allied to the piano-millers are the rotary planers. They derive their name from the design of the cutters. An iron disk is pierced with holes for the insertion of a large number of separate cutters, which by the rotation of the disk produce plane surfaces. These are milling cutters, though the tools are single-edged ones, hence termed " inserted tooth mills." These are used on other machines besides the rotary planers, but the latter are massive machines built on the planer model, with but one housing or upright to carry the carriage of the cutter spindle. These machines, varied considerably in design, do good service on a class of work in which a very high degree of accuracy is not essential, as column flanges, ends of girders, feet of castings, and such like. V. — GEAR-CUTTING MACHINES The practice of cutting the teeth of gear-wheels has grown but slowly. In the gears used by engineers, those of large dimensions are numerous, and the cost of cutting these is often prohibitive, though it is unnecessary in numbers of mechanisms for which cast wheels are as suitable as the more accurately cut ones. The smallest gears for machines of precision have long been produced by cutting, but of late years the practice has been extending to include those of medium and large dimensions, a movement which has been largely favoured by the growth of electric driving, the high speeds of which make great demands on reduction and trans- mission gears. Several new types of gear-cutting machines have been designed, and specialization is still growing, until the older machines, which would, after a fashion, cut all forms of gears, are being ousted from modern establishments. The teeth of gear-wheels are produced either by rotary milling cutters or by single-edged tools (fig. 49). The advantage of the first is that the cutter used has the same sectional form as the inter- tooth space, so that the act of tooth cutting imparts the shapes without assistance from external mechanism. But this holds good only in regard to spur-wheel teeth, that is, those in which the teeth lie parallel with the axis of the wheel. The teeth of bevel-wheels, though often produced by rotary cutters, can never be formed absolutely correctly, simply because a cutter of unalterable section is employed to form the shapes which are constantly changing in dimensions along the length of the teeth (the bevel-wheel being a frustum of a cone). Hence, though fair working teeth are ob- tained in this way, they result from the practice of varying the relative angles of the cutters and wheel and removing the material in several successive operations or traverses, often followed by a little correction with the file. Although this practice is still commonly followed in bevel-wheels of small dimensions, and was at one time the only method available, the practice has been changing in favour of shaping the teeth by a process of planing with a single-edged reciprocating tool. As, however, such a tool embodies no formative section as do the milling cutters, either it or the wheel blank, or both, have to be coerced and controlled by mechanism outside the tool itself. Around this method a number of very ingenious xxvn. 2 machines have been designed, which may be broadly classed under two great groups — the form and the generating types. In the form machines a pattern tooth or form-tooth is prepared in hardened steel, usually three times as large as the actual teeth to be cut, and the movement of the mechanism which carries the wheel blank is coerced by this form, so that the tool, reciprocated by its bar, produces the same shape on the reduced dimensions of the wheel teeth. The generating machines use no pattern tooth, but the principles of the tooth formation are embodied in the mechan- ism itself. These are very interesting designs, because they not only shape the teeth without a pattern tooth, but their movements are automatically controlled. A large number of these have been brought out in recent years, their growth being due to the demand for accurate gears for motor cars, for electric driving, and for general high-class engineers' work. These are so specialized that they can only cut the one class of gear for which they are designed — the bevel-wheels, and these in only a moderate range of dimensions on a single machine of a given size. The principal bevel-gear cutting machines using forms or formers, are the Greenwood & Batley, Le Progrfes Industriel, the Bouhey (cuts helical teeth), the Oerlikon, which includes two types, the single and double cutting tools, the Gleason and the Rice. Generating machines include the Bilgram (the oldest), the Robey-Smith, the Monneret, the Warren, the Beale and the Dubosc. FIG. 49. — Gear Cutting. A, Rotary milling cutter pro- D, Action of " Fellows " cutter, ducing tooth space. planing teeth. B, Planer tool operating on tooth E, Shape of " Fellows " cutter. flank. F, Hobbing cutter. C, Planer form-tool finishing G, Tapered hob beginning worm- tooth space. wheel. H, Ditto finishing. As the difficulties of cutting bevel-wheels with rotary cutters, consequent on change of section of the teeth, dp not occur in spur- gears, there are no examples of form machines for spur-wheel cutting, and only one generating planing type of machine, the Fellows, which produces involute teeth by a hardened steel-cutting pinion, which shapes wheels having any number of teeth of the same pitch, the cutter and blank being partly rotated between each cut as they roll when in engagement. The worm-gears appropriate a different group of machines, the demands on which have become more exacting since the growth of electric driving has brought these gears into a position of greater importance than they ever occupied before. With this growth the demand for nothing less than perfect gears has developed. A perfect gear is one in which the teeth of the worm-wheel are envelopes of the worm or screw, and this form can only be produced in practice in one way — by using a cutter that is practically a serrated worm (a hob), which cuts its way into the wheel just as an actual worm might be supposed to mould the teeth of a wheel made of a plastic substance. To accomplish this the relative move- ments of the hob and the wheel blank are arranged to be precisely those of the working worm and wheel. Very few such machines are made. A practical compromise is effected by causing the hob 34 TOOL [GRINDING MACHINES both to drive and cut the blank in an ordinary machine. When worms are not produced by these methods the envelope cannot be obtained, but each tooth space is cut by an involute milling cutter set at the angle of thread in a universal machine, or else in one of the general gear-cutting machines used for spur, bevel and worm gears, and only capable of yielding really accurate results in the case of spur-wheels. The previous remarks relate only to the sectional forms of the teeth. But their pitch or distance from centre to centre requires dividing mechanism. This includes a main dividing or worm- wheel, a worm in conjunction with change gears, and a division plate for setting and locking the mechanism. The plate may have four divisions only to receive the locking lever or it may be drilled with a large number of holes in circles for an index peg. The first is adopted in the regular gear-cutters, the second on the universal milling machines which are used also for gear-cutting. In the largest number of machines this pitching has to be done by an attendant as often as one tooth is completed. But in a good number of recent machines the pitching is effected by the move- ments of the machine itself witnout human intervention. With spur-wheels the cutting proceeds until the wheel is complete, when the machine is often made to ring a bell to call attention to the fact. But in bevel-wheels only one side of the teeth all the way round can be done; the attendant must then effect the necessary settings for the other side, after which the pitchings are automatic. As a general rule only one tooth is being operated on at one time. But economy is studied in spur-gears by setting several similar wheels in line on a mandrel and cutting through a single tooth of the series at one traverse of the tool. In toothed racks the same device is adopted. Again, there are cases in which cutters are made to operate simultaneously on two, three or more adjacent teeth. Recently a generating machine of novel design has been manu- factured, the spur-wheel hobbing machine. In appearance the hob resembles that employed for cutting worm-gears, but it also generates the teeth of spur and spiral gears. The hob is a worm cut to form teeth, backed off and hardened. The section of the worm thread is that of a rack. Though it will cut worm-wheels, spiral-wheels or spur-wheels equally correctly, the method of pre- sentation varies. When cutting worm-wheels it is fed inwards per- pendicularly to the blank; when cutting spirals it is set at a suitable angle and fed across the face of the blank. The angle of the worm thread in the hob being about 2j°, it has to be set by that amount out of parallel with the plane of the gear to be cut. It is then fed down the face of the wheel blank, which is rotated so as to syn- chronize with the rotation of the worm. This is effected through change gears, which are altered for wheels having different numbers of teeth. The advantage is that of the hob over single cutters; one hob serves for all wheels of the same pitch, and each wheel is cut absolutely correct. While using a set of single cutters many wheels must have their teeth only approximately correct. VI. — GRINDING MACHINES The practice of finishing metallic surfaces by grinding, though very old, is nevertheless with regard to its rivalry with the work of the ordinary machine tools a development of the last part of the I9th century. From being a non-precision method, grinding has become the most perfect device for producing accurate results measured precisely within thousandths of an inch, ft would be rather difficult to mention any class of machine-shop work which is not now done by the grinding wheel. The most recent develop- ments are grinding out engine cylinders and grinding the lips of twist drills by automatic movements, the drills rotating constantly. There are five very broad divisions under which grinding machines may be classified, but the individual, well-defined groups or types might number a hundred. The main divisions are: (l) Machines for dealing with plane surfaces; (2) machines for plain cylindrical work, external and internal; (3) the universals, which embody movements rendering them capable of angular setting; (4) the tool grinders: and (5) the specialized machines. Most of these might be again classed under two heads, the non-precision and the precision types. The difference between these two classes is that the first does not embody provision for measuring the amount of material removed, while the second does. This distinction is a most important one. The underlying resemblances and the differences in the main designs of the groups of machines just now noted will be better understood if the essential conditions of grinding as a correc- tive process are grasped. The cardinal point is that accurate results are produced by wheels that are themselves being abraded constantly. That is not the case in steel cutting tools, or at least in but an infinitesimal degree. A steel tool will retain its edge for several hours (often for days) without the need for regrinding, Dut the particles of abrasive in an emery or other grinding wheel are being incessantly torn out and removed. A wheel in traversing along a shaft say of 3 ft. in length is smaller in diameter at the terrrujnation than at the beginning of the traverse, and therefore the shaft must be theoretically larger at one end than the other. Shafts, nevertheless, are ground parallel. The explanation is, and it lies at the basis of emery grinding, that the feed or amount removed at a single traverse is extremely minute, say a thousandth or half a thousandth of an inch. The minuteness of the feed receives compensation in the repetition and rapidity of the traverse. The wear of the wheel is reduced to a minimum and true work is produced. From this fact of the wear of grinding wheels two important results follow. One is that a traverse or lateral movement must always take place between the wheel and the piece of work being ground. This is necessary in order to prevent a mutual grooving action between the wheel and work. The other is that it is essential to provide a large range in quality of wheels, graded according to coarseness and fineness, of hardness and softness of emery to suit all the different metals and alloys. Actually about sixty grades are manufactured, but about a dozen will generally cover average shop practice. With such a choice of wheels the softest brass as well as the hardest tempered steel or case-hardened glass-like surfaces that could not possibly be cut in lathe or planer, can be ground with extreme accuracy. FIG. 50. — Universal Grinding Machine, 7 in. centres; 3 ft. 6 in. between centres. (H. W. Ward & Co., Ltd., Birmingham.) Base or body, with waste water tray round top edge, and interior fitted as cup- boards, with shelves and doors. B, Sliding table. C, Swivej table. D, Grinding wheel. E, Wheel guard. F, Wheel headstock swivelling in a horizontal plane, and having the base graduated into degrees for angular setting. G, Slide carrying headstock. H, Hand-wheel for traversing table. /, Headstock for carrying and driving work, used for chuck work or dead centre work ; the base is graduated into degrees. a, Dogs, which regulate auto- matic reversals. An internal grinding fixture, not shown, is fitted to wheel head. L, Countershaft pulley driving to wheel pulley. M, Pulley driving to cones. N, Pulley driving to work head- stock pulley. O, Belt from line shaft. P, Water pipe from pump. Q, Water guards above table. Plane surfacing machines in many cases resemble in general outlines the well-known planing machine and the vertical boring mill. The wheels traverse across the work, and they are fed vertically to precise fractional dimensions. They fill a large place in finishing plane surfaces, broad and narrow alike, and have be- come rivals to the planing and milling machines doing a similar class of work. For hardened surfaces they have no rival. Cylindrical grinders include many subdivisions to embrace external and internal surfaces, either parallel or tapered, small or GRINDING MACHINES] TOOL 35 large. In their highest development they fulfil what are termed " universal " functions (fig. 50), that is, they are capable of grinding both external and internal cylinders, plane faces, tapers, both of low and high angle, and the teeth of various kinds of tools and cutters. These machines occur in two broad types. In one the axis of the revolving wheel is traversed past- the work, which revolves but is not traversed. In the other the reverse occurs, the work traversing and the axis of the wheel with its bearings remaining stationary. Equally satisfactory results are obtained by each. In all external cylindrical grinding, when the work can be rotated, the piece being ground rotates in an opposite direction to the rotation of the wheel (fig. 51, A). In all small pieces ground internally the same procedure is adopted (fig. 51, B). Incidentally, FIG. 51. A, External cylindrical grinding. B, Internal ditto. C, External grinding when the work is fixed. D, Internal ditto. mention should be made of the fineness of the fitting required and attained in the construction of the spindles which carry the wheels for internal grinding. The perfection of fitting and of the means of adjustment for eliminating the effects of wear in the ordinary spindles for external and internal grinding is remarkable. The spindles for internal work have to revolve at rates ranging from about 6000 to 30,000 times ,in a minute, yet run so truly that the holes ground do not depart from accuracy by more than say 5^3 to rsJnnr of an inch. Yet so long as the work can be revolved no special complication of mechanism is required to ensure good results. The revolution of the wheel and the work is mutually helpful. The real difficulties arise when the work, on account of its mass or awk- wardness of shape, cannot be revolved. The principle embodied in machines designed to deal satisfactorily with such cases, though much diversified in detail, is the application of the planet device to the grinding wheels. That is, the wheel spindle rotating at a high speed, 6000 or 7000 revolutions per minute, is simultaneously carried round in a circular path, so that its axis makes about 25 or 30 revolutions per minute (fig. 51, C and D). The diameter of the path is capable of adjustment with minute precision within wide limits to suit bores of different diameters. The periphery of the grinding wheel which lies farthest from its axis of revolution sweeps round in a path -the diameter of which equals that of the bore to be ground. These machines are now used largely for grinding out the cylinders of gas and petrol engines, valve seatings, the bushed holes of coupling rods, and similar classes of work. Many of them have their spindles set horizontally, others vertically. Allied to these are a relatively small but important group of machines used for grinding the slot links of the slide-valve gear of locomotive and other engines. The slot is mounted on a pivoted bar adjusted to the same radius as the slot to be ground, and the slot is moved relatively to the wheel, so producing the required curves. In another direction much development has taken place jn the practice of grinding. The increasing use of the milling cutter has FIG. 52. A, Grinding front edges of milling cutter. B, Grinding side edges of milling cutter; a, a, Tooth rests. C, Grinding face of formed mill. been the occasion for the growth and high specialization of the cutter grinding machines. It is essential to the efficiency of such cutters that regrinding shall be done without drawing the temper, and this can only be effected by the use of an abrasive. In the early days of their use the temper had to be drawn to permit of filing and rehardening effected with its inevitable distortion. Cutter grinding machines must possess universality of movements to deal with the numerous shapes in which milling cutters are made; hence they often resemble in general outlines the universal grinding machines. But as a rule they are built on lighter models, and with a smaller range of movements, because the dimensions of cutters are generally much smaller than those of the ordinary run of engineers' work which has to be ground. Frequently a single pillar or standard suffices to carry the mechanism. In an ordinary universal tool grinder all the teeth of any form of cutter can be ground pre^sely alike (fig. 52) excepting those having irregular profiled outlines, for which a special machine, or an extra attachment to an ordinary machine, is necessary. But little of this is done, because in such cases, and in many others, the faces of the teeth are ground instead of the edge. This idea, due to the firm of Brown & Sharpe, may seem a trifle, but nevertheless to it the credit is largely due for the economies of cutter grinding. The principle is that in the " formed cutter," as it is termed, the profiles of the teeth are not struck from the axis of revolution, but from another centre (fig. 20) ; grinding the tooth faces, therefore, has no effect on the shapes of the profiles, but only lessens the tooth thicknesses. Designed originally for the cutters for the teeth of gear-wheels, it has long been applied to profiles which involve combinations of curves. The pitching of the teeth is effected by a strip of metal, or tooth rest a (fig. 52), on which each successive tooth rests and is coerced during the grinding. If teeth are of special form the traverse movement of a spiral tooth along the rest ensures the required movement. Besides the cutter grinders used for milling cutters, reamers and screwing taps, there are two other groups of tool grinders, one for twist drills o^Jry and the other for the single-edged tools used in lathe, planer, shaper and other machines. Both these in their best forms are of recent development. The machines used for grinding twist drills embody numerous designs. Hand grinding is practically abandoned, the reason being that a very minute departure from symmetry on the two cutting lips of the drill results inevitably in the production of inaccurate holes. It is essential that the two lips be alike in regard to length, angle and clearance, and these are embodied in the mechanism of the grinding machines. But formerly in all these the drill holder had to be moved by hand around its pivot, and one lip ground at a time There are now some very beautiful machines of German manufacture in which the necessary movements are all automatic, derived from the continuous rotation of a belt pulley. The drill rotates constantly, and small amounts are ground off each lip in turn until the grinding is finished. The other group for grinding single-edged tools is a very small one. The correct angles for grinding are embodied in the setting of the machine, with the great advantage that any number of similar tools can be ground all alike without skilled attendance. Lying outside these broad types of machines there is a large and growing number designed for special service. The knife-grinding group for sharpening the planer knives used in wood-working machinery is a large one. Another is that for gulleting or deepening the teeth of circular saws as they wear. Another is designed for grinding the cups and cones for the ball races of cycle wheels, and another for grinding the hardened steel balls employed in ball bearings. B C D £ FIG. 53. — Typical Grinding Wheels. A , Common disk held on spindle with washers and nuts. B, Thin disk. C, Flanged disk for grinding to shoulders. D, Bevelled disk for cutter grinding. E, F, Cupped and dished wheels for cutter grinding. G, Cup wheel for grinding on face o; diameter remains constant. Emery grinding is dependent for much of its success on a plentiful supply of water. Dry grinding, which was the original practice, is hardly employed now. The early difficulties of wet grinding were due to the want of a cementing material which would not soften under the action of water. Now wheels will run constantly without damage by water, and they are so porous that water will filter through them. Improvements in the manufacture of wheels, and the increased use of water, have concurred to render possible heavier and more rapid grinding without risk of distortion due to heating effects. In the best modern machines the provisions for water supply are a study in themselves, including a centrifugal pump, a tank, jointed piping, spraying tube, guards to protect the bearings and slides from damage, and trays to receive the waste water and conduct it back to the tank. There are two points of view from which the modern practice of grinding is now regarded — one as a corrective, the other as a TOOL [SAWING MACHINES formative process. The first is the older and is still by far the most important. The second is a later ideal towards which design and practice have been extending. As yet grinding cannot compete with the work of the single-edged tools and milling cut- ters when large quantities of material have to be removed. Just as some leading firms have been designing stiffer machines having fuller lubri- cation with a view to increase the duty of grinding wheels, the advent of the high-speed steels has given a new lease of life to the single-edged cutting tools. The rivalry now lies not with the tools of carbon temper steel, but with high- speed varieties. But as a corrective process grinding never occupied so im- portant a position as it does to-day, and its utility continues to extend. The commoner forms in which grind- ing wheels are made are shown in fig. 53. These are varied largely in dimensions, from tiny cylindrical rollers a fraction of an inch in diameter for hole grind- ing, to big wheels of 3 ft. or more in diameter. Safety mountings, two examples of which are shown in fig. 54, embody means of retaining the broken pieces of a wheel in case it bursts. Sand-blast. — The well-known erosive action of sand when driven against rocks and stones by the wind is utilized FlG 54 — Safety Devices industrially in the sand-blastapparatus, A, Grinding wheel, with the invention of B. C. Tilghman. The coned washer to retain sand. ls propelled by a current of steam broken pieces in case or *"' .an,9 bem8 delivered through a of fracture nozzle is directed against the surface of B, Cup wheel with encircling the ^ork' cutting it away by the action ring, moved backwards of .,tPe enormous number of grains as the wheel face wears. strlklng the face, each removing a very minute quantity of material. The action is very gentle, and may be modified by varying the class of sand and its velocity. Other materials, such as emery, chilled iron globules, &c., are employed for certain classes of work. _In some instances the powder is used dry, in others it is mixed with water, being then in the condition of fluid mud. The plant includes an air-compressing engine, an B air reservoir and the blast nozzle through which the air passes and propels the sand in the form of a jet. The pressures range from 8 Ib up to about 60 tb per sq. in., depending on the class of work which is done. The peculiar advantage of the sandblast lies in its adaptability to the working of irregular surfaces, which could not be touched by any other class of grinding. The blast penetrates hollows and recesses, and acts over an entire surface. There are many classes of operation done with the sand-blast, including cleaning, frosting, ornamentation, engraving and sharpening. In engineers' works a large amount of cleaning is effected upon castings, forgings, sheets and other products, either preparatory to machining or to painting, enamelling, tinning, galvanizing or plating. Cycle frames are cleaned with the sand-blast after brazing. The teeth of files are sharpened by directing a stream of sand and water against their backs, with the result that the burr thrown up by the chisel when cutting is obliterated, and a strong form of tooth is produced. Worn files may also be sharpened up to equal new ones by sand-blasting them. Frosting glass is another useful application of the sand-blast, and by attaching suitable patterns or designs to the surface the sand may be caused to work ornamental figurings. It is a peculiar circum- stance that the sand has little effect upon soft and yielding substances in comparison with the abrasion it produces on hard surfaces, so that the pattern will remain undamaged, while the glass or other object beneath is frosted where the sand reaches it, through the openings. Not only can designs be worked on glass, or cut in stone, but perforations may be made in glass, &c., by the continued action of the sand, without any risk of fracture occurring. Much sand- blasting is performed inside closed chambers, having panes through which the workman watches the progress of the operation. But when the blast must be used in the open, protection is necessary and is afforded to the operator by a special helmet, which keeps out the flying dust and gives a supply of pure air through a tube in a similar fashion to the diver's helmet. VII. — SAWING MACHINES Metal-sawing machines are employed extensively in engineering works for cutting off bars, shafts, rails, girders and risers on steel castings, and for getting out curved pieces which would be difficult and expensive to slot. There are three classes of these saws, circular, band and reciprocating. The first named are used for straight- forward work, operating at right or other angles, the second for straight cuts and also for curves which can- not be treated with circular saws, and the third for small pieces. The circular sawsem- body a stiff spindle, carrying the saw disk and driven by gearing. This spindle may be mounted in a sliding bearing to carry it past the work held on a fixed table, or the spindle may be sta- tionary and the work be moved along past the saw. The method of feeding should be sensitive, so that it will " give " and prevent damage A, Saw blade. B, Spindle. C, Sliding spindle carriage. D, Driving pulleys. £, First pinion, connecting through train of gears to wheel F, driving splined shaft G. H, Wheel driven from sliding pinion on G. J, Bevel-gears, communicating the motion to spindle B. K, Screw for feeding carriage C along. P, FIG. 55. — Cold-sawing Machine. (Isaac Hill & Son, Derby.) L, Three-step cone on shaft G, belted to M , connected by bevel-gears N and worm-gear O, to the screw K. Clutch for throwing in O to drive K. Gears connecting shaft of L direct to K, also through clutch P. R, Handle for operating clutch P, which thus gives slow feed when clutch is in mesh with O, and quick return when engaging with P. S, Tappet rod, having dogs struck by carriage to stop feeding. T , Work-table, with clamp to hold objects. U, H-Girder being sawn off. SHEARING MACHINES] TOOL 37 to the teeth, should undue stress come upon the saw. This is usually effected by the use of weights or springs, which allow a certain free- dom or latitude to the driving gears. The work is held by screw clamps, V-blocks being required in the case of circular objects. A number of pieces, such as shafts, rails or girders, can be fastened down close together in a pile and cut through in one operation. There is a very useful class of circular saw, the flush-side (fig. 55), ti:at is valuable for cutting close up to a surface. The disk is bolted to a flange on the end of the spindle with countersunk bolts, so that the face is quite flat. Another class of saw used for dealing with girders and bars is carried in bearings upon a pivoted arm, which is pulled downwards by a weight to give the feed. The work is bolted to a table below the saw. Ample lubrication, by oil or soapy water, is essential in cutting wrought iron and steel; it is pumped on the blade, keeping it cool and washing away the cuttings. Band-saw machines resemble in outline the familiar types employed for sawing wood, but they are necessarily stronger and stiffer, and the saws run at a much lower speed. The tables, moreover, differ in possessing compound slides for moving the work and in the provi- sion of a series of slots on the top table, whereby the object to be sawn is secured with bolts and clamps. The tables are moved automatic- ally or by hand. The rate of cutting must be varied according to the thickness of metal. Lubrication is effected by running the lower saw pulley in a bath of oil or soapy water, which is carried up, so keeping the blade cool and " easing " the cut. The reciprocating class of saw has until recently been confined to small types for workshop use, termed hack saws, which have a small blade ranging from 12 to 18 in. long. This is strained between a couple of bearings in a frame which is reciprocated above the work clamped in a vice. An arrangement of weights feeds the saw downwards. The larger hack saws cut off bars and girders up to 12 in. across, and in some there is a provision introduced for giving intermittent rotation to the bar, thus presenting fresh faces to the saw. The hack saw is of great utility for comparatively light work, and, as the smallest blades are cheap enough to be thrown away when worn out, there is no trouble and expense connected with their sharpening, as in the circular and band saws. An adaptation of the reciprocating saw is that of the jig type, which has a small blade set vertically and passing up through a table on which the work is laid. It is handy for cutting out dies and various curved outlines, in the same manner that fret-sawing in wood is done. VIII. — SHEARING AND PUNCHING MACHINES These have much in common as regards their mode of operation. They are actuated either by belt and spur gearing, by steam-engine, by electric motor, or hydraulically. The first named is only suitable where arrangements can be made for driving from a line shaft. In view of the great convenience of the other methods of driving, they are coming into greater use, especially for ship-yards and other works where shafting is undesirable or inconvenient. For boiler makers' and platers' use the function of punching, and shearing are usually combined in one machine, the rams being placed at opposite ends and actuated from the same source of power. The last shaft in the train of gearing is set to bring its ends within the boxes containing the rams, and eccentrics on the shaft are moved within die blocks fitted to the rams, so that as the shaft revolves it causes the rams to move up and down and operate the shear blade and P, FlG. 56. — Hydraulic Punching and Shearing Machine. (Musgrave Brothers, Leeds.) A, Frame. E, Punch. /, K, Main and return rams for B Shear blades, set angularly. F & G, Main and return rams ditto. C, Ram for operating blade. for punch. L, M, N, Attendant's control- D, Small ram for returning ditto. H, Angle shear. ling handles. FIG. 57. — Steam Hammer, small Overhanging Type. (B. & S. Massey, Manchester). A, Standard. B, Base-plate. C, Anvil block (independent of standards). D, Tup or hammer head. E, Pallets, or forging blocks, attached to anvil and tup. Steam cylinder. Piston, solid with piston rod H. Piston valve, regulating period of admission of steam, operated by hand by lever K or lever N. Stop or throttle valve for controlling admission of steam to valve chest, operated by hand lever M. Lever in contact with roller on tup D, which moves the valve J automatically as the tup rises and falls. Lever for pre-ad justing the range of movement of N and J, according to its setting in the notches of the quadrant from a to b. Steam supply pipe from boiler. Q, Exhaust steam pipe. the punch attached to the bottom end. Another class of machines is worked by means of massive levers, pivoted in the framing, and actuated by cams on the driving shaft which cause the levers to rock and move the punches or shears up and down by the opposite ends. The punch slides are constructed to " dwell " for a short period at the top of the stroke at each revolution, thus giving the attendant time to place and ad- just the plate accurately beneath the punch. The same effect is obtained in the eccentric types of machines mentioned above, by a disengaging motion .which is thrown in by touching a lever, thus stopping the punch until the operator is ready for its descent. The more complete machines have an angle shear situated centrally, with V-blades for severing angle iron. The largest forms of shears, for massive plates, usually have the blade recipro- cated by crank or eccentrics on the driving shaft, coupled by connecting- rods to the slide. Hydraulic punching and shearing machines are used largely on account of their convenience, since they dis- pense with all belts, engines or motors in the vicinity, and give a very powerful TOOL [HAMMERS AND PRESSES stroke. The hydraulic cylinder is generally direct-connected to the slides, and the operator turns on the pressure water by a lever. work; they embody two circular blades placed with their axes parallel, and the sharp bevelled edges nearly in contact. The blades being rotated sever the plate as it is fed between them. Either straight or circular cuts may be made; true circles or disks are pro- duced by mounting the plate on a fixed stud and rotating it through a complete revolution past the cutters. IX. — HAMMERS AND PRESSES The growth in the use of hammers actuated by steam and com- pressed air, and of presses worked by water power, has been remark- able. The precursors of the power hammers were the helve and the Oliver; the first named was operated by gravity, being lifted by a circle of cams, while the second was lifted by a spring pole overhead and pulled down by the foot of the workman, acting on a lever — the hammer shaft. The first was used by the ironworkers and the second by the smiths, until displaced by the Nasmyth hammer and its extensive progeny. Even now the old helve and Oliver survive in some unprogressive shops. Steam Hammers. — The original hammer as invented by James Nasmyth was single acting, operating simply by gravity, the function of the steam being to lift the hammer for each succeeding fall. The first improvement was made by Rigby, who took the waste steam exhausted from the lower side of the piston to the upper side and so imparted some slight pressure in the descent. It was a stage between the early and the present hammers. In these, high-pressure steam is admitted above the piston to impart a more powerful blow, compounded of velocity X mass, than is obtainable by gravity; hence they are termed double-acting hammers (fig. 57). The principal difficulties which have to be surmounted in their construc- tion are those due to the severe concussion of the blows, which very sensibly shake the ground over an area of many yards. Fram- ings are made very rigid, and in the larger hammers double, enclosing the hammer head between them. The foundations are fay far the heaviest used in any machine tools. Deep piling is often resorted to, supporting crossing timber balks; or concrete is laid in mass on which the iron anvil block is bedded. This block weighs anywhere between 100 and 1000 tons. The piston and its rod and the hammer head are generally a solid steel forging, for the piston rod is a weak element and cottered or screwed fittings are not trust- worthy. Piston valves are gener- ally used in preference to ordinary D-valves, combining simplicity of fitting with good balance. The periods of steam admission are under the control of the attendant, so that the length of stroke and the force of the blow are instantly responsive to his manipulation of the operating lever. Many hammers can be set to run automatically for any given length of stroke. Pneumatic Hammers. — A suc- cessful type of hammer for the ordinary operations of the smithy is that which is actuated by com- pressed air. Though designs vary the principle is the same, namely, air compressed in a controlling cylinder (fig. 58), and brought into an operating or hammer cylinder above the piston. Cushioning,or releaseof the air be- low the piston, is under control, as is the pressure of the air above it. Drop Hammers. — The require- ments of forged work have, be- sides the power hammers ope- FIG. 58— Pneumatic Forging rated by a positive down stroke, Hammer. (W. & J. Player, Birmingham.) A , Standards. Base-plate. Anvil block. Tup. • Pallets. B, C, D, E, E, C, H, R, been the cause of the develop- ment of an equally large group which are gravity hammers only — the drop hammers. They are put into operation by a belt or belts, but the function of the belt is simply to lift the hammer Hammer cylinder, the piston to the height desired, at which rod of Lwhich is attached point it is released and falls, to D. The place of the drop hammer Air compressing cylinder. is in the lighter class of smith's Belt pulleys which reciprocate work, as that of the steam by means of the crank O, hammer lies in the heavier, but the piston in H. there is much overlapping, since Handle controlling the valve small steam hammers are rivals between H and G. to the others in light forging. But, speaking generally, the largest volume of repetitive die forging or stamping of light articles is done under drop hammers. The small arms factories and the regular stamping shops scarcely use any other type. They may be roughly divided into three great groups; the belt, the board and the latest form — the Brett lifter. In each the hammer head or tup, is lifted to any height within the range of lift, the height being controlled by the attendant at each blow. In most machines setting can be done at any constant height and the blows delivered automatically. Control is effected by hand or foot or both. Drop hammers generally have the advantage of working with greater rapidity than steam hammers. The original drop hammers, which are believed to have originated with the locksmiths of Birmingham and district, consisted of a hammer head attached to a rope, one end of which ran up over a loose pulley suspended in the roof, and the other was pulled by a man or two men, so lifting the hammer, which was then allowed to drop. The principle is embodied in many belt hammers to-day, but the pulley is driven constantly by shafting, and when the attendant pulls at the free end of the belt the friction of the pulley draws the belt over and lifts the hammer until the attendant lets it go. The weight lifted is greater than in the old type, but the labour is nevertheless very severe, and the blows are not rapid enough for quick forging. A far better machine is the board hammer. In this (fig. 59) the place of the belt is taken by an ordinary strip of board which passes between two rollers at the top of the hammer, which rollers are belt driven. The rollers are fitted on eccentric FIG. 59. — Drop Hammer — board type. Manchester.) (B. & S. Massey, A, A, Standards. B, Anvil, or baseblock. C, Tup. D, Board, fitting in slot in tup. E, F, Rollers gripping and lifting board. C, H, Pulleys actuating rollers through eccentrics J, K. L, Rod by which the amount of lift is regulated. a, Dog and lever adjustable on L, which strikes the edge b of the tup, releasing eccentrics and roller and allowing tup to fall. c, Catch on which tup rests previous to release, fitted into either one of the row of holes beneath, to suit various heights of drop. M, Mechanism struck fay the edge d of the tup, which either keeps the roller F clear of the board D, allowing the tup to fall, or brings the rollers E and F into contact, and lifts the board and tup. N, Hand-lever for operating hammer. O, Foot-lever for ditto, connected by chain e. f, Spring for lifting levers. P, Rod with nuts g, to compensate for wear on the rollers by the adjustment of roller E. HAMMERS AND PRESSES] TOOL 39 pins, so that the movement of levers causes them to grip the board for the lift, or release it for the fall, these levers being under the control of the attendant. They can also be set to operate automically for any height of lift. These types are all subject to much concussion and vibration, because the machines are self-contained ; anvil, standards and heads being rigidly bolted together, the concussion of every blow is trans- mitted through the entire mechanism. The Brett hammers (fig. 60) are designed to lessen this, in some cases by making the anvil distinct from the superstructure, and in all by connecting the lifting ropes to the ends of long levers which act something like elastic springs, absorbing vibration. The driving mechanism is also original, comprising a cylinder with a wing piston, which is rotated by steam pressure through an arc of a circle only, sufficiently to operate the lifting levers. Another advantage is that the lifter cylinder need not be immediately over the hammer, but may be situated elsewhere. The hammer can be operated by hand directly for each stroke, or be set to work automatically. FIG. 60. — 5 cwt. Belt Drop Hammer with Brett's Lifter. (Brett's Patent Lifter Co., Ltd., Coventry.) b, arrest Buffer blocks which motion of lever c. d, Lever for automatic regula- tion of valve. /, Lever for regulating amount of opening of valve by hand. K, Foot lever for holding tup in either of the stops L. e, Spring for foot lever. A, A, Uprights. B, Anvil. C, Tup. D, Belt. E, Lifter cylinder. F, Valve casing. G, Rod operating valve by lever H. a, Rock shaft. Spring Hammers are a rather smaller group than the others. In these a belt-driven pulley actuates the tup through the medium of elastic leaf springs. The length of stroke is adjustable across the face of a slotted disk on the driving shaft. Forging Machines. — The Ryder forging machine is fitted with four or five pairs of swage tools, the lower halves being fixed and the upper ones driven by a rotating eccentric shaft. The operations imitate those on the anvil by hand forging, but from 800 to 1200 blows are delivered in a minute. The swages are arranged in succes- sion, so that an operation is begun at one end and finished at the other, the attendant moving the bar rapidly through the successive swages or dies. Forging Presses. — These are rivals to the hammers, especially for heavy forgings, from which hammers are being rapidly dis- placed (fig. 61). It is now well understood that a hammer will not effect the consolidation of a massive forging right to the centre as a press will. The force of the hammer blow is not transmitted to the centre as is that of a press, nor is the hammer so useful in work of large dimensions but of no great weight. In railway and wagon shops the presses are used far more frequently than the hammers. A great advan- tage of the press is that two and three rams can be brought into operation so that a forging may be pressed from above, from below and to one side, which is of great value in complicated forms and in welding, but is not practicable in the hammers. Hence the forging presses have be- come developed for work of average dimensions as well as for the most massive. Many are of horizontal type, termed bull-dozers. Power presses for working sheet- metal articles include those for cut- ting out the blanks, termed cutting- out or blanking presses, and those for cupping or drawing the flat blank into shape if desired (fig. 62). The lower dies are held upon a bed, and the upper in a sliding ram, moved FIG. 61. — Hydraulic Forg- up and down by a cam or crank- ing Press. (Fielding & Platt, shaft. A clutch mechanism is fitted, Ltd., Gloucester.) by means of which this shaft is connected with or disconnected from ^4 fable ' , i • j . . . . ... the heavy driving-wheel at will to c Drawback ram for return- give a single stroke or a series of jng g strokes to the ram. In the normal D Horizontal ram. state the ram remains stationary at £ Controlling valves. the top position. The lightest presses are driven direct by belt on the crank-shaft pulley, but in the heavier classes spur-gearing must be interposed between the pulley shaft and the final shaft. The operation of drawing requires an encircling die which presses on the blank as it lies on its die, the cupping of the blank being effected by the downward motion of the plunger. Sectional Elevation. Front Elevation. FIG. 62. — Power Press. A, Main frame. B, Bed for attaching dies. C, Central slide. D, Outer slide. E, Belt pulleys on shaft, geared to wheel F thrown in by clutch to drive its shaft, which has two crank pins to reciprocate D and a cam disk actuating C. G Extractor rocked downwards as slide rises to raise lever H and work an ejector rod, forcing finished article out of die. This is why the machine shown in fig. 62 has an outer slide D, which is made to " dwell " with an even pressure, while the middle ram is moving down and drawing out the article. Blanking and cupping may be done as one continuous operation if the work is shallow. Inclinable presses are employed for certain classes of work, the object being to let the stamped articles slide down the slope of the bed as rapidly as they are produced, instead of having to be removed by the operator. Much work can be placed on the dies by hand, but for producing large quantities of small articles automatic feeds TOOL [PORTABLE TOOLS are employed whenever possible. A good deal of work is produced from flat sheet, supplied in the form of a roll and fed through rollers by intermittent movements to the dies. Circular turn-tables are also used, operated by ratchet devices, which turn the tables round to bring a ring of pockets, carrying the pieces, successively under the dies; the attendant keeps the pockets supplied, but his hands do not come near the dies. X.— PORTABLE TOOLS The growth of portable machine tools is one of the remarkable movements of the present day. To some extent they have always been used, notably in the drilling and tapping operations of loco- motive fire-boxes, but 'not until recently to any important extent in the ordinary fitting and erecting shops. The main reason lay in the difficulties due to transmission of power by ropes or shafts. The employment of compressed air, water, electricity and flexible shafts, by which long distances can be covered, has given new life to the portable system, which is destined to occupy a place of even greater importance than it does at present. The reason for the grow- ing desirability of these tools is to be seen in the massive character of much engine and machine construction of the present time. Although firms that undertake the largest work can generally arrange to tool the individual parts on machines of massive sizes, that only meets a part of the difficulty. Very big work cannot be treated like that of small or even medium dimensions, done repetitively; that is, it is not practicable to drill and bore and ream and provide for the fitting of every piece by the aid of templets and jigs, while the work lies on the machine, but a great deal of adjustment and mutual fitting has to be accomplished in the course of erection. Therein lies the opportunity for the portable machine. If this is not used the alternatives are partial dismantling of the work and the transference of certain portions to machines or hand work. Another cause has been the substitution of machining for much hand work formerly done on massive constructions. The principal operations for which portable tools are designed are the following: Drilling, screwing, cutting the seatings for keys, planing short portions of work, facings for the attachment of other pieces, as brackets and bearings, hammering operations, as in making welded joints, caulking the edges of boiler plates, chipping with hammer and chisel, riveting, ramming sand in foundry moulds, planing ships' decks, and some operations of lesser magnitude. Portable tools are used in various ways. The first and most obvious is to attach them directly to the casting, forging or machine which is being built up. Thus a drilling machine will be clamped just where it is required to operate. Or if it has to be used on a large plane surface as a ship's deck, an electrical machine is suitable, in which magnetic attraction is set up between the foot of the machine and the deck sufficient to hold it down. A key-seating machine will be clamped on the shaft in which a keygroove has to be cut. A drilling machine may be fastened to a pipe with a chain embracing the pipe. Very many of the drills, and all the caulking and chipping hammers, are grasped in the hands and so thrust to their work. The tapping of screw holes is mostly done in this way, a common example being the holes for the stay bolts in the fire-boxes of steam boilers. Another later method which has been introduced and practised in a few shops consists in installing a cast-iron floor-plate of large area, planed truly and provided with bolt holes and slots. On this a massive casting, forging or piece of work undergoing erection will be bolted. Then the portable tools — planers, drills, &c., as required — will be bolted to the table and brought into operation on the various sections of the work, several sometimes operating simultaneously. This method is to a certain extent coming into rivalry with the abnormal growth of machine tools, the development of which has been greatly accelerated by the massive dimensions of productions which only became possible by the substitution of steel made by the Bessemer and Siemens processes for iron. The reciprocating motion necessary to effect hammering, chipping or caulking operations is produced by the action of a solid piston, sliding in a cylinder (fig. 63) and driven sharply against the end of the tool by the inrush of compressed air, being then returned for another stroke. The strokes range in number up to as many as 2000 per minute in some cases. For heavy riveting a " long- stroke " hammer is employed, having a longer barrel than the chipping hammer shown in fig. 63, in order to obtain a greater force of blow. The operator grasps the hammer by the handle, with his fingers or thumb on the controlling lever, and as long as this is held down the blows continue. The air-supply pipe is flexible, so that it does not impede the movements of the workman. The tools at the end of the cylinder are simply held in a socket, so that they can be changed rapidly. Rotative motion can be produced either by electric or pneumatic motors, and both systems are in wide use. Pneumatic motors are very suitable when an air-compressing plant is already laid down for other tools, while if electricity is used in the works portable tools operated by this agent may be employed instead of the pneumatic ones. In the electric drills (fig. 64) a small motor is fitted within the body and_ connected by spur-gears to the spindle to effect suitable speed reduction. A switch provides for stopping and starting the motor; the current is brought through a flexible cable which, like pneumatic hose, is armoured with wire to protect it from damage. The smallest drills are simply gripped in the operator's hand and FIG. 63. — Tierney Pneumatic Chipping Hammer. (The Globe Pneumatic Engineering Co., Ltd.) A, Cylinder. B, Tool socket, carrying chisel C. D, Piston, which strikes the back of C. E, Handle, screwed and clamped to A. F, Trigger or lever clasped by operator's hand and opening valve G, admitting compressed air through connexion H, up passage J, through valve-box K, past valve L, and so against end of D, moving it towards C. As soon as the groove in the piston D registers with the hole M, air is admitted from a small hole (not shown), passes round the groove through hole M and passage N to the rear of the valve. This acting on the back of the valve throws it forward, thus shutting off the supply to the rear of the piston and permitting a small quantity of air to flow to the forward end of the piston for driving it in a backward direction. As soon as the air pressure is relieved on the back of the valve by the uncovering of exhaust holes (not seen) by the piston D, the valve is returned to the original position, owing to the air constantly pressing on the small area of the valve. pushed up to the work; larger ones are supported by a pillar and arm, against which the thrust is taken, and the feed given by turning a screw at intervals. FIG. 64. — Electrically-driven Hand Drill. (Kramos Ltd., Bath.) A, Body, cast in aluminium, with handles a, a. B, Motor, with revolving armature C, connected by spur-gears D, to the drill spindle E, fitted with ball thrust bearings. F, Switch, operated by attendant pushing in a plug; the current is brought by flexible wires through the right-hand handle a. Pneumatic drills are usually worked by little motors having oscillating cylinders, by which the air and exhaust ports are covered and uncovered. They run at a high speed and are geared down to the spindle. In some cases two cylinders are used, but often four are fitted to give a powerful and equable turning moment. Grinding machines are also built with air motors directly coupled to the wheel spindle, the machines being moved about over the work by handles. Another class of portable tools is driven, not by self-contained motors, but from an outside source of power, which is conveyed to the tools through flexible shafts built up of a series of spiral springs, or through flexible joints which form a connexion that permits the shaft to bend round corners and accommodate itself to any position in which the tool may be placed. The advantage of this is that the tool itself is much lightened, since there is no motor, and it can therefore be easily handled. Thus a drill simply contains the spindle, running in a frame which carries bevel-gears for transmitting the motion of the flexible shaft. Portable grinders also have nothing but the spindle, wheel and frame. XI. — APPLIANCES Appliances are vastly more numerous in a modern shop than in the older works, largely on account of the more repetitive character WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY] TOOL of the operations done and of the desire to eliminate human labour, with its greater cost and chances of inaccuracy in the finished pro- duct. On all machines there are numerous aids by which the fixing of the work is facilitated. Many of these consist of simple packing blocks, by which heights are adjusted. These reach their higher developments in wedge-shaped packings, some of which are operated by a screw, while others act directly by screws. In some cases the exact height can be ascertained by observing graduations on the packings. Circular work is held in V-blocks, which occur in numerous modified forms. Various kinds of straps, clamps and bolts are used for gripping work with sufficient security to enable it to withstand the stress of the heaviest cutting. The highest develop- ment of all is attained in the templets and jigs, which are now indispensable in all modern shops, and which increase in number and complexity as the product of the shop becomes more specialized. A templet is a piece of metal cut to a definite shape, which being laid upon the work becomes a guide for striking the same shape on the surface of the work with a pointed scriber, and by which the tooling of any number of similar pieces is done without the labour of lining out each separate piece. Obviously, in such a case the degree of accuracy of the tooling still depends on the machine hand, who may work exactly, or only approximately, to these lines. Hence a great advance is made in the jig, which may be defined generally as a templet that is clamped rigidly to the work, or a box in which the work to be tooled is held. No marking off is done, but the jig becomes the actual guide for the operation of the cutting tools. The operation most frequently performed in jigs is drilling. Then the holes in the jig receive and coerce the drills, so that the holes made cannot vary in the least degree from those already in the jig. As it will often happen that hundreds or thousands of similar pieces will have to be tooled in this manner, holes in jigs are generally bushed with hardened steel, which is capable of enduring very lengthy service, and which can be renewed when worn. This is a simple illustration, but many jigs are of an extremely elaborate character, for it is obvious that the cost of a jig, though it may run into many pounds, becomes a mere trifle when spread over some thousands of pieces of work. XII. — WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY There is a large range of various classes of tools for performing the operations on timber, from the rough log to the finished product. Division is effected by saws, planing and finishing to outlines by knives or cutters, boring by augers and smoothing by sandpaper. The first operation is that of tree-felling, which is often effected by machine, consisting of a reciprocating blade, working horizontally in a frame and moved by a steam cylinder. The boiler is separate, so that the machine may be transported about and set to work over a considerable area, steam being conveyed to it by a flexible pipe. When the trees are brought into the saw-mills in the form of logs, i.e. with the branches lopped off, they are often cross-cut to reduce them to suitable lengths. This operation is effected either by a reciprocating saw, operated by a pulley and crank, or by an electric motor, or else with a circular saw, travelling on a carriage which moves the saw through the log laid in front of it. The next opera- tion, that of division or breaking-down into smaller portions, is done by saws of various types, according to the class of work. The oldest form of machine is the frame-saw, which is still used very largely. It comprises a framing within which a saw-gate or saw- frame is reciprocated up and down by a crank; the frame holds a number of saws or webs of flat form, strained up tightly with wedges or cotters between the top and bottom of the frame, the distance between the saws being capable of variation to, suit boards of all thicknesses. The log is fed longitudinally to the gang of saws upon carriages, which are of two types. In the roller-feed, which is suitable tor comparatively even and straight logs, ribbed rollers in front and behind the saws obtain a bite on the top and bottom of the timber and feed it forward by their rotation. In the rack-feed the log is mounted bodily upon a long carriage that runs by rollers upon a set of rails, and the carriage is travelled along by pinions and racks, which give a positive feed regardless of the shape of the log. The carriage in the roller-feed machines is only represented by a couple of plain trolleys supporting the timber at back and front. The feed is obtained through a friction wheel of V-shape, with a smooth pawl, called the silent feed; the wheel is given a partial rotation at each down stroke of the saw-gate to turn the rollers or the pinions for carrying forward the log. The division of the timber may be either into deals or flitches, or planks or boards. In the last-named case as many as fifty saw-blades are sometimes held in a frame. For the more valuable hardwoods a single blade reciprocating saw, operated horizontally, is used very largely, the machine being termed a board-cutter. The log is clamped to a travelling table, passing underneath the saw, which is strained in a frame sliding on a cross-rail that can be adjusted up or down on a couple of up- rights like a planing machine. The saw is worked from a crank and connecting-rod. As only one board is sawn at a time the attendant is able to see the figuring of the timber and to avoid waste when bad places are encountered. A machine much more rapid in operation is the horizontal band- saw, modelled on the lines of the above machine, but with a band- saw blade running over two pulleys, at a high speed, of about 7000 ft. per minute. The saws are very thin, so that a minimum of wood is wasted in the cut or " kerf,' a very important consideration in dealing with costly woods. Vertical band-saws, having one pulley above the other so that the blade runs vertically, are very popular in America; they occupy less floor space than the horizontal types. It is necessary to present the log from the side, and it is therefore clamped by dogs upon a carriage running on rails, with provision for feeding the log laterally to the saw by sliding ways on the carriage. The use of circular saws for breaking-down is confined chiefly to squaring up heavy balks, which need only a cut on each side, or for cutting thick slabs. The thickness of the saw entails considerable waste of wood, and a large amount of power is required for driving. The machines are termed rack-benches, and comprise a long divided table built up of thin plates and travelling past the fixed saw upon rollers, the movement being effected by a rack and pinion. Re-sawing machines are those designed for further cutting-up deals, flitches, planks, &c., already broken out from the log, into boards and other scantlings. The deal and flitch frames are built on the model of the frame-saws first described, but with the differ- ences that roller feed is always used, because the stuff is smooth and easily fed, and that the back of the timber is run against fences to keep it moving in a straight line. In the double equilibrium frames, which are much favoured, there are two sets of saws in separate frames connected by rods to opposite crank-shafts, so that as one frame is rising the other is going down ; the forces are thus balanced and vibration is diminished, so that the machines can be speeded rather higher. Re-sawing is also done on circular and band saws of various types, fitted with fences for guiding the timber and controlling the thicknesses. The cross-cut saws constitute another large group. They are employed for cutting-off various classes of stuff, after breaking-down or re-sawing, and are of circular saw type. The pendulum saw is a suspended form, comprising a circular saw at the bottom of a hang- ing arm, which can be pulled over by the attendant to draw the saw through a piece of wood laid on a bench beneath. Circular saws are also mounted in tables or benches and made to part off stuff moved laterally upon a sliding-table. When there is sufficient repetition work machines with two or more saws are used to cut one or more pieces to accurate length without the necessity for measurement. The lighter classes of circular and band-saws, employed for sawing up comparatively small pieces of timber, embody numerous provisions for quickening output. The plain saw benches, with circular saws, are the simplest class, consisting merely of a framed table or bench carrying bearings for the saw spindle and a fence on the top to guide the wood. A mechanical feed is incorporated in the heavier machines to push the timber along. The rope-feed mechanism includes a drum driven at varying rates and giving motion to a rope, which is connected with a hook to the timber, to drag it along past the saw, roller supports on rails taking the weight at each end of the bench. Roller-feed saws propel the stuff by the contact of vertical fluted rollers placed opposite the fence. Other classes of saws for joinery work, &c., are constructed with rising and falling spindles, so that the saw may be made to project more or less from the table, this provision being necessary in grooving and tonguing with special types of saws. The same effect is obtained by making the table instead of the spindle rise and fall. As it is necessary to use different saws for ripping (with the grain) and cross-cutting, some machines embody two saws so that work can be cut to shape on the same machine. These " dimension saws " have two spindles at the opposite ends of a pivoted arm that can be turned on a central pin to bring one or the other saw above as required. In cases where much angular and intricate sawing is done universal benches are employed, having in addition to the double saws a tilting motion to the table, which in conjunction with various special fittings enables the sawyer to produce a large range of pieces for any class of construction. Band-saws, which have a thin narrow blade, are adapted especi- ally for curved sawing and cutting-out work which the circular saw cannot manage. The usual design of machine (fig. 65) comprises a stiff standard supporting a lower pulley in fixed bearings, and an upper one in a sliding bearing, which by means of a weight or spring is caused to rise and maintain an even tension on the saw blade as it is driven by the lower pulley, and runs the upper one. India-rubber tires are placed around the pulley rims to prevent damage to the saw teeth. The table, placed between the pulleys, may be angled for cutting bevel work. It is necessary, in order to do true work, to guide the saw blade above and below the cut, and it is therefore run in guides consisting of flat strips, in combination with anti- friction rollers which take the backward thrust of the saw. Fret or jig saws are a small class with a vertical reciprocating blade, employed chiefly for cutting out interior portions which necessitate threading the saw first through a hole. Planing machines, used for truing up the surfaces of wood after sawing, depend for their action upon rapidly revolving knives fastened to flat-sided cutter blocks. The simplest machines, the hand-planers, have a cutter cylinder revolving between two flat TOOL [WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY table slides adjustable for height to support the wood while it is pushed along over the knives by the hand. A fence guides it in a straight line. Exact thicknessing is done on another type of machine, the panel planer or thicknesser, in which the cutter cylinder revolves above -the table and the stuff is fed through by rollers above FIG. 65. — Band-sawing Machine with 30 in. pulleys. (Thomas White & Sons, Paisley.) A, Cast-iron cored frame. B, Fast and loose pulleys driving pulley C. D, Belt shipper operated by handle E. F, Upper saw pulley, with its shaft carried in swivel bearing. G, Screw for raising or lowering F to suit saw. H, Spring to maintain even tension on saw, by raising E. J, Counterbalanced guide bar, having a Jackson guide K at bottom ; K has wooden strips embracing the saw and a ball-bearing roller against which the back runs, while / is adjusted up or down to bring K as near to the work as convenient. L, Table, with slit for saw; it may be canted for bevel sawing, by means of hand worm-gear M. N, Protective casing to saw. 0, Guard to prevent saw flying over in case of breakage. and below. By altering the height of the table the thickness of wood can be varied. Double machines include a cutter cylinder above and below the timber, so that the upper and under sides are planed simultaneously. A combination of the hand-planer and the thicknesser is useful in cases where space or expenditure must be limited. When large quantities of planed stuff are wanted, such as for flooring-boards, &c., other types of machines are employed. The four-cutter planers are the most rapid in output, and the timber is passed through them at a high rate, ranging up to 150 ft. per minute. There is first a revolving cutter cylinder, which roughs off the underside of the stuff, whence it passes (being propelled by rollers) to a fixed knife which imparts a very smooth face. A little farther on in the machine two vertical cutter blocks are encountered which carry cutters to plane or tongue or mould the edges, after which another cylinder above finishes the top face. Similar types of machines are made to produce mouldings, using four cutters shaped to suit the pattern required. Moulding is also done on the vertical spindle shapers, which carry a cutter or cutters at the top of a spindle projecting through a flat table. The work is slid over the table and controlled by touching a collar below the cutter. Any form may be given to the cutters to produce different profiles. Some special moulding machines use a cutter at the end of a spindle projecting downwards from an arm overhanging a table, an arrangement which enables recessing and carving to be performed. Boring machines comprise rotating spindles and feeding mechanism to actuate augers. The single spindle machines are satisfactory enough for ordinary work, but when a number of differently sized holes have to be bored in a single piece of work, or in rapid succession, it is the practice to employ a machine with a number of spindles, so that a succession of augers of graduated diameters may be ready to use at will. Mortising or cutting slots is done in vertical machines with a reciprocating spindle, operated either by hand or by crank disk and pulleys. The tool that cuts the mortise resembles a wood- worker's chisel, but is of stouter form and has a suitable shank to fit in the spindle. The latter can be reversed to turn round and let the chisel face in the opposite direction for cutting at each end of a Machine with graduated stroke. i Sons, Johnstone.) FIG. 66. — Mortising and Boring (John McDowall <5 A, Frame. B, Auger head, driven by belt C. D, Mortising chisel reciprocated up and down by crank-disk E. F, G, Levers connecting crank-pin to spindle of D. H, Treadle connected to F; a gradually increasing stroke is imparted to the chisel by depressing H, which brings F, G into play and continually lengthens the stroke of D, cutting the mortise without shock. /, Fast and loose pulleys driving E. K, Cord actuated from shaft of /, which reverses the chisel when the handle L is moved and makes it cut in the reverse position. M, Knee raised or lowered by hand-wheel and screw. N, Cross-slide, adjusted by hand-wheel and screw. O, Longitudinal slide, moved by rack and pinion and hand- wheel. P, Timber vice. mortise. A boring spindle is often incorporated with the machine to make holes for the mortising chisel to start in (fig. 66). Another class of mortiser employs a square hollow chisel, inside of which an auger rotates and first bores a hole, leaving to the chisel the duty of finishing out the corners. The chain mortiser is another type; it has an endless chain of flat links, sharpened to make cutting teeth, and is run around a bar and a roller at a high speed, so that when fed into the wood a recess or mortise is cut out. Tenoning machines, designed to cut the reduced ends or tenons to fit in mortises, perform their work by the aid of cutter blocks, revolved on horizontal sp:ndles above and below the timber, which is fed laterally upon a sliding carriage. Dovetailing is effected by revolving cutters in machines having mechanism for pitching out the cuts, or if the work warrants it an entire row of dovetails is made at one traverse, by fitting a row of MEASUREMENT] TOOL 43 cutters and feeding simultaneously. Corner-locking, or cutting parallel tongues and grooves in the edges of boxes, &c., is a rather more rapid operation than dovetailing, and is done with suitable cutter blocks or disks of appropriate thickness and pitching apart. The general joiner, as its name implies, will do a large variety of operations, and is used in shops and on estates where a complete plant of machines would be out of the question. It usually has a circular saw and sometimes a band-saw also, together with planing and moulding apparatus, a moulding spindle, boring spindle and tenoning apparatus. The lathes used in woodworking comprise the plain hand types with a simple T-rest on which the turner rests the tools to deal with the work revolving between centres, and the copying or Blanchard lathes, in which a master form or copy is rotated and caused by the contact and coercion of a roller to move the cutter rest in a corre- sponding fashion, so that the work is cut away until it exactly matches the shape of the copy. Sand-papering machines, which finish the surface of wood to a high degree, deal with both flat and curved faces. Flat boards, panels, &c., can be done by contact against revolving drums or disks covered with glass-paper, being fed along over them by hand or by rotating rollers. In one class of machine a revolving disk is placed at the end of a series of jointed arms, by which the disk can be moved about over the work resting on a table underneath. XIII. — MEASUREMENT An advance of the greatest importance made in mechanical engineering is that of measurement. Since the beginning of the loth century steady movement has been going on in this direction until it seems impossible that much greater refinement can now be looked for. Probably the chief advances to be expected will lie in the general extension in workshop practice of the knowledge already acquired, rather than in the acquisition of higher degrees of refinement. Methods of measurement adopted in woodworking have but little application in high-class engineers' work. They are adopted, how- ever, to a considerable extent in the metal trades which are allied to engineering, as sheet metal working, girder work, &c. When a carpenter or joiner sets about constructing a door, window sash, roof or box he takes a two-foot rule, a flat lead pencil, and marks off the dimensions and lines by which he intends to work. If he has to work very carefully, then instead of using a pencil he cuts a line with the edge of a keen scriber or chisel-like tool, by which to saw, plane or chisel. If outlines are curved, the compasses are brought into requisition, and these cut a fine line or lines on the surface of the wood. But in any case the eye alone judges of the coincidence of the cutting with the lines marked. Whether the tool used be saw, chisel, gouge or plane, the woodworker estimates by sight alone whether or not the lines marked are worked by. The broad difference between his method and that of the engineer's machinist lies in this, that while the first tests his work by the eye, the second judges of its accuracy or otherwise by the sense of touch. It may seem that there cannot be very much difference in these two methods, but there is. To the first, the sixty-fourth part of an inch is a fine dimension, to the second one-thousandth of an inch is rather coarse. Now the thickness of tissue paper is about one-thousandth of an inch, and no one could possibly work so closely as that by the eye alone. Engineers' steel rules usually have one inch which is divided into one hundred parts. Tolerably keen sight is required to distinguish those divisions, and few could work by them by ocular measurement alone, that is, by placing them in direct juxtaposition with the work. A thousandth part of an inch seems by com- parison a fine dimension. But it is very coarse when considered in relation to modern methods of measurement. In what are called " limit gauges " the plugs and rings are made of slightly different dimensions. If a plug is made a thousandth of an inch less than its ring it will slip tnrough it easily with very perceptible slop. The common rule is therefore scarcely seen in modern machine shop, while the common calipers fill but a secondary place, their function having been invaded by the gauges. A minute dimension cannot be tested by lines of division on a rule, neither can a dimen- sion which should be fixed be tested with high precision with a movable caliper of ordinary type. Yet it must not be supposed that the adoption of the system of gauging instead of the older methods of rule measurement relieves men of responsibility. The instruments of precision require delicate handling. Rough forcing of gauges will not yield correct results. A clumsy workman is as much out of place in a modern machine shop as he would be in a watch factory. Without correctness of measurement mechanical constructions would be impossible, and the older device of mutual fitting of parts is of lessening value in face of the growth of the inter- changeable system, of international standards, and of automatic machine tools which are run with no intervention save that of feeding stock. The two broad divisions of measurement by sight and by contact are represented in a vast number of instruments. To the first- named belong the numerous rules in wood and metal and with English and metric divisions, and the scales which are used for setting out dimensions on drawings smaller than those of the real objects, but strictly proportional thereto. The second include all the gauges. These are either fixed or movable, an important sub- division. The first embrace two groups — one for daily workshop service, the other for testing and correcting the wear of these, hence termed " reference gauges." They are either made to exact standard sizes, or they embody " limits of tolerance," that is, allowances for certain classes of fits, and for the minute degrees of inaccuracy which are permissible in an interchangeable system of manufacture. The movable group includes a movable portion, either correspond- ing with one leg of a caliper or having an adjustable rod, with pro- vision for precise measurement in the form of a vernier or of a screw thread divided micrometrically. These may be of general character for testing internal or external diameters, or for special functions as screw threads. Subtitles indicate some particular aspect or design of the gauges, as " plug and ring," " caliper," " horseshoe," " depth," " rod," " end measure," &c. So severe are the require- ments demanded of instruments of measurement that the manu- facture of the finer kinds remains a speciality in the hands of a very few firms. The cost and experience necessary are so great that prices rule high for the best instruments. As these, however, are not required for ordinary workshop use, two or three grades are manufactured, the limits of inaccuracy being usually stated and a guarantee given that these are not exceeded. Measurement by Sight. Rules and Scales. — The rules are used for marking off distances and dimensions in conjunction with other instruments, as scribers, compasses, dividers, squares; and for test- ing and checking dimensions when marked, and work in course of reduction or erection, directly or from calipers. They are made in boxwood and in steel, the latter being either rigid or flexible, as when required to go round curves. Rules are fitted in combination with other instruments, as sliding calipers, squares, depth gauges, &c. The scales are of boxwood, of ivory, the value of which is dis- counted by its shrinkage, and of paper. They are of flat section with bevelled edges, and of oval and of triangular sections, each giving a thin edge to facilitate readings. They are fully divided, or open divided; in the first case each division is alike subdivided, in the second only the end ones are thus treated. The Gauges. Fixed Gauges. — These now embrace several kinds, the typical forms being represented by the cylindrical or plug and ring gauges and by the caliper form or snap gauges. The principle in each is that a definite dimension being embodied in the gauge, the workman has not to refer to the rule, either directly or through the medium of a caliper. This distinction, though slight, is of immense importance in modern manufacturing. Broadly it corre- sponds with the difference between the older heterogeneous and the present interchangeable systems. Plug and Ring Gauges. — The principal ones and the originals of all the rest, termed Whitworth gauges after the inventor, are the plug and ring gauges (fig. 67, A and B). The principle on which they depend is that if the two gauges are made to fit with perfect accuracy, without tightness on the one hand or slop on the other, then any work which is measured or turned and bored or ground by them will also fit with equal accuracy. Bored holes are tested by the plug gauge, and spindles are tested by the ring gauge, and such spindles and holes make a close fit if the work is done carefully. Of course, in prac- tice, there is very much variation in the character of the work done, and the finest gauges are too fine for a large proportion of engineers' work. It is possible to make these gauges within 5^ of an inch. AB p, nd But they are seldom required so c' niffprem-p o-amrp fine as that for shop use; VAa is £' g™ Ded reference eau^e generally fine enough. For general "• shop work the gauges are made to within about r^Va of an inch. Standard gauges in which the plug and ring are of the same diameter will only fit by the application of a thin film of oil and by keeping the plug in slight movement within the ring. Without these precautions the two would " seize " so hard that they could not be separated without force and injury. Plug and Ring v. Horseshoe Gauges. — The horseshoe, snap or caliper gauges (fig. 68) are often used in preference to the plug and ring types. They are preferred because the surfaces in contact are narrow. These occur in various designs, with and without handles, separately and in combination and in a much larger range of dimensions than the plug and ring. Ring gauges are not quite such delicate instruments as the fixed caliper gauges. But since they measure diameter only, and turned work is not always quite circular, the caliper gauges are not so convenient for measurement as the round gauges, which fit in the same manner as the parts have to fit to one another. Fixed Gauges. Limit Gauges. — Some fits have to be what is termed in the shops " driving fits," that is, so tight that they 44 TOOL [MEASUREMENT have to be effected by driving with a hammer or a press, while others have to be " working fits," suitable, say, for the revolution of a loose pulley on its shaft or of an axle in its bearings. The " limit " or " difference gauges " (figs. 67 and 68) are designed for producing these working fits ; that is, the plug and ring gauges differ in dimen- sions so that the work bored will drive tightly, or slide freely over FIG. 68. A, Separate caliper or snap C, Difference gauge. gauges. D, Newall adjustable limit B, Combined internal and ex- gauge. ternal gauges. a, b, Plugs. the work turned. These are variously sub-classified. The system which is generally accepted is embodied in the gauges by the Newall Engineering Co. These embrace force fits, which require the applica- tion of a screw or hydraulic press; driving fits, that require less power, as that of a hammer; push fits, in which a spindle can be thrust into its hole by hand; and running fits, such as that of shafts in bearings. Fixed gauges are made for each of these, but as this involves a heavy outlay the Newall firm have adjustable limit gauges (fig. 68, D) for external dimensions, the standard plug being used for holes. The setting is done by screwed plugs or anvils adjusted by reference bars. In all these gauges the " go on " and " not go on " ends respectively are stamped on the gauge, or the equivalents of -f- and — . Fixed Reference Gauges. Reference Disks and End Measuring Rods. — Shop working gauges become in time so damaged by service that they fail to measure so accurately as when new. To correct these errors reference gauges are provided, by which the inaccuracy of the worn ones is brought to the test. These are never used in the shops for actual measurement of work, but are only kept for checking the truth of the working gauges. They include disk, stepped and end measurement gauges. The disk and the stepped are used for testing the ring gauges, the stepped kind comprising essentially a collection of disks in one piece (fig. 67, D). The end measure pieces test the external gauges. The end measure standard lengths made by the Pratt & Whitney Co. are so accurate that any sizes taken at random in any numbers from } in. to 4 in., varying by sixteenths of an inch, will, when placed end to end, make up an exact length ; this is a difficult test, since slight variations in the lengths of the components would add up materially when multiplied by the number of pieces. The ends are ground off with diamond dust or emery in a special machine under water, and are so true that one piece will support another by cohesive force, and this though the surfaces are less than } in. square. Movable Gauges. — This extensive group may be regarded as compounded of the common caliper and the Whitworth measuring machine. They are required when precise dimensions have to be ascertained in whole numbers and minute fractional parts. They combine the sense of touch by contact, as in the calipers, with the exact dimensions obtained by inspection of graduated scales, either the vernier or the micrometer screw. If gauges must not vary by more than nrfrinr of an inch, which is the limit imposed by modern shop ideals, then instruments must be capable of measuring to finer dimensions than this. Hence, while the coarser classes of micrometers read directly to tiftnv Part of an inch, the finest measure up to-iojftnnj of an inch, about 200 times as fine as the diameter of a human hair. They range in price correspondingly from about a sovereign to £100. Ttif Calipers. — Common calipers (fig. 69) are adjusted over or within work, and the dimensions are taken therefrom by a rule or a gauge. They usually have no provision for minute adjustment beyond the gentle tapping of one of the legs when setting. In some forms screw adjustment is provided, and in a few instances a vernier attachment on the side of the pivot opposite to the legs. Vernier Calipers. — The vernier fitting, so named after its inventor, Pierre Vernier, in 1631, is fitted to numerous calipers and caliper rules. It is applied to calipers for engineers' use to read toryinr of an inch without requiring a magnifier. The beam of the caliper is divided into inches and tenths of the inch, and each tenth into fourths and the vernier into twenty-five parts, or the beam is divided into fiftieths of an inch (fig. 70) and the vernier has 20 divisions to 19 on the rule. The caliperiaws are adapted to take both external and internal dimensions. These " beam calipers " are also made for metric divisions. Minor variations in design by different manufacturers are numerous. FIG. 69. — Calipers. A, Ordinary external type, adjusted by tapping the legs. B, Type adjusted by screw in auxiliary leg. C, Screw calipers, opened by contraction of curved spring and closed by nut. D, Self-registering caliper, with pointer moving over quadrant. E, Common internal type. F, Screw type with spring. G, Combined internal and external for measuring chambered holes. H, Compass caliper for finding centres. J, Keyhole caliper for measuring from hole to outside of boss. FIG. 70.— Vernier Caliper. A, Beam; B, vernier; C, fixed jaw; D, movable jaw; E, clamping head; F, abutment head, with adjusting screw a, for fine adjustment of D. So oo o FIG. 71. — Measuring Machine. (The Newall Engineering Co.) A, Hollow base or bed, mounted on three points. B, Measuring or fast headstock. C, Movable head, or tailstock. D, Spirit-level to indicate alterations in length of piece being measured due to changes in temperature, termed the indi- cator or comparator. E, Measuring screw. F, Nut for rapid adjustment of ditto. G, Knob of speed screw for slow movement of ditto. H, Dividing and measuring wheel. J, Vernier or reading bar. a, a, Points between which contact is made. MEASUREMENT] TOOL 45 Micrometer Calipers are the direct offspring of the Whitworth measuring machine. In the original form of this machine a screw of 20 threads to the inch, turned by a worm-wheel of 200 teeth and single-threaded worm, had a wheel on the axis of the worm with 250 divisions on its circumference, so that an adjustment of IB oh) OB of an inch was possible. The costly measuring machines made to-day have a dividing wheel on the screw, but they combine modifications to ensure freedom from error, the fruits of prolonged experience. Good machines are made by the Whitworth, the Pratt & Whitney, the Newall (fig. 71), and the Brown & Sharpe firms. These are used for testing purposes. But there are immense numbers of small instruments, the micrometer calipers (fig. 72), made for general shop use, measuring directly to rjVj of an inch, and in the B FIG. 72. — Micrometer Calipers. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.) A, Frames. a, Adjusting nuts for taking up B, Anvil or abutment. C, Hub divided longitudinally. b, D, Spindle with micrometer1 c, screw. E, Thimble, divided circularly. wear. Clamping nut. Ratchet stop, which slips under undue pressure to ensure uniform measurement. hands of careful men easily to half and quarter thousandths ; these cost from £i to £i, IDS. only. In these the subdivision of the turns of the screw is effected by circular graduations. Usually the screw at a. a FIG. 73. — Beam Micrometer Calipers. C, Abutment block with screw c for fine adjustment. d, Clamping screws. D, Micrometer. e. Anvil. A, Beam. B, Head, adjustable by equal inch divisions, by lines a, a, or holes b, b, and plug b' holes bushed. pitch is 40 to the inch, and the circular divisions number 25, so that a movement of one division indicates that the screw has been ad- vanced fa of 4V °r 10*00 °f an. inch. Provision for correcting or taking up the effects of wear is included in these designs (e.g. at a in fig. 72), and varies with different manufacturers. A vernier is sometimes fitted in addition, in very high class instruments, to the circular divisions, so that readings of ten thousandths of an inch can be taken. Beam micrometer calipers (fig. 73) take several inches in length, the micrometer being reserved for fractional parts of the inch only. Depth Gauges. — It is often necessary to measure the depth of one portion of a piece of work below another part, or the height of one portion relatively to a lower one. To hold a rule perpendicularly and take a sight is not an accurate method, because the same objections apply to this as to rule measurement in general. There are many depth gauges made with rule divisions simply, and then these have the advantage of a shouldered face which rests upon the Upper portion of the work and from which the rule measurement is FIG. 74. — Depth Gauges. A, Plain round rod a, sliding in head b, and pinched with screw c. B, Rule a, graduated into inches or metric divisions, sliding on head b, in grooved head of clamping screw c. C, Slocomb depth gauge, fitted with micrometer, a, Rod marked in half inches, sliding in head b ; c, hub ; d, thimble corresponding with similar divided parts in the micrometer calipers; e, clamp- ing screw. taken (fig. 74). These generally have a clamping arrangement. But for very accurate work either the vernier or the micrometer fitting is applied, so that depths can be measured in thousandths of an inch, or sometimes in sixty-fourths, or in metric subdivisions. FIG. 75. — Rod Gauges. A, Pratt & Whitney gauge, a, Tube split at ends; 6, 6, chucks clamping tube on plain rod c, and screwed end d. Rough adjustment is made on rod c, of which several are provided; fine adjustment is by screwed end d. B, Sawyer gauge, a, Body; 6, extension rods for rough adjust- ment, several being supplied and pinched with screw c; d, screwed end with graduated head ; e, reading arm extending from body over graduations; /, clamping screw. Rod Gauges. — When internal diameters have to be taken, too large for plug gauges or calipers to span, the usual custom is to set a rod of iron or steel across, file it till it fits the bore, and then measure its length with a rule. More accurate as well as adjust- able are the rod gauges (fig. 75) to which the vernier or the micro- meter are fitted. These occur in a few varied designs. Screw Thread Gauges. — The taking of linear dimensions, though provided for so admirably by the systems of gauging just dis- cussed, does not cover the important section of screw measurement. This is a department of the highest importance. In most English shops the only test to-day of the size of a screw or nut is the use of a standard screw or nut. That there is variation in these is evidenced by the necessity for fitting nuts to bolts when large 46 TOOL [MEASUREMENT numbers of these are being assembled, after they have been used in temporary erections or when nuts are brought from the stores to fit studs or bolts cut in the shop. This method may suffice in many classes of work, but it is utterly unsuited to an interchange- able system; and when there is a fair amount of the latter firms sometimes make thread gauges of their own, in general form like the plug and ring gauges, using a hard quality of steel for small sizes or a tough quality of cast iron for the larger. These, though not hardened, will endure for a long time if treated carefully. But B 2 FIG. 76. — Screw Thread Gauges. (Pratt & Whitney Co.) A, Plug gauge; a, size of tapping hole; b, thread. B, Ring gauge; a, pins to prevent lateral movement; b, adjusting screw for opening gauge ; c, screw for closing ditto. though very useful and far better than none at all they lack two essentials. They are simply accommodation gauges, made to an existing tap or die, and do not therefore embody any precise abso- lute measurement, nor do they include any means for measuring variations from standard, nor are they hardened. To produce gauges to fulfil these require- ments demands an original standard to work by, micrometric measurements, and the means of grinding after the harden- ing process. These requirements are fulfilled in the screw thread gauges and calipers of the Pratt & Whitney and the Brown & Sharpe companies. The essen- tial feature of a screw gauge is that it measures the sides of the threads with- out risk of a possible false reading due to contact on the bottom or top of the V. This is fulfilled by flatting the top and making the bottom of the gauge keen. The Pratt & Whitney gauges are made as a plug and ring (fig. 76), the plug being solid and the ring capable of precise adjustment round it. There is a plain round end, ground and lapped exactly to the standard size of the bottom of the thread, a dimension which is of an inch (fig. 77). They are used in some kinds of lathe chuck work, but their principal value is in fitting and erecting the finer mechanisms. FIG. 77. — Indicator. A, Base; B, stem; C, arm; D, pointer or feeler, pivoted at a, and magnifying movement of the work E upon the scale b; F, spring to return D to zero. Surface Plates and Cognate Forms. — Allied to the gauges are the instruments for testing the truth of plane surfaces: the surface plates, straight-edges and winding strips. The origination of plane surfaces by scraping, until the mutual coincidence of three plates, is secured, was due to Whitworth. These surface plates (fig. 78, A) fill an important place in workshop practice, since in the best work plane surfaces are tested on them and corrected by scraping. To a large extent the precision grinding machines have lessened the value of scraping, put it is still retained for machine slides and other work of a similar class. In the shops there are two classes of surface plates: those employed daily about the shops, the accuracy of which becomes impaired in time, and the standard C, Common square. D, Square with adjustable blade. obliterated in the threaded end because of the bottoms of the angles being made keen for clearance. There are three kinds of this class of gauge made; the first and most expensive is hardened and ground in the angle, while the second is hardened but not ground. The first is intended for use when a very perfect gauge is required, the second for ordinary shop usage. The third is made unhardened for purposes of reference simply, and it is not brought into contact with the work to be tested at all, but measurements are taken by calipers; in every detail it repre- sents the standard threads. The Brown & Sharpe appliance is of quite a different character. It is a micrometer caliper having a fixed V and a movable point between which the screw to be measured is embraced. By the reading of the micrometer and the use of a constant the diameter of any thread in the middle of the thread can be estimated. Miscellaneous. — The foregoing do not exhaust the gauges. There are gauges for the sectional shapes of screw threads of all pitches, gauges for drilled holes that have to be screwed, gauges for the depth and thickness of the teeth of gear-wheels, gauges for the tapers of machine spindles, gauges for key-grooves, &c. There are also the woodworker's gauges — the marking and cutting, the panel, the mortise and the long-tooth. Indicators are a small group of measuring instruments of a rather peculiar character. They magnify the most minute error by adapta- tions of long and short lever arms. The Bath, the Starrett and the Brown & Sharpe are familiar in high-class shops. Some simply magnify inaccuracy, but in one type an index reads to thousandths FIG. 78. A, Surface plate ; a, protecting cover for ditto when not in use. B, Large ribbed straight-edge. plate or plates employed for test and correction. Straight-edges are derived from the surface plates, or may be originated like them. The largest are made of cast-iron, ribbed and curved on one edge, to prevent flexure, and provided with feet (fig. 78, B). But the smaller straight-edges are gener- ally parallel, and a similar pair constitutes " winding strips," by which any twist or departure from a plane surface is detected. Squares, of which there are numer- ous designs (fig. 78, C and D), are straight-edges set at right angles. Bevels or Devel-squares (fig. 79), are straight-edges comprising a stock and a blade, which are ad- justable for angle in relation to each other. Shop protractors often pJG „ include a blade adjustable for ^ Common bevel angle, forming a bevel with gradua- B' Universal bev±l for test;ng tions. Spirit-levels test the hon- , ana\K zontal truth of surfaces. Many levels have two bubble tubes at right angles with each other, one of which tests the truth of vertical faces. Generally levels have flat feet, but some are made of V-section to fit over shafting. The common plumb-bob is in frequent use for locating the vertical position of centres not in the same horizontal plane. When a TOOLE— TOP 47 plumb-bob is combined with a parallel straight-edge the term plumb- rule is applied. It tests the truth of vertical surface more accurately than a spirit-level. (J. G. H.) TOOLE, JOHN LAWRENCE (1832-1906), English actor, son of an old employe of the East India Company who for many years acted as toast-master in the City of London, was born in London on the i2th of March 1832. He was educated at the City of London School, and started life in a wine merchant's office; but his natural propensity for comic acting was not to be denied, and after some practice as an amateur with the City Histrionic Club, he definitely took to the stage in 1852, appearing in Dublin as Simmons in The Spitalfields Weaver. He gained experience in the provinces, and in 1854 made his first professional appearance in London at the St James's theatre, acting Samuel Pepys in The King's Rival and Weazel in My Friend the Major. In 1857, having just had a great success as Paul Pry, he met Henry Irving in Edinburgh, and recommended him to go to' London; and their friendship remained thenceforth of the closest kind. In 1858 Toole joined Webster at the Adelphi, and established his popularity as a comedian, among other parts creating Joe Spriggins in Id on parle fran$ais. In 1868 he was engaged at the Gaiety, appearing among other pieces in Thespis, the first Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration. His fame was at its height in 1874, when he went on tour to the United States, but he failed to reproduce there the success he had in England. In 1879 he took the " Folly " theatre in London, which he renamed " Toole's " in 1882. He was constantly away in the provinces, but he pro- duced here a number of plays: H. J. Byron's Upper Crust and Auntie; Pinero's Hester's Mystery and Girls and Boys; burlesques such as Paw Claudian, and, later, J. M. Barrie's Walker, London. But his appearances gradually became fewer, and after 1893 he was seen no more on the London stage, while his theatre was pulled down shortly afterwards for an extension of Charing Cross Hospital. He published his reminiscences in 1888. Toole married in 1854; and the death of his only son in 1879, and later of his wife and daughter, had distressing effects on his health; attacks of gout, from 1886 onwards, crippled him, and ultimately he retired to Brighton, where after a long illness he died on the 3oth of July 1906. In his prime he was immensely popular, and also immensely funny in a way which depended a good deal on his tricks and delivery of words. He excelled in what may be called Dickens parts — combining humour and pathos. He was a good man of business, and left a considerable fortune, out of which he made a number of bequests to charity and to his friends. His genial and sympathetic nature was no less conspicuous off the stage than on it. TOOMBS, ROBERT (1810-1885), American political leader, was born near Washington, Wilkes county, Georgia, on the 2nd of July 1810. He was educated at Franklin College (univer- sity of Georgia), at Union College, Schenectady, New York, from which he graduated in 1828, and at the law school of the university of Virginia. He was admitted to the bar in 1830, and served in the Georgia House of Representatives (1838, 1840-1841 and 1843-1844), in the Federal House of Represen- tatives (1845-1853), and in the United States Senate (1853- 1861). He opposed the annexation of Texas, the Mexican War, President Polk s Oregon policy, and the Walker Tariff of 1846. In common with Alexander H. Stephens and Howell Cobb, he supported the Compromise Measures of 1850, denounced the Nashville Convention, opposed the secessionists in Georgia, and helped to frame the famous Georgia platform (1850). His position and that of Southern Unionists during the decade 1850- 1860 has often been misunderstood. They disapproved of secession, not because they considered it wrong in principle, but because they considered it inexpedient. On the dissolution of the Whig party Toombs went over to the Democrats. He favoured the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, the admission of Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution, and the English Bill (1858), and on the 24th of June 1856 introduced in the Senate the Toombs Bill, which proposed a constitutional convention in Kansas under conditions which were acknowledged by various anti-slavery leaders as fair, and which mark the greatest con- cessions made by the pro-slavery senators during the Kansas struggle. The bill did not provide for the submission of the constitution to popular vote, and the silence on this point of the territorial law under which the Lecompton Constitution of Kansas was framed in 1857 was the crux of the Lecompton struggle (see KANSAS). In the presidential campaign of 1860 he supported John C. Breckinridge, and on the 22nd of December, soon after the election of Lincoln, sent a telegram to Georgia which asserted that " secession by the 4th of March next should be thundered forth from the ballot-box by the united voice of Georgia." He delivered a farewell address in the Senate (Jan. 7, 1861), returned to Georgia, and with Governor Joseph E. Brown led the fight for secession against Stephens and Herschel V. Johnson (1812-1880). His influence was a most powerful factor in inducing the " old-line Whigs " to support immediate secession. After a short term as secretary of state in President Davis's cabinet, he entered the army (July 21, 1861),, and served first as a brigadier-general in the Army of Northern Virginia and after 1863 as adjutant and inspector-general of General G. W. Smith's division of Georgia militia. He then spent two years in exile in Cuba, France and England, but returned to Georgia in 1867, and resumed the practice of law. Owing to his refusal to take the oath of allegiance, he was never restored to the full rights of citizenship. He died at his home in Washington, Georgia, on the 1 5th of December 1885. See Pleasant A. Stovall, Robert Toombs, Statesman, Speaker, Soldier, Sage (New York, 1892). TOOTHWORT, the popular name for a small British plant of curious form and growth, known botanically as Lathraea squa- maria. It grows parasitically on roots, chiefly of hazel, in shady places such as hedge sides. It consists of a branched whitish underground stem closely covered with thick fleshy colourless leaves, which are bent over so as to hide the under surface; irregular cavities communicating with the exterior are formed in the thickness of the leaf. On the inner wall of these chambers are stalked hairs, which when stimulated by the touch of an insect send out delicate filaments by means of which the insect is killed and digested. The only portions that appear above ground are the short flower-bearing shoots, which bear a spike of two-lipped dull purple flowers. The scales which represent the leaves also secrete water, which escapes and softens the ground around the plant. Lathraea is closely allied to another British parasitic plant, broomrape (Orobanche). TOOWOOMBA, a town of Aubigny county, Queensland, Australia, 76 m. by rail W. by N. of Ipswich, and 101 m. from Brisbane. It is situated on the summit of the Great Dividing Range, and is the centre of the rich pastoral and agricultural district of Darling Downs. The chief buildings are the town-hall, a large theatre, a school of arts and a library; the Christian Brothers College and several handsome churches. The industries are brewing, tanning, soap-boiling, flour-milling, malting, iron- founding, saw-milling and jam-making. Vineyards are culti- vated by a German colony and large quantities of wine are made. The town received a municipal charter in 1860, and during the governorship of Lord Lamington (1896-1897) became the summer residence of the governor and his staff. Pop. (1901), 9137; within the five-mile radius, 14,087. TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot), a toy consist- ing of a body of conical, circular or oval shape with a point or peg on which it turns or is made to whirl. The twisting or whirl- ing motion is applied by whipping or lashing when it is a " whip- ping top " or " peg-top," or by the rapid unwinding of a string tightly wound round a head or handle. When the body is hollow this results in a whirring noise, whence the name " hum- ming top." Other kinds of tops are made as supports for coloured disks which on revolving show a kaleidoscopic variation of patterns. The top is also used in certain games of chance, when it is generally known as a " teetotum." There are many references to it in ancient classical literature. The Greek terms for the toy are /3e/ij3t^, which was evidently the whipping or peg top (Arist. Birds, 1461), and orpo/SiXos, a humming top, spun by a string (Plato, Rep. iv. 436 E.). In Homer (//. xiv. 413) the word TOPAZ— TOPEKA orpo/Lt/Sos seems to point to the humming top. The Latin name for the top was turbo. This word and the Greek /ioju/3os are sometimes translated by " top " when they refer to the instrument used in the Dionysiac mysteries, which, when whirled in the air by a string, produced a booming noise. This was no doubt the equivalent of the " bull roarer " (q.v.). Strutt (Games and Pastimes, 491) says that the top was known in England as early as the I4th century. For the scientific properties of the top see GYROSCOPE and GYROSTAT. This word must be distinguished from that signifying the highest or uppermost part of anything. It appears to have meant origin- ally a tuft or crest of hair, cf. Ger. Zopf, Du. top, Icel. topps, &c. ; it is allied to Eng. " tap," a spike for a cask, and " tip,' point. Some etymologists have identified the two words, the toy being so called from spinning on its top or tip, but the two German forms seem to prove conclusively that the words are different. TOPAZ, a mineral usually found in connexion with granitic rocks and used, when fine, as a gem-stone. It is believed that the topaz of modern mineralogists was unknown to the ancients, and that the stone described under the name of Toirdftos, in allusion to its occurrence on an island in the Red Sea known as TOTraf tos i^tros, was the mineral which is now termed chrysolite or peridot (q.v.). The Hebrew pitdah, translated " topaz " in the Old Testament, may also have been the chrysolite. Topaz crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, usually with a prismatic habit (figs, i and 2). Many of the crystals, like those from Saxony and Siberia, are rich in faces, and present with the prisms a complicated combination of pyramids and domes. The faces of the prism-zone are usually striated vertically. Doubly- terminated crystals are rare, and sometimes apparently hemi- morphic. The mineral presents a perfect cleavage transverse M FIG. i. M FIG. 2. to the long axis of the prism, and the cleavage-plane often has a pearly lustre. The chemical composition of the topaz has given rise to much discussion, but it is now generally regarded as an aluminium fluo-silicate having the formula Al2F2SiC>4. It was shown by Professor S. L. Penfield and Mr J. C. Minor that the fluorine may be partially replaced by hydroxyl. When strongly heated topaz suffers considerable loss of weight. Sir D. Brewster found in topaz numerous microscopic cavities containing fluids, some of which have received the names of brewsterlinite and cryptolinite. Possibly some of the liquid inclusions may be hydrocarbons. The topaz, when pure, may be colourless, and if cut as a brilliant has been mistaken for diamond. It has, too, the same specific gravity, about 3-5. It is, however, greatly inferior in hardness, the hardness of topaz being only 8; and it has lower refractivity and dispersive powers: moreover, being an orthorhombic mineral, it possesses double refraction. From phenacite and from rock-crystal, for which it may be mistaken, it is distinguished by being biaxial and by having a much higher specific gravity. The topaz becomes electric by heating, by friction or by pressure. Colourless limpid topazes are known in Brazil as pingos d'agoa, or " drops of water," whilst in England they pass in trade as " minas novas," from a locality in the state of Minas Geraes in Brazil. Coloured topazes usually present various shades of yellow, blue or brown. The pleochroism is fairly marked, the colour of the sherry-yellow crystals from Brazil being generally resolved by the dichroscope into a brownish-yellow and a rose-pink. The colour in many cases is unstable, and the brown topazes of Siberia are specially liable to suffer bleaching by exposure to sunlight. In 1750 a Parisian jeweller named Dumelle discovered that the yellow Brazilian topaz becomes pink on exposure to a moderate heat, and this treatment has since been extensively applied, so that nearly all the pink topaz occurring in jewelry has been artificially heated. Such " burnt topaz " is often known as " Brazilian ruby," a name applied also to the natural red topaz, which, however, is excessively rare. " Brazilian sapphire " is the term sometimes given to blue topaz, but the colour is usually pale. The delicate green topaz has been incorrectly called aquamarine, which is a name applicable only to the sea-green beryl (q.v.). According to A. K. Coomaraswamy, yellow sapphire is often sold as topaz in Ceylon, where yellow topaz is unknown, whilst pink corundum is frequently called there " king topaz." The topaz is cut on a leaden wheel, and polished with tripoli. It is generally step-cut, or table-cut, but its beauty is best developed when in the form of a brilliant. Cut topazes of large size are known, and it is said that the great " Braganza diamond " of Portugal is probably a topaz. Topaz usually occurs in granitic and gneissose rocks, often in greisen, and is commonly associated with cassiterite, tourmaline and beryl. It seems to have been formed, in many cases, by pneumato- lytic action. In the west of England it is found in Cornwall, notably at St Michael's Mount and at Cligga Head near St Agnes. It occurs also in Lundy Island. The finest British topaz is found in the Cairngorm group of mountains in the central Highlands, especially at Ben a Buird. Rolled pebbles occur in the bed of the Avon in Banffshire. Beautiful, though small, crystals occur in the drusy cavities of the granite of the Mourne Mountains in Ireland. The famous topaz-rock of the Schneckenstein, near Auerbach, in Saxony, yields pale yellow crystals, formerly cut for jewelry, and it is said that these do not become pink on heating. Fine topazes occur in Russia, at several localities in the Urals and in the Adun-chalon Mountains, near Nerchinsk, in Siberia. A very fine series from the Koksharov collection is in the British Museum. Beautiful crystals of topaz are found in Japan, especially at Taka- yama in the province of Mino, and at Tanokamiyama in Omi province. Ceylon and _ Burma occasionally yield topazes. Brazil is a famous locality, the well-known sherry-yellow crystals coming from Ouro Preto, formerly called Villa Rica, the capital of Minas Geraes, where they occur in a kaolinitic matrix, resulting from the alteration of a mica-schist, which is regarded by Professor O. A. Derby as a metamorphosed igneous rock. Topaz occurs in the tin-drifts of New South Wales, especially in the New England district; it has been discovered in the Coolgardie goldfield. West Australia; and it is found also in the tinfields of Tasmania and on Flinders Island in Bass's Strait. Fine topaz has been worked near Pike's Peak in Colorado, and in San Diego county, California. The mineral occurs in rhyolite at Nathrop in Chaffee county and Chalk Mountain in Summit county, Colorado, and in trachyte near Sevier Lake, Utah. The occurrence of topaz in these volcanic rocks is very notable, and contrasts with its common occurrence in granites. It is found in like manner in rhyolite at San Luis Potosi in Mexico; and beautiful little limpid crystals accompany stream-tin at Durango. Common topaz occurs in coarse crystals at many localities. A columnar variety from the tin-districts of Saxony and Bohemia, and from Mt Bischoff in Tasmania, is known as pycnite (nvnvk, dense) ; whilst a coarse opaque topaz from granite near Falun, in Sweden, has been termed pyrophysa- lite (irDp, fire; 4>woa>, to blow), in allusion to its behaviour when heated. " Oriental topaz " is the name sometimes given to yellow corun- dum, a mineral readily distinguished from true topaz by superior hardness and density. Yellow and smoke-tinted quartz, or cairn- gorm, is often known as " Scotch topaz " or " Spanish topaz," according to its locality; but these, on the contrary, are inferior in hardness and density. The chief differences between the three minerals may be seen in the following table, in which they are arranged in order of hardness, density and refractivity : — Scotch Topaz. True Topaz. Oriental Topaz. Hardness .... Specific gravity Refractive indices Crystallization Chemical composition 1-6 1-54, 1-55 Hexagonal SiO2 8 3-5 1-61, 1-62 Orthorhombic Al2F2SiO4 9 4 1-76, 1-77 Hexagonal A1203 (F. W. R.*) TOPEKA, a city and the county-seat of Shawnee county, Kansas, U.S.A., the capital of the state, situated on both sides of TOPELIUS— TOPFFER 49 the Kansas river, in the east part of the state, about 60 m. W. of Kansas City. Pop. (1900), 33,608, of whom 3201 were foreign- born (including 702 Germans, 575 Swedes, 512 English, 407 Russians, 320 Irish, &c.) and 4807 were negroes; (1910, census), 43,684. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union Pacific and the Missouri Pacific railways. The city is regularly laid out on a fairly level prairie bench, considerably elevated above the river and about 890 ft. above sea-level. Among its prominent build- ings are the United States government building, the Capitol (erected 1866-1903 at a cost of $3,200,589 and one of the best state buildings in the country), the county court house, the public library (1882), an auditorium (with a seating capacity of about 5000), the Y.M.C.A. building, a memorial building, housing historical relics of the state, and Grace Church Cathedral (Protestant Episcopal). The city is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. In the Capitol are the library (about 6000 volumes) and natural history collections of the Kansas Academy of Science, and the library (30,000 books, 94,000 pamphlets and 28,500 manuscripts) and collections of the Kansas State Historical Society, which publishes Kansas Historical Collections (1875 sqq.) and Biennial Reports (1879 sqq.). The city is the seat of Washburn (formerly Lincoln) College (1865), which took its present name in 1868 in honour of Ichabod Washburn of Wor- cester, Massachusetts, who gave it $25,000; in 1909 it had 783 students (424 being women). Other educational establishments are the College of the Sisters of Bethany (Protestant Episcopal, 1861), for women, and the Topeka Industrial and Educational Institute (1895), for negroes. In Topeka are the state insane asylum, Christ's Hospital (1894), the Jane C. Stormont Hospital and Training School for nurses (1895), the Santa Fe Railway Hospital, the Bethesda Hospital (1906) and the St Francis Hospital (1909). Topeka is an important manufacturing city. Its factory product was valued in 1905 at $14,448,869. Natural gas is piped from southern Kansas for manufacturing and domestic use. The first white settlement on the site of Topeka was made in 1852, but the city really originated in 1854, when its site was chosen by a party from Lawrence. It was from the first a free- state stronghold. More than one convention was held here in Territorial days, including that which framed the Topeka Constitution of 1855; and some of the meetings of the free-state legislature chosen under that document (see KANSAS) were also held here. Topeka was made the temporary state capital under the Wyandotte Constitution, and became the permanent capital in 1861. It was first chartered by the pro-slavery Territorial legislature in 1857, but did not organize its government until 1858 (see LAWRENCE). In 1881 it was chartered as a city of the first class. The first railway outlet, the Union Pacific, reached Eugene, now North Topeka, in 1865. The construction of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe was begun here in 1868, and its construction shops, of extreme importance to the city, were built here in 1878. In 1880, just after the great negro immigration to Kansas, the coloured population was 31% of the total. See F. W. Giles, Thirty Years in Topeka (Topeka, 1886). TOPELIUS, ZAKRIS [ZACH ARIAS] (1818-1898), Finnish author, was born at Kuddnas, near Nykarleby, on the I4th of January 1818. He was the son of a doctor of the same name, who was distinguished as the earliest collector of Finnish folk-songs. Topelius became a student at Hel- singfors in 1833, was made professor in 1863 and received in succession all the academic distinctions open to him. Quite early in his career he began to distinguish himself as a lyric poet, with the three successive volumes of his Heather Blossoms (1845-1854). The earliest of his historical romances was The Duchess of Finland, published in 1850. He was also editor-in-chief of the Helsingfors Gazette from 1841 to 1860. In 1878 Topelius was allowed to withdraw from his professional duties, but this did not sever his connexion with the university; it gave him, however, more leisure for his abundant and various literary enterprises. Of all the multi- farious writings of Topelius, in prose and verse, that which has enjoyed the greatest popularity is his Tales of a Barber-Surgeon, episodes of historical fiction from the days of Gustavus II. Adolphus to those of Gustavus III., treated in the manner of Sir Walter Scott; the five volumes of this work appeared at intervals between 1853 and 1867. Topelius attempted the drama also, with most success in his tragedy of Regina von Emmeritz (1854). Topelius aimed, with eminent but perhaps pathetic success, at the cultivation of a strong passion of patriotism in Finland. He died on the I3th of March 1898 at Helsingfors. Topelius was an exceptionally happy writer for children, his best-known book being Lasning for barn. His abundant poetry is graceful and patriotic, but does not offer any features of great originality. (E. G.) TOPETE, JUAN BAUPTISTA (1821-1885), Spanish naval commander and politician, was born in Mexico on the 24th of May 1821. His father and grandfather were also Spanish admirals. He entered the navy at the age of seventeen, cut out a Carlist vessel in 1839, became a midshipman at twenty-two, obtained the cross of naval merit for saving the life of a sailor in 1841 and became a lieutenant in 1845. He served on the West Indian station for three years, and was engaged in repressing the slave trade before he was promoted frigate captain in 1857. He was chief of staff to the fleet during the Morocco War, 1859, after which he got the crosses of San Fernando and San Hermenegildo. Having been appointed chief of the Carrara arsenal at Cadiz, he was elected deputy and joined the Union Liberal of O'Donnell and Serrano. He was sent out to the Pacific in command of the frigate " Blanca," and was present at the bombardment of Valparaiso and Callao, where he was badly wounded, and in other engagements of the war between Chile and Peru. On his return to Spain, Topete was made port captain at Cadiz, which enabled him to take the lead of the conspiracy in the fleet against the Bourbon monarchy. He sent the steamer " Buenaventura " to the Canary Isle for Serrano and the other exiles; and when Prim and Sagasta arrived from Gibraltar, the whole fleet under the influence of Topete took such an attitude that the people, garrison and authorities of Cadiz followed suit. Topete took part in all the acts of the revolutionary government, accepted the post of marine minister, was elected a member of the Cortes of 1869, supported the pretensions of Montpensier, opposed the election of Amadeus, sat in several cabinets of that king's reign, was prosecuted by the federal republic of 1873 and again took charge of the marine under Serrano in 1874. After the Restora- tion Topete for some years held aloof, but finally accepted the presidency of a naval board in 1877, and sat in the Senate as a life peer until his death on the 2gth of October 1885 at Madrid. TOPFFER, RODOLPHE (1799-1846), the inventor of pedes- trian journeys in Switzerland by schoolboys, was born at Geneva on the 3ist of January 1799. His grandfather, a tailor, came about 1 760 from Schweinfurt (Bavaria) to settle in Geneva, while his father, Adam, was an artist. Rodolphe's literary education was rather desultory, as he intended to be an artist, like his father. But in 1819 his weak eyesight put an end to that intention, so he studied in Paris, intending to devote himself to the profession of schoolmaster. After passing some time in a private school in Geneva (1822-1824), he founded (1824) one of his own, after his marriage. It was in 1823 that he made his first foot journey in the Alps with his pupils, though this became his regular practice only from 1832 onwards. These Voyages en zigzag were described annually (1832-1843) in a series of lithographed volumes, with sketches by the author — the first printed edition appeared at Paris in 1844, and a second series (Nouveaux voyages en zig- zag) also at Paris in 1854. Both series have since passed through many editions. In 1832 he was named professor of belles-lettres at the university of Geneva, and held that chair till his death, on the 8th of June 1846. As early as 1830 he published an article in the Bibliotheque universelle of Geneva. It was followed by a number of tales, commencing with the Bibliotheque de man oncle (1832), many of which were later collected (1841) into the well- known volume which bears the title of Nowvelles genevoises. He took some part (on the Conservative side) in local politics, and was (1841-1843) editor of the Courrier de Geneve. Among 50 his other works are an edition of Demosthenes (1824), and a volume of artistic studies, the Reflexions el menus propos d'un peinire genevois (1848). Lives by A. Blondel and the abb<5 Relave (both published at Paris, 1886), and shorter notices in E. Rambert's iLcrivains nationaux (Geneva, 1874) ; and E. Javelle's Souvenirs d'un alpinists (Lausanne, 1886; Eng. trans., 1899, under the title of Alpine Memories), and several chapters in Ste Beuve's Causeries du lundi, Derniers portraits litteraires and Portraits contemporains. (W. A. B. C.) TOPHET, or TOPHETH ( nynn), the name given in 2 Kings xxiii. 10; Jer. vii. 31, to a spot in the valley of Ben Hinnom near Jerusalem where the Hebrews in the time of Ahab and Manasseh offered children to Molech and other heathen gods. Josiah " denied" it as part of his reforming activity, and it became a place for the bestowal and destruction of refuse, and a synonym for Gehenna (Isa. xxx. 33 ; Jer. vii. 32). The uncertain etymology of the word is discussed in the Ency. Bib., s.v. " Molech," § 3, "Topheth." TOPIARY, a term in gardening or horticulture for the cutting and trimming of shrubs, such as cypress, box or yew, into regular and ornamental shapes. It is usually applied to the cutting of trees into urns, vases, birds and other fantastic shapes, which were common at the end of the iyth century and through the 1 8th, but it also embraces the more restrained art necessary for the laying out of a formal garden. Yew and holly trees cut into fantastic objects may still be seen in old-fashioned cottage or farmhouse gardens in England. The Lat. topiarius meant an ornamental or landscape gardener, and was formed from topia (Gr. roxos, place), a term specially employed for a formal kind of landscape painting used as a mural decoration in Roman houses. TOPLADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE (1740-1778), Anglican divine, was born at Farnham, Surrey, and educated at West- minster and Trinity College, Dublin. Although originally a follower of Wesley, he in 17 58 adopted extreme Calvinist opinions. He was ordr.ined in 1762 and became vicar of Harpford with Fenn-Ottery, Devonshire, in 1766. In 1768 he exchanged to the living of Broadhembury, Devonshire. He is chiefly known as a writer of hymns and poems, including " Rock of Ages," and the collections entitled Poems on Sacred Subjects (Dublin, 1759) and Psalms and Hymns for Public and Private Worship (London, 1776). His best prose work is the Historic Proof of the Doctrinal Calvinism of the Church of England (London, 1774). Some comments by Wesley upon Toplady's presentation of Calvinism led to a controversy which was carried on with much bitter- ness on both sides. Toplady wrote a venomous Letter to Mr Wesley (1770), and Wesley repeated his comments in The Consequence Proved (1771), whereupon Toplady replied with increased acridity in More Work for Mr Wesley (1772). From 1775 to 1778, having obtained leave of non-residence at Broadhembury, he lived in London, and ministered at a Calvinist church in Orange Street. TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. TOTOJ, place, yp^fiv, to write), a description of a town, district or locality, giving details of its geographical and architectural features. The term is also applied in anatomy to the mapping out of the surface of the human body, either according to a division based on the organs or parts lying below certain regions, or on a superficial plotting out of the body by anatomical boundaries and landmarks. TORAN, the name in Hindustani (Skr. torana, from tor, pass) of a sacred or honorific gateway in Buddhist architecture. Its typical form is a projecting cross-piece resting on two uprights or posts. It is made of wood or stone, and the cross-piece is generally of three bars placed one on the top of the other; both cross-piece and posts are usually sculptured. 10RBERNITE (or cupro-uranite), a mineral which is one of the " uranium micas "; a hydrous uranium and copper phosphate, Cu(UO2)2(PO4)2+i2H2O. Crystals are tetragonal and have the form of square plates, which are often very thin. There is a perfect micaceous cleavage parallel to the basal plane, and on this face the lustre is pearly. The bright grass-green colour is a characteristic feature of the mineral. The hardness is z\ and the specific gravity 3-5. The radio-activity of the mineral TOPHET— TORDENSKJOLD is greater than that of some specimens of pitchblende. It was first observed in 1772 at Johanngeorgenstadt in Saxony, but the best examples are from Gunnislake near Calstock and Redruth in Cornwall. The name torbenite is after Torbern Bergman: chalcolite is a synonym. (L. J. S.) TORCELLO, an island of Venetia, Italy, in the lagoons about 6 m. to the N.W. of Venice, belonging to the commune of Burano. It was a flourishing city in the early middle ages, but now has only a few houses and two interesting churches. The former cathedral of S. Maria was founded in the 7th century. The present building, a basilica with columns, dates from 864; the nave was restored in 1008, in which year the now ruined octagonal baptistery was built. It contains large mosaics of the i2th century, strongly under Byzantine influence; those on the west wall represent the Resurrection and Last Judgment. The seats for the priests are arranged round the semicircular apse, rising in steps with the bishop's throne in the centre — an arrange- ment unique in Italy. Close by is S. Fosca, a church of the i2th century, octagonal outside, with colonnades on five sides and a rectangular interior intended for a dome which was never executed, beyond which is a three-apsed choir. In the local museum are four Mycenaean vases, one found in the island and another on the adjacent island of Mazzorbo, proving direct intercourse with the Aegean Sea in prehistoric times. SeeR. M. Dawkins, in Journal of Hellenic Studies (\<)Q$ , xxiv. 125. TORCH (O. Fr. torche, from Med. Lat. lorlia, derived from tortus, twisted, torquere, to twist), a light or illuminant that can be carried in the hand, made of twisted tow, hemp or other inflammable substance. Torches or " links " were, till the general introduction of street lighting, necessary adjuncts for passengers on foot or in carriages in towns at night, and many of the older houses in London and elsewhere still retain the iron stands outside their doors, in which the torches might be placed. TORCHERE, a candelabrum mounted upon a tall stand of wood or metal, usually with two or three lights. When it was first introduced in France towards the end of the I7th century the torchere mounted one candle only, and when the number was doubled or tripled the improvement was regarded almost as a revolution in the lighting of large rooms. TORDENSKJOLD, PEDER (1691-1720), eminent Danish naval hero, the tenth child of alderman Jan Wessel of Bergen, in Norway, was born at Trondhjem on the 28th of October 1691. Wessel was a wild unruly lad who gave his pious parents much trouble. Finally he ran away from them by hiding in a ship bound for Copenhagen, where the king's chaplain Dr Peder Jes- persen took pity on the friendless lad, gratified his love for the sea by sending him on a voyage to the West Indies, and finally procured him a vacant cadetship. After further voyages, this time to the East Indies, Wessel was, on the 7th of July 1711, appointed 2nd lieutenant in the royal marine and shortly afterwards became the captain of a little 4-gun sloop " Ormen" (The Serpent), in which he cruised about the Swedish coast and picked up much useful information about the enemy. In June 1712 he was promoted to a 2o-gun frigate, against the advice of the Danish admiralty, which pronounced him to be too flighty and unstable for such a command. His dis- criminating patron was the Norwegian admiral Lovendal, who was the first to recognize the young man's ability as a naval officer. At this period Wessel was already renowned for two things: the audacity with which he attacked any Swedish vessels he came across regardless of odds, and his unique seaman- ship, which always enabled him to escape capture. The Great Northern War had now entered upon its later stage, when Sweden, beset on every side by foes, employed her fleet principally to transport troops and stores to her distressed German provinces. The audacity of Wessel impeded her at every point. He was continually snapping up transports, dashing into the fjords where her vessels lay concealed, and holding up her detached frigates. In July 1714 he encountered a frigate which had been equipped in England for the Swedes and was on its way to Gothenburg under the command of an English captain. Wessel instantly TOREADOR— TORENO attacked her but in the English captain he met his match. The combat lasted all day, was interrupted by nightfall, and renewed again indecisively the following morning. Wessel's free and easy ways procured him many enemies in the Danish navy. He was accused of unnecessarily endangering his majesty's war-ships in the affairs with the frigate and he was brought before a court-martial. But the spirit with which he defended himself and the contempt he poured on his less courageous comrades took the fancy of King Frederick IV., who cancelled the proceedings and raised Wessel to the rank of captain. When in the course of 1715 the return of Charles XII. from Turkey to Stralsund put a new life into the jaded and dispirited Swedish forces, Wessel distinguished himself in numerous engagements off the Pomeranian coast and did the enemy infinite damage by cutting out their frigates and destroy- ing their transports. On returning to Denmark in the beginning of 1716 he was ennobled under the title of " Tordenskjold " (Thundershield). When in the course of 1716 Charles XII. invaded Norway and sat down before the fortress of Fredrik- shald, Tordenskjold compelled him to raise the siege and retire to Sweden by pouncing upon the Swedish transport fleet laden with ammunition and other military stores which rode at anchor in the narrow and dangerous strait of Dynekil, utterly destroying the Swedish fleet with little damage to him- self. For this, his greatest exploit, he was promoted to the rank of commander, but at the same time incurred the enmity of his superior officer Admiral Gabel, whom he had omitted to take into his confidence on the occasion. Tordenskjold 's first important command was the squadron with which he was entrusted in the beginning of 1717 for the purpose of destroying the Swedish Gothenburg squadron which interrupted the com- munications between Denmark and Norway. Owing to the disloyalty of certain of his officers who resented serving under the young adventurer, Tordenskjold failed to do all that was expected of him. His enemies were not slow to take advantage of his partial failure. The old charge of criminal recklessness was revived against him at a second court-martial before which he was summoned in 1718; but his old patron Admiral U. C. Gyldenlove again intervened energetically in his behalf and the charge was quashed. In December 1718 Tordenskjold brought to Frederick IV. the welcome news of the death of Charles XII. and was made a rear-admiral for his pains. Tor- denskjold's last feat of arms was his capture of the Swedish fortress of Marstrand, when he partially destroyed and partially captured the Gothenburg squadron which had so long eluded him. He was rewarded with the rank of vice-admiral. Tordenskjold did not long survive the termination of the war. On the 2oth of November 1720 he was killed in a duel with a Livonian colonel, Jakob Axel Stael von Holstein. Although, Dynekil excepted, Tordenskjold;s victories were of far less importance than Sehested's at Stralsund and Gyldenlove's at Rugen, he is certainly, after Charles XII., the most heroic figure of the Great Northern War. His courage was fully equal to the courage of " The Lion of the North," but he lacked that absolute self- command which gives to the bravery of Charles XII. its peculiar, almost superhuman, character. See Carstensen and Lutken, Tordenskjold (Copenhagen, 1887). (R. N. B.) TOREADOR, a Spanish word derived from torear, to engage in a bull-fight, two, a bull, Latin taurus, for one of the principal performers in the national sport of bull-fighting (q.v.). TORELL, OTTO MARTIN (1828-1900), Swedish geologist, was born in Varberg on the sth of June 1828. He was edu- cated at Lund for the medical profession, but became interested in zoological and geological studies, and being of independent means he devoted himself to science. He gave his attention first especially to the invertebrate fauna and the physical changes of pleistocene and recent times. He studied the glacial phenomena of Switzerland, Spitzbergen and Green- land, making two Arctic expeditions in company with A. E. Nordenskiold. In 1866 he became professor of zoology and geology in the University at Lund, and in 1871 he was appointed chief of the Swedish Geological Survey. In the latter capacity he laboured until 1897. His published contributions, though of much interest and importance, were not large, but his influence in promoting a knowledge of geology in Sweden was of great service. His Arctic experiences enabled him to interpret the method of origin of the drift deposits in northern Europe, and to show that they were largely of glacial or fluvio-glacial origin. In the English drifts he recognized many boulders of Scandinavian origin. He died on the nth of September 1900. His publications include: Bidrag till Spitzbergens molluskfauna ('859); and memoirs to accompany several sheets of the Geological Survey map of Sweden. Obituary with portrait, in Geol. Mag (May 1902), reproduced in abridged form from memoir by L. Holmstrom, in Geologiska forenin- gen i Stockholm's forhandlingar, xxiii. TORENO, JOS6 MARIA QUIEPO DE LLANO RUIZ DE SARAVIA, COUNT OF (1786-1843), Spanish politician and his- torian, was born at Oviedo on the 25th of November 1786. His family was wealthy and belonged to the most ancient nobility of Asturias. His mother, Dominga Ruiz de Saravia, had property in the province of Cuenca. The son received a better education in classics, mathematics and modern languages than was usual at that time. The young viscount of Matarrosa, the title he bore in his father's lifetime, was introduced to the writings of Voltaire and Rousseau by the abbot of the Benedictine house of Monserrat in Madrid. He was present at Madrid when the city rose against Murat on the 2nd of May 1808, and took part in the struggle which was the beginning of the Peninsular War. From Madrid he escaped to Asturias, and on the 3oth of May he embarked in a Jersey privateer at Gijon, with other delegates, in order to ask for the help of England against the French. The deputation was enthusiastically received in London. By the 3Oth of December he was back in Asturias, his father having died in the interval. During the Peninsular War he saw some service in the first occupation of Asturias by the French, but he was mainly occu- pied by his duties as a member of the Cortes. In 1809 he was at Seville, where one of his uncles was a member of the central Junta. In the following year he was a leader of the party which compelled the Regency to summon the Cortes — to which he was elected by Asturias early in 1811 though he wanted some months of the legal age of twenty-five. His election was opposed by some of his own relatives who did not share his advanced opinions, but it was ratified by the Cortes. Toreno was conspicuous among the well-meaning men who framed the constitution of 1812, which was made as if it was meant for some imaginary republic and not for Catholic and monarchical Spain. When Ferdinand VII. returned from prison in France in 1814 Toreno foresaw a reaction, and put himself out of reach of the king. He was the more an object of suspicion because his brother- in-law, Porlier, perished in a wild attempt to support the con- stitution by force. Toreno remained in exile till the outbreak of the revolution of 1820. Between that year and 1823 he was in Spain serving in the restored Cortes, and experience had abated his radical ardour. When the French intervened in 1823 Toreno had again to go into exile, and remained abroad till the king published the amnesty of the isth of October 1832. He returned home in July 1833, but remained on his estates till the king's death on the 29th of September. As hereditary standard bearer of Asturias (Alferez Mayor) it fell to him to proclaim the young queen, Isabella II. In 1834 his now moderate opinions pointed him out to the queen regent, Maria Christina, as a useful man for office. In June 1834 he was minister of finance, and became prime minister on the 7th of June. His tenure of the premiership lasted only till the I4th of September of the same year, when the regent's attempt to retain a practically despotic government under a thin constitutional veil broke down. The greater part of the remainder of his life was spent in voluntary exile, and he died in Paris on the 1 6th of September 1843. As a politician he felt the need for a revision of the worn out despotism which ruled till 1808, but he was destitute of any real political capacity. Toreno is chiefly remembered as the author of the History of the Rising, War TORENO— TORONTO and Revolution of Spain, which he began between 1823 and 1832 and published in 1836-1838 in Paris. As a work of military criticism it is not of high value, and Toreno was prejudiced in favour of his colleagues of the Cortes, whose errors and ex- cesses he shared in and excused. The book is, however, written in excellent Castilian, and was compiled with industry. It is worth consulting as an illustration of the time in which the author lived, as a patriotic Spanish view of the war, and for the pro- minence it gives to the political side of the Peninsular War, which he justly treated as a revolution. A biography by Don Antonio de Cueto is prefixed to the reprint of the Levantamiento guerra y revolution de Espana, in vol. Ixiy. of the Biblioleca de auiores espanoles of Rivadeneyra (Madrid 1846-1880). TORENO, QUEIPO DE LLANO Y GAYOSO DE, COUNT (1840-1890), Spanish politician, son of the preceding, was born in Madrid in 1840. He was educated at the Madrid Institute and University, entered parliament in 1864 as 'a Moderado, and sat in all the Cortes of Queen Isabella's reign as a deputy for his ancestral province, Asturias. Loyal to the Bourbons all through the revolution, he nevertheless became a deputy in the Cortes of 1871-1873, and founded an Alphonsist paper, El Tiempo, in 1873. When the Restoration took place, its first cabinet made Count de Toreno mayor of the capital, and in 1875 minister of public works, in which capacity he im- proved the public libraries, museums, academies and archives, and caused many important works to be published, includ- ing the Cartas de Indias. In 1879 he became minister for foreign affairs, in 1880 president of the House of Deputies, in 1884 again governor of Madrid, and in 1885 again president of the House of Deputies. During the reign of Alphonso XII. and the first years of the regency of Queen Christina Count de Toreno was one of the most prominent Conservative leaders, and was often consulted by the Crown. He died on the 3ist of January 1890. He was a patron of the turf, and established a race-course in Madrid, where the first races took place in the reign of Alphonso XII. TORGAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, situated on the left bank of the Elbe, 30 m. N.E. of Leipzig and 26 m. S.E. of Wittenberg by rail. Pop. (1905), 12,299. Its most conspicuous building is the Schloss Hartenfels, on an island in the Elbe, which was built, or at least was finished, by the elector of Saxony, John Frederick the Magnanimous. This castle, which is now used as a barracks, is one of the largest Renaissance buildings in Germany. It was for some time the residence of the electors of Saxony and contains a chapel con- secrated by Martin Luther. The town hall, a 16th-century building, houses a collection of Saxon antiquities. Torgau • has two Evangelical churches and a Roman Catholic church. One of the former, the Stadt Kirche, contains paintings by Lucas Cranach and the tomb of Catherine von Bora, the wife of Luther. The chief industries of the town are the manufacture of gloves, carriages, agricultural machinery, beer and bricks; there is a trade in grain both on the Elbe and by rail. The fortifications, begun in 1807 by order of Napoleon, were dis- mantled in 1889-1891. In the vicinity is the royal stud farm of Graditz. Torgau is said to have existed as the capital of a distinct principality in the time of the German king Henry I., but early in the I4th century it was in the possession of the margraves of Meissen and later of the electors of Saxony, who frequently resided here. The town came into prominence at the time of the Reformation. In 1526 John, elector of Saxony, Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and other Protestant princes formed a league against the Roman Catholics, and the Torgau articles, drawn up here by Luther and his friends in 1530, were the basis of the confession of Augsburg. Torgau is particularly celebrated as the scene of a battle fought on the 3rd of November 1760, when Frederick the Great defeated the Austrians (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR). In January 1814 Torgau was taken by the Germans after a siege of three months and it was formally ceded to Prussia in 1815. See Grulich and Btirger, Denkwurdigkeiten der altsachsischen Resident Torgau aus der Zeit der Reformation (Torgau, 1855) ; Knabe, Geschichte der Stadt Torgau bis zur Reformation (Torgau, 1880); and the publications of the Altertumverein zu Torgau (Torgau 1884 sqq.). TORNADO (Span., tornado, a turning about, cf. " turn "), a local whirlwind of extreme violence, usually formed within a thunderstorm. In appearance it consists of a funnel-shaped cloud, depending from the mass of storm-cloud above, and when fully developed tapering downwards to the earth. Besides its whirling motion, a tornado has an advancing movement of from 20 to 40 m. an hour — and along its own narrow path it carries destruction. Its duration is usually from half an hour to an hour. Tornadoes are most common in America, espe- cially in the Mississippi Valley and the Southern states ; in Europe and elsewhere they are comparatively rare. Owing to their association with thunderstorms they generally occur in warm weather. A tornado is the result of a condition of local in- stability in the atmosphere, originating high above the earth. A current of air is induced to ascend with a rapid spiral motion round a central core of low pressure. The moisture in the ascending air is condensed by cooling both as it ascends and as it expands into the low-pressure core. The cloud-funnel appears to grow downwards because the moisture in the air is condensed more rapidly than the air itself, following a spiral course, ascends. TORO, a town of Spain, in the province of Zamora, on the right bank of the river Duero (Douro), and on the Zamora- Medina del Campo railway. Pop. (1900), 8379. Toro is an ancient fortified town, with picturesque narrow streets, among which are many medieval churches, convents and palaces, besides modern schools and public buildings. A fine bridge of twenty-two arches spans the river. The cathedral church is Romanesque; it dates from the I2th century but has been partially restored. The palace of the marquesses of Santa Cruz was the meeting place of the Cortes of 1371, 1442 and 1505, which made Toro and its code of laws celebrated. Toro is first mentioned in documents of the loth century. It played an important part in the development of the kingdoms of Leon and Castile and in the reconquest of Spain from the Moors. TORONTO, the capital of the province of Ontario, and the second largest city in the Dominion of Canada, situated on the northern shore of Lake Ontario, almost due north from the mouth of the Niagara river. It lies on a plateau gradually ascending from the lake shore to an altitude of 220 ft., and covers an area of nearly 20 sq. m. The river Don flows through the eastern part of the city, and the river Humber forms its western limit. The fine bay in front of the city, affording a safe and commodious harbour, is formed by an island stretching along the south of it. The city is well laid out for the most part, the streets crossing each other at right angles; Yonge Street, the chief artery, running north from the bay, was constructed as a military road in 1796, and extends under the same name for upwards of 30 m. to Lake Simcoe. It constitutes the dividing line of the city, the cross streets being called east or west according to the side of it they are on. Toronto is the seat of government for the province, and contains the parliament buildings, the lieutenant-governor's residence, the courts of law and the educational departmental buildings. The parliament buildings are situated in Queen's Park, almost in the centre of [the city, and are an imposing structure of red sandstone in the neo-Greek style built at great cost. They are shortly to be enlarged, as the needs of the province have outgrown them. A little distance to the west stand the university buildings, the central one being a splendid piece of architecture in the Norman style. Stretching in a semi- circle round the broad campus are the library, the medical building, the biology building and museum, the school of practical science, the geology and chemistry buildings and the convoca- tion hall, their architecture varying very greatly, beauty having been sacrificed to more practical considerations; the magnetic observatory is also in the grounds, but is overshadowed by some of the more recent erections. It is one of the meteorological TORPEDO 53 stations established by the British government on the recom- mendation of the Royal Society in 1840 and is now maintained by the Dominion government. The university of Toronto, for the support of which the province is responsible, includes faculties of arts, science and medicine, in the teaching of which it is strictly secular. But near at hand and in full affiliation with the university are Victoria College (Methodist), Wycliffe College (Anglican), Knox College (Presbyterian) and St Michael's College (Roman Catholic), wherein courses in divinity are given and degrees conferred. Victoria College, likewise, provides a course in arts, but none in science. Trinity College (Anglican), though some distance away, is also affiliated with the univer- sity, and her students enjoy its full advantages. Besides the university, Toronto is remarkably rich in educational institu- tions. Upper Canada College, founded in 1829, in many respects resembles one of the English public schools. It has over 300 students. St Andrew's College, also for boys, is a more recent establishment, and has about the same number of pupils. There are three large collegiate institutes, having some 300 to 600 pupils each, and in addition a number of schools for girls, such as Havergal College and Westminster College. Osgoode Hall, a stately structure in the heart of the city, houses the higher courts of law and appeal, and also a flourishing law school. The city hall and court-house is one of the finest civic build- ings in North America. It is in the Romanesque style, and accommodates all the civic offices, the board of education, the police and county courts, &c. Many of the churches are worthy examples of good architecture. Toronto is essentially a residential city. The houses of the better class stand separate, not in long rows, and have about them ample lawns and abundant trees. It is consequently a widespread city, the length from east to west approximating ten miles. An electric railway system provides means of com- munication. There are many parks, ranging in size from Carlton Park of one acre to High Park (375 acres) and Island Park (389), the latter being across the harbour and constitut- ing the favourite resort of the people during the summer. In Exhibition Park there is held annually an industrial and agri- cultural exhibition that has grown to great magnitude. It lasts a fortnight in late summer. It is a municipal enterprise and the profits belong to the city. The population in 1907, as shown by the police census, exceeded 300,000. The government of the city is vested in a council consisting of the mayor and four controllers elected annually and eighteen aldermen (three from each of the six wards into which the city is divided). The council as a whole is the legislative body, while the board of control is the executive body, and as such is responsible for the supervision of all matters of finance, the appointment of officials, the carrying on of public works, and the general administration of the affairs of the city, except the departments of education and of police, the first being under the control of the board of education, elected annually by the citizens, and the latter under the board of police commissioners, consisting of the mayor, the county judge and the police magistrate. Toronto is one of the chief manufacturing centres of the dominion; agricultural machinery, automobiles, bicycles, cotton goods, engines, furniture, foundry products, flour, smoked meats, tobacco, jewelry, &c., are flourishing industries, and the list is constantly extending. The situation of the city is favourable to commerce, and the largest vessels on the lakes can use its harbour. It is the outlet of a rich and extensive agricultural district, and throughout the season of navigation lines of steamers ply between Toronto and the other lake ports on both the Canadian and American sides, the route of some of them extending from Montreal to Port Arthur on Lake Superior. Railway communication is complete, three great trunk lines making the city a terminal point, viz. the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific and the Canadian Northern. As a financial centre Toronto has made remarkable advance. The transactions on the stock exchange rival those of Montreal. The Bank of Commerce has its headquarters here, as have also the Bank of Nova Scotia, the Bank of Toronto, the Standard Traders, Imperial, Sovereign, Dominion, Crown, United Empire, Sterling and other banks. The name of the city is of Indian origin, meaning "a place of meeting," the site in the days before the coming of the white man being an established rendezvous among the neighbouring Indian tribes. It first appears in history in 1749 as a centre of trade when the French built a small fort and started a trading establishment called Fort Rouille. Before long, however, British traders came up from the south and entered into active rivalry with the French, and in 1793 the fort was burned by the latter to prevent its occupation by their foes. A year later Governor Simcoe transferred the seat of government of the new province of Upper Canada from the town of Newark at the mouth of the Niagara River to Toronto, giving the new capital the Mame of York, in honour of the second son of George III. Under its new name it made slow progress as the surrounding country was cleared and settled. The entrance to the harbour was guarded by two blockhouses; provision was made for barracks and garrison stores; buildings were erected for the legislature; and there the members of parliament, summoned by royal proclamation to "meet us in our provincial parliament in our town of York," assembled on the ist of June 1797. Sixteen years later the population numbered only 456. The town was twice sacked in the war of 1812. General Dearborn captured it at the head of a force of upwards of 2000. On their advance to the outworks of the garrison the magazine of the fort exploded, whether by accident or design, killing many of the invaders. The halls of legislature and other buildings were burnt and the town pillaged. On the restoration of peace the work of creating a capital for Upper Canada had wellnigh to begin anew. The organization of Upper Canada College in 1830, with a staff of teachers nearly all graduates of Cambridge, gave a great impetus to the city and province. In 1834 the population of York numbered fully 10,000; and an act of the provincial legislature conferred on it a charter of incorporation, with a mayor, aldermen and councilmen. Under this charter it was constituted a city with the name of Toronto. Since that time the progress of the city has been rapid and substantial, the population doubling every twenty years. In 1885 the total assessment was $69,000,000; in 1895 $146,000,000 and in 1906 $167,411,000, the rate of taxation being i8£ mills. TORPEDO. In 1805 Robert Fulton demonstrated a new method of destroying ships by exploding a large charge of gunpowder against the hull under water. No doubt then remained as to the effectiveness of this form of attack when successfully applied; it was the difficulty of getting the torpedo, as it was called, to the required position which for many years retarded its progress as a practical weapon of naval warfare. Attempts were first made to bring the explosive in contact with the vessel by allowing it to drift down to her by the action of tide or current, and afterwards to fix it against her from some form of diving boat, but successive failures led to its restriction for a considerable period to the submarine mine (g.v.) in which the explosive is stationary and takes effect only when the ship itself moves over or strikes the charge. Used in this way, it is an excellent deterrent to hostile warships forcing a harbour. Spar or Outrigger Torpedo. — The limitations attached to the employment of submarine mines, except for coast defence, revived the idea of taking the torpedo to the ship instead of waiting for the latter to gain some exact point which she might very possibly avoid. This first took practical shape in the spar or outrigger torpedo. This consisted of a charge of explosive, at the end of a long pole projecting from the bow of a boat, the pole being run out and immersed on arriving near the object. Directly the charge came in contact with the hull of the ship it was exploded by an electric battery in the boat. If the boat was not discovered and disabled while approaching, the chances were favourable to success and escape afterwards. Against a vigilant enemy it was doubtless a forlorn hope, but to brave men the venture offered considerable attractions. Frequent use of this spar or outrigger torpedo was made during TORPEDO the American Civil War. A notable instance was the destruction of the Confederate ironclad " Albemarle " at the end of October 1864. On this mission Lieut. Gushing took a steam launch equipped with an outrigger torpedo up the Roanoke River, in which lay the " Albemarle." On arriving near the ship Gushing found her surrounded by logs, but pushing his boat over them, he immersed the spar and exploded his charge in contact with the " Albemarle " under a heavy fire. Ship and launch sank together, but the gallant officer jumped overboard, swam away and escaped. Submerged boats were also used for similar service, but usually went to the bottom with their crews. During the war between France and China in 1884 the " Yang Woo " was attacked and destroyed by an outrigger torpedo. Locomotive Torpedoes. — Though the spar torpedo had scored some successes, it was mainly because the means of defence against it at that time were inefficient. The ship trusted solely to her heavy gun and rifle fire to repel the attack. The noise, smoke, and difficulty of hitting a small object at night with a piece that could probably be discharged but once before the boat arrived, while rifle bullets would not stop its advance, favoured the attack. When a number of small guns and electric lights were added to a ship's equipment, success with an outrigger torpedo became nearly, if not entirely, impossible. Attention was then turned in the direction of giving motion to the torpedo and steering it to the required point by electric wires worked from the shore or from another vessel; or, dispensing with any such connection, of devising a torpedo which would travel under water in a given direction by means of self-contained motive power and machinery. Of the former type are the Lay, Sims- Edison and Brennan torpedoes. The first two — electrically steered by a wire which trails behind the torpedo — have in- sufficient speed to be of practical value, and are no longer used. The Brennan torpedo, carrying a charge of explosive, travels under water and is propelled by unwinding two drums or reels of fine steel wire within the torpedo. The rotation of these reels is communicated to the propellers, causing the torpedo to advance. The ends of the wires are connected to an engine on shore to give rapid unwinding and increased speed to the torpedo. It is steered by vary- ing the speed of unwinding the two wires. This tor- pedo was adopted by the British war office for harbour defence and the protection of narrow channels. Uncontrolled, Torpedoes. — The objection of naval officers to have any form of torpedo connected by wire to their ship during an action, impeding her free move- ment, liable to get entangled in her propellers and perhaps exploding where not desired — disadvantages which led them to discard the Harvey towing torpedo many years ago — has hitherto prevented any navy from adopting a controlled torpedo for its sea-going fleet. The last quarter of the igth century saw, however, great advances in the equipment of ships with locomotive torpedoes of the uncontrolled type. The Howell may be briefly described, as it has a special feature of some interest. Motive power is provided by causing a heavy steel fly-wheel inside the torpedo to revolve with great velocity. This is effected by a small special engine outside operating on the axle. When sufficiently spun up, the axle of the flywheel is connected with the propeller shafts and screws which drive the torpedo, so that on entering the water it is driven ahead and continues its course until the power stored up in the flywheel is exhausted. Now when a torpedo is discharged into the sea from a ship in motion, it has a tendency to deflect owing to the action of the passing water. The angle of deflexion will vary according to the speed of the ship, and is also affected by other causes, such as the position in the ship from which the torpedo is discharged, and its own angle with the line of keel. Hence arise inaccuracies of shooting; but these do not occur with this torpedo, for the motion of the flywheel, acting as a gyroscope — the principle of which applied to the Whitehead torpedo is described later — keeps this torpedo on a straight course. This advantage, combined with simplicity in construction, induced the American naval authorities at one time to contemplate equipping their fleet with this torpedo, for they had not, up to within a few years ago, adopted any loco- motive torpedo. A great improvement in the torpedo devised by Mr Whitehead led them, however, definitely to prefer the latter and to discontinue the further development of the Howell system. The Whitehead torpedo is a steel fish-shaped body which travels under water at a high rate of speed, being propelled by two screws driven by compressed air. It carries a large charge of explosive which is ignited on the torpedo striking any hard substance, such as the hull of a ship. The body is divided into three parts. The foremost portion or head contains the explo- sive— usually wet gun-cotton — with dry primer and mechanical igniting arrangement; the centre portion is the air chamber or reservoir, while the remaining part or tail carries the engines, rudders, and propellers besides the apparatus for controlling depth and direction. This portion also gives buoyancy to the torpedo. When the torpedo is projected from a ship or boat into the water a lever is thrown back, admitting air into the engines causing the propellers to revolve and drive the torpedo ahead. It is desirable that a certain depth under water should be main- tained. An explosion on the surface would be deprived of the greater part of its effect, for most of the gas generated would escape into the air. Immersed, the water above confines the liberated gas and compels it to exert all its energy against the bottom of the ship. It is also necessary to correct the tendency to rise that is due to the torpedo getting lighter as the air is used up, for compressed air has an appreciable weight. This is effected by an ingenious apparatus long maintained secret. The general principle is to utilize the pressures due to different depths of water to actuate horizontal rudders, so that the torpedo is automatically directed upwards or downwards as its tendency is to sink or rise. The efficiency of such a torpedo compared with all previous types was clearly manifest when it was brought before the maritime states by the inventor, Whitehead, and it was almost universally adopted. The principal defect was want of speed — which at first Sped — 23 Knots to 800 Mctni : U3 tis »e» Gun Co»c/i Speed — 30 Knots to 600 Yds. C/Mrye_ //5(t>so t^706 Lbs 14-INCH TORPEDO FIG. I. — Diagrams of 14- and i8-in. Torpedoes, did not exceed 10 knots an hour — but by the application of Brother- hood's 3-cylinder engine the speed was increased to 18 knots — a great advance. From that time continuous improvements have resulted in speeds of 30 knots and upwards for a short range being obtained. For some years a torpedo 14 ft. long and 14 in. in diameter was considered large enough, though it had a very limited effective range. For a longer range a larger weapon must be employed capable of carrying a greater supply of air. To obtain this, torpedoes of 18 in. diameter, involving increased length and weight, have for some time been constructed, and have taken the place of the smaller torpedo in the equipment of warships. This advance in dimensions has not only given a faster and steadier torpedo, but enabled such a heavy charge of gun-cotton to be carried that its explosion against any portion of a ship would inevit- ably either sink or disable her. The dimensions, shape, &c., of the 14- and i8-in. torpedoes are shown in fig. I. A limited range was still imposed by the uncertainty of its course under water. The speed of the ship from which it was discharged, the angle with her keel at which it entered the water, and the varying velocity of impulse, tended to error of flight, such error being magnified the farther the path of the torpedo was prolonged. Hence 8po yds. was formerly considered the limit of distance within which the torpedo should be discharged at sea against an object from a ship in motion. In these circumstances, though improvements in the manufacture of steel and engines allowed of torpedoes.of far longer range being TORPEDO 55 made (the fastest torpedo up to 1898 having a speed of 29 knots for 800 yds.), it was of no advantage to make them, as they could not be depended upon to run in a straight line from a stationary point for more than 800 yds., while from a ship in motion good practice could only be ensured at a reduced range. It was obvious, therefore, that to increase the effective range of the torpedo, these errors of direction must be overcome by some automatic steering arrangement. Several inventors turned their attention to the subject, nearly all of whom proposed to utilize the principle of the gyroscope for the purpose. The first which gave any satisfactory results was an apparatus devised by Ludwig Obry — an engineer in Austria — and tried by the Italian government about 1896. These trials demonstrated the feasibility of accurately and auto- matically steering a torpedo in a direct line by this means. Messrs Whitehead & Co., of Fiume, then acquired the invention, and after exhaustive experiments produced the apparatus which is now fitted to every torpedo made. It is based on the principle that a body revolving on a free axis tends to preserve its plane of rotation. A gyroscope with plane of rotation parallel to the vertical axis of the torpedo will have an angular motion if the torpedo is diverted from its original course. This angular motion is employed to actuate the steering mechanism by operating an air motor connected with the rudders, and keeping the torpedo in the line of discharge. The apparatus consists of a flywheel caused to rotate by a spring, the barrel on which the latter is wound having a segmental wheel which gears into a toothed pinion spindle of the flywheel. Owing to the diameter of the segment being much greater than the pinion, a rapid rotatory motion is imparted. The spring is wound up by a key from outside the torpedo, and kept in tension until the pro- jectile is discharged, when the spring is released by the air lever being thrown back, which admits air to the engine; the gyroscope is then freed and set in motion with its plane in the plane of the vertical axis of the torpedo as it was in the launching tube. Assuming now that the course of the torpedo is diverted by any cause, its axis will move or perform a certain angular motion with regard to the plane of the flywheel, which will have the same result as if we consider the conditions reversed, i.e. as if the plane of rotation of the flywheel were altered and that of the axis of the torpedo remained the same. The axis of the flywheel performs a relative angular motion which it imparts to a crank actuating a servo-motor worked by compressed air, and connected with the rudders _ of the torpedo, moving them in the opposite direction to that in which the torpedo was diverted from its original course. Thus all inaccuracies of flight due to errors of adjustment, mis- calculation of deflexion, or even damage to some part, are elimin- ated. As long as the gyroscope is in good order the torpedo is bound to run in the line it was pointing when the flywheel was started. It is placed in the after-body of the torpedo, as indicated in fig. 2. limited by the strength of the engines and other parts. Improve- ments in steel manufacture have permitted the use of much higher pressures of air and the construction of air-chambers able to with- stand the pressure of 2000 Ib to the sq. in. with the same weight of air-chamber. This has enabled increased range without reduction in speed to be attained, or conversely, increased speed at shorter ranges. By improvement in the engines which are now of the Brotherhood 4-cylinder central crank type further gains have been effected. Having reached the limit of pressure and endurance of air- chambers with present materials without undue increase of weight, the designer had to seek additional energy in another direction. Now the energy obtainable from a given weight of compressed air is dependent upon the volume of air available at the working pressure of the engines. At a constant pressure this volume of air is proportionate to its absolute temperature. If then the air be stored cold and highly heated before delivery to the engine the available energy from a given weight will be greatly increased. By this means we obtain the equivalent of a larger and heavier air-chamber without the increased weight such would involve. As originally used a quantity of hydrocarbon fuel was placed in the air-vessel. Upon discharging the torpedo this fuel was auto- matically ignited and the contents of the air-chamber were heated. Unless, however, the combustion could be regulated there were serious risks of abnormal pressures, of overheating and weakening the air-vessel. Devices have been applied to overcome this liability, and other methods devised to obtain the same result. By the use of heating and thereby increasing the volume of air in proportion to the rise of temperature the extra volume will allow of an increased speed for a given range or a greater range without increase of speed. The limit to the development of this system seems to be the temperature the materials will stand, but even at this early stage it has added several knots to the speed of this wonderful weapon. Torpedo Carriages and Discharge. — As no gun which is ineffi- ciently mounted can give good results, so the best torpedo is valueless without a good carriage or system of discharge. In the early days of the Whitehead, discredit came upon it because the importance of this was not sufficiently realized; and an erratic course under water was in nine cases out of ten due to a crude method of dis- charge. A delicate piece of mechanism was dropped into the water from a height of several feet, and naturally suffered internal derange- ment. Gun-ports were then used for the purpose, but now a special orifice is made, to which the torpedo carriage is fitted with a ball- and-socket joint — forming a water-tight aperture — so that this carriage or tube may be only 2 or 3 ft. above the water-line. The ball-and-socket joint enables it also to have a considerable angle of training. Originally the torpedo was pushed out by a rod acted upon by compressed air, in which case the carriage was a FIG. 2. — Arrangement The efficiency of the Whitehead torpedo has thus been enormously increased, and more accurate practice can now be made at 2000 yds. than was formerly possible at 800 yds. This adds con- siderably to the chances of torpedo-boats attacking ships, even in day-time, at sea or at anchor, and will render further protection necessary against this weapon. Against a ship in motion there is still, however, the calculation as to her speed and the distance she will travel before the torpedo reaches her. Should this be mis- calculated, an increased range for torpedoes will magnify the error. For instance, a 3O-knot torpedo will travel 1000 yds. in a minute. If aimed at a ship on the beam assumed to be steaming 15 knots an hour, to reach her when 1000 yds. distant the torpedo must be discharged at a point 500 yds. ahead of her. But if the ship is actually steaming 12 knots, she will have travelled only 400 yds. in the minute, and the torpedo will be 100 yds. in advance of her. If discharged at a range of 500 yds., such a miscalculation causes an error of only 50 yds. or 150 ft. But if the object is 300 it. long, and her centre was taken as the target, her bow would be just at the spot the torpedo would reach in thirty seconds. It would seem, therefore, that increased velocity of torpedo is necessary before the full advantages of the gyroscope can be realized. Now the range of the torpedo is entirely dependent upon the store of energy which can be carried; upon, therefore, the capacity of the air reservoir, the maximum pressure it can stand, and on the effici- ency of the propelling engines. The speed over a given range is also dependent upon these factors; the maximum speed being of Gyroscope in Torpedo. simple frame. The rod, pressing against the tail with some force, was apt to damage or disarrange the rudders, so the air-gun took the place of rod impulse. Here the torpedo fits closely in a tube or cylinder with an opening at the rear made air-tight when closed. At the desired moment compressed air is admitted to the rear part of the cylinder and blows the torpedo out. Gunpowder then superseded air for this operation; and now this has given place to a small charge of cordite, which does not leave any deposit on the inside of the cylinder. There is a double risk in the use of locomotive torpedoes from above water, (i) The charge may be exploded by hostile fire. Though mainly consisting of damp gun-cotton, which is not readily ignited, the dry primer and detonator may be struck, which would lead to a disastrous explosion. (2) The air- chamber is also a source of danger. As it contains air compressed to a high degree of tension, experiments have shown that if struck by a small shell it may burst with great violence; and as it offers a considerable mark, this is not an improbable event in an action. An instance of the danger of above-water torpedo tubes occurred in the Spanish-American War at the battle of Santiago. A shell entered the " Almirante Oquendo " and struck a 14-in. torpedo in the tube. The charge detonated, causing a fearful explosion and practically wrecking that part of the vessel. The develop- ment of moderate-sized quick-firing guns has increased this risk. Hence we find the use of above-water torpedo tubes now mainly confined to torpedo and other craft too small for submerged discharge. TORPEDO Submerged Discharge. — The risk attached to having loaded torpedoes above the water-line — independently of the fact that to get the best result they should start in the elejnent to which they belong — has given great impetus to the system of submerged Gun end Torpedo reedy to fire VERTICAL SECTION. and tube into the ship again, so that practically the whole operation is one motion. Fig. 3 will further explain this apparatus. A is the outer tube; B the inner tube; C the shield; D torpedo; E explosion chamber for cordite charge placed at K ; F pipe for gas to pass into outer tube ; G and Y doors of inner and outer tube ; J the valve which opens automatically when inner tube arrives at position shown in fig. 2 ; T and P appliance for running the tube in and out by hand when desired ; O arrangement for bringing whole apparatus back for repair, &c. ; M and N sluice- valve and handle; R, r1, r", r3, for draining tubes before torpedo is put in; X indicator showing position of inner tube. Torpedoes have been discharged from this apparatus with successful result from a ship steaming at I7i knots. The advantage of cordite over compressed air for impulse is that it requires no attention : when a charge PLAN V IEW FIG. 3. — Broadside Submerged l8-in. Torpedo Tube. discharge. From the earliest days of the weapon this has been employed to some extent. But it was principally in the direction of right-ahead fire, by having an orifice in the stem of the ship under water, to which a torpedo tube was connected. The tactical idea was thus to supplement attack with the ram, so that if the vessel endeavouring to ram saw that the object would evade this attack, she could project a torpedo ahead, which, travelling faster than the vessel, might as effectually accomplish the required service. The stem orifice had a water-tight cover, which was removed on the torpedo being placed in the tube and the inner door closed; then, sufficient impulse being imparted to eject the torpedo, and its machinery being set in motion at the same time, it darted forward towards the enemy. There is, however, some risk of the ship using a torpedo in this manner striking it before the missile has gathered the necessary impetus from its propellers to take it clear of the vessel. The system, moreover, has the disadvantage of weakening the ram, the construction of which should be of immense strength. There is the further liability of ramming with a torpedo in the bow tube, which would be as disastrous to friend as foe. This method of submerged discharge has therefore given place to ejecting the torpedo from the broadside. Considerable difficulty attached to getting the torpedo clear of the ship from this position without injury, especially when the vessel was proceeding at speed. The natural tendency of the passing water acting on the head of the torpedo as it emerged was to give a violent wrench and crush the rear end before that portion could clear the aperture. To prevent this the torpedo must be held rigid in the line of projection until the tail is clear of the ship. This is thus effected. Besides the tube with the aperture in side of the ship under water, fitted with sluice-valve, all broadside submerged discharge apparatus possess the following features: A shield is pushed out from the ship's side. In this shield there are grooves of some form. Guides on the torpedoes fit and run in these grooves. When discharged the torpedo is thus supported against the streams of passing water, and guided so that its axis continues in the line of projection until the tail is clear of the side, the shield being of such length that this occurs at the same time that the guides on the torpedo leave the grooves in the shield. An apparatus on this principle has been fitted to a number of ships of the British navy, and gives good results at high rates of speed. It has the defect that the shield must be run out previous to the torpedo being discharged, and brought back afterwards, thus involving three separate operations, each performed by compressed air. In the broadside submerged discharge, designed, constructed and supplied to many foreign navies by Messrs Armstrong of the Elswick works, the three operations are combined in one. There is an outer tube as before, but it contains an inner tube carrying the torpedo. Fized to this tube, and prolonging it, is the shield fitted with grooves. Both tubes have a door at the rear— made air- tight when closed — by which the torpedo is entered. A charge of cordite is used for ejection instead of compressed air, the gas from which entering the outer cylinder first forces the inner tube out, and then by means of a valve in the door of the inner tube passes in and blows put water and torpedo together, the shield supporting the latter until the tail is clear of the ship. By this time the cordite gas has expanded and cooled so as to relieve the pressure in rear- this causes the pressure of the water outside to push the shield is placed in the explosion chamber, and a torpedo is in the tube, all is in readiness for firing when desired, without further attention in the torpedo-room. The cordite is fired by electricity from the conning-tower; the officer, therefore, having ascertained that all is ready below, has only to press a button when the object is in the required position. Automatic indications are given in the conning- tower when the sluice-valve is opened and when all is in readiness for firing. This method of discharging torpedoes from the broadside under water eliminates the principal danger of the system, which required the shield to be put into position beforehand. It was then liable to be struck and distorted by passing wreckage without the fact being apparent to those in the ship. On the discharge of a torpedo its course might thus be arrested, or possibly the charge be pre- maturely exploded in dangerous proximity to its own ship. There was a risk of getting the shield out too soon, and thereby exposing it unduly to injury, or leaving the operation until too late. The tendency of naval equipment being towards complication, any readjustment which makes for simplicity cannot be otherwise than beneficial, and this feature is especially desirable in all matters connected with the use of torpedoes. The compartment containing the broadside submerged apparatus usually extends across the ship, so as to contain a tube for each side. Use in War. — This has been mainly confined to attacks upon squadrons and single ships by torpedo craft of various types. At the battle of Yalu, between the Chinese and Japanese fleets, torpedoes were discharged by the former, but none took effect. The Japanese trusted solely to gun-fire. After the defeat of the Chinese at sea, their remaining ships took refuge in the harbour of Wei-hai-Wei. Here they were blockaded by the Japanese fleet, which, having a number of torpedo-boats, made several determined attacks upon the ships inside. After one or two attempts, foiled by the obstructions placed by the Chinese to bar the passage, the Japanese boats succeeded in torpedoing several ships, and thus expedited the reduction of the place. In the war between Spain and the United States the inferiority of Admiral Cervera's squadron to that under Admiral Sampson might at the battle of Santiago have been to some extent counterbalanced by a skilful and vigorous use of torpedoes. If, instead of striving only to escape, a bold dash had been made for the American ships, the Spanish cruisers rapidly approaching end on to the foe, enveloped in the smoke of their own guns, should — some at least — have got within torpedo range without fatal injury. Closing each other at a speed of 10 knots only they would cover an interval of 6000 yds. in 9 minutes — a short time in which to disable a ship by gun-fire under such conditions. But Cervera elected to offer a passive resistance only, and while suffering destruction wrought no material injury upon his opponents. On the other hand, there have been TORPEDO 57 several instances of large warships being sunk by locomotive torpedoes discharged from small craft. During the Chilean revolutionary war of 1891, a battleship, the " Blanco Encalada," of 3500 tons, was attacked in Caldera Bay by two torpedo vessels — the " Lynch " and " Condell " — of 750 tons. They entered the bay at dawn, the " Condell " leading. This vessel fired three torpedoes which missed the ironclad; then the " Lynch," after one ineffective shot, discharged a second torpedo, which struck the " Blanco " on the side nearly amidships. The latter had opened fire with little result, and sank soon afterwards. A similar incident occurred in 1894, when the Brazilian ironclad " Aquidaban " was sunk in Catherina Bay by the " Sampaio " — a torpedo vessel of 500 tons. She entered the bay at night, and first discharged her bow torpedo at the ironclad, which missed; she then fired a broadside torpedo, which struck and exploded against the bow of the " Aquidaban." It caused a great shock on board, throwing an officer on the bridge into the water. The vessel sank soon afterwards, and the " Sampaio " escaped uninjured. In the war (1904-5) 'between Russia and Japan the Whitehead torpedo did not exercise an important influence upon the naval operations. It scored a success at the beginning of the struggle when a Japanese torpedo-flotilla made an attack upon the Russian fleet lying at anchor outside Port Arthur. For some unaccountable reason, though war was imminent, little or no precautions seemed to have been taken for effectually guarding the vessels. They had no nets in position nor boats patrolling outside them. Thus taken by surprise when the Japanese torpedo-boats suddenly appeared about midnight on the 8th of February 1904, several Russian ships were struck by torpedoes before they could offer any resistance. The most damaged were the " Retvisan " and " Tsarevitch " (battleships) and " Pallada " (cruiser), but all managed to get into Port Arthur and were eventually repaired. With three ships hors de combat the Russian fleet was considerably weakened at an early stage. The loss of the " Petropavlovsk " in April from a mine explosion was a further discouragement, especially as with this ship went down the gallant and energetic Admiral Makarov. In these circumstances the Russian fleet could not assume the offensive nor prevent the Japanese troops being sent by sea to invest Port Arthur. In June when the injured vessels were fit for service again the fleet put to sea but returned the same evening. The incident is noteworthy only because it led to an attack by the Japanese torpedo craft on the retiring squadron after sunset. As illustrating the uncertainty of hit- ting a moving object at sea with the Whitehead torpedo, already mentioned, no vessels were struck on this occasion and they reached the anchorage uninjured. In the battle of Tsushima the Japanese torpedo-boats attacked the Russian fleet after its disablement by gun-fire and gave the coup de grdce to some of the ships, which had little power of resistance owing to the destruction of their light armament. This war, therefore, did not increase to any extent our knowledge of the actual capability of this weapon. E/ect upon Naval Tactics: Blockade. — It has often been assumed that steam and the torpedo will in future render blockade impossible as it was carried out in the old wars; that, no longer dependent upon the wind to allow egress from the blockaded port, a vessel using steam can emerge when she chooses, while the fear of torpedo attack will deter a blockading squadron from keeping such watch as to foil the attempt. As regards the power conferred by steam, it will be no less advan- tageous to a blockading squadron, enabling it to maintain its position, whereas sailing ships were often driven by gales to leave their station and seek a port. This gave opportunities for the blockaded vessels to escape. As regards torpedo-boats, they would no doubt be a danger to a blockading squadron unpro- vided with a means of defence against these craft. Such defence consists in an adequate number of small vessels interposing an in-shore squadron between the port and the main body outside. Thus they perform the twofold service of watching the enemy's movements within and frustrating a torpedo attack. As an instance of blockade under modern conditions, we have that of Admiral Sampson upon Santiago — a guard more rigidly maintained than any in the old wars. So little was he deterred by the knowledge that Admiral Cervera had two torpedo vessels in his force, that he drew his squadron closer in at night when an attack might be expected, actually illuminating the entrance of the harbour with his electric searchlights, so that no craft could come out unperceived. No attempt was made to dislodge him from that position, and we may assume that blockade, if required in any scheme of naval strategy, will be carried out, whatever the weapons of warfare. As regards the effect of torpedoes upon tactics at sea, and in general, as well as single ship, actions, they must operate against close range and employment of the ram. If it is recognized that a vessel within 1000 yds. is liable to a fatal blow, she will endeavour in ordinary circumstances to keep outside that distance and rely upon gun-fire. The exception would be where she is overmatched in that respect, and hence might endeavour to restore the balance by the use of torpedoes. In a fleet action the danger of missing a foe and hitting a friend would restrict the discharge of torpedoes; and this risk increases as formations disappear. But the torpedo must be conceded a tactical superiority over the ram for the following reasons: A vessel to use the latter must come within torpedo range, while her adversary may successfully apply torpedoes without placing herself in any danger of being rammed. The ram can only be used in one direction, and a small miscalculation may cause disaster. If a vessel has more than one position from which torpedoes can be discharged, she is not confined as regards attack to a single bearing or direction. In action we may consider the speed of the torpedo as double that of the ship, and since against a moving object allowance must be made for the space traversed while ram or torpedo is travelling towards it, the faster weapon is less affected in its chance of successful impact by change of direction and speed of the object at the last moment. Lastly, with machinery disabled a ship is powerless to use the ram, but can avert a ram attack with her torpedoes. The movements of squadrons or single ships on entering an action are not likely to be influenced by any contemplated immediate use of torpedoes, for the gun must remain the primary weapon, at any rate at the first onset. Commanders would hardly risk being crushed by gun-fire before getting within torpedo range. Having faith in the efficiency of their ordnance and the gunnery skill of their crew, they would first manoeuvre to bring these into play. Tactics for torpedo attack in such circumstances have not therefore been laid down, and it is only necessary to consider the positions which are advantageous for the use of this weapon, and, conversely, what should be avoided when a vessel, finding herself overmatched in gunnery, seeks to redress the balance with torpedoes. Size of Target. — This, with a ship, varies in length as the torpedo approaches end on to the vessel, or at angle to the line of keel; the greatest being when the path of both forms a right angle. Hence the object is to place your ship where it presents the former condition to the enemy, while he affords the larger target. It must be remembered that, owing to the comparatively slow velocity of the torpedo, it must be aimed not directly at a ship in motion — like a shot from a gun — but at a point ahead which the ship will reach after the torpedo has traversed the intervening distance. Thus speed of object has to be estimated, and hence the importance of adding to the velocity of the torpedo and getting a broadside shot so as to reduce as much as possible errors of calculation. The great increase of the dimensions of warships, especially in length, which now has reached 500 ft., adds to the chances of a successful hit with torpedoes, and will doubtless tend to diminish a desire in future naval tactics to close inside torpedo range for the purpose of ramming. Range— Though the effective range of a_ torpedo discharged from a ship or torpedo vessel against a single object moving at high speed may be considered as approximately within 1000 yds. this limit of distance is considerably augmented where the target consists of several vessels at sea in close order, or is that afforded by a fleet at anchor. In the first case it may be worth while to discharge torpedoes from a distance of two or three thou- sand yards at the centre of the line for the chance of hitting one of the vessels composing it. As regards a mass of ships at anchor, TORQUAY— TORQUEMADA, T. unless protected by an impenetrable guard such as a breakwater or some invulnerable defence carried by the ships themselves, the increased range and accuracy of the torpedo imparted by recent developments would give it a chance of success if discharged against such a target at even greater distance. Finally, by improvements in construction and methods of dis- charge the torpedo has recovered the place it was rapidly losing a few years ago. As armour receives increased resisting power to above-water projectiles, and gets on a level again with the gun, more attention will be given to under-water attack, against which no adequate protection has yet been devised. Thus we. shall probably find the torpedo taking a very prominent place in any future war between the great maritime powers. (S. M E.-W.) TORQUAY, a municipal borough, seaport and watering place, in the Torquay parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on Tor Bay of the English Channel, 26 m. S. of Exeter, by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 33,625. Owing to the beauty of its site and the equability of its climate, and to its being screened by lofty hills on the north, east and west, and open to the sea-breezes of the south, it has a high reputation as a winter residence. The temperature seldom rises as high as 70° F. in summer or falls below freezing-point in winter. To the north lies the populous suburb of St Mary Church. There are some remains of Tor or Torre Abbey, founded for Praemonstratensians by William, Lord Brewer, in 1196. They stand north of the modern mansion, but, with the exception of a beautiful pointed arch portal, are of small importance. On the south of the gateway is a 13th-century building, known as the Spanish barn. On Chapel Hill are the remains of a chapel of the I2th century, dedicated to St Michael, and supposed to have formerly belonged to the abbey. St Saviour's parish church of Tor-Mohun, or Tor- moham, an ancient stone structure, was restored in 1874. The old church at St Mary Church, north of Torquay, was rebuilt in Early Decorated style; and in 1871 a tower was erected as a memorial to Dr Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter, who with his wife is buried in the churchyard. St John's Church, by G. E. Street, is a fine example of modern Gothic. Among the principal buildings and institutions are the town-hall, museum of the natural history society, theatre and opera-house (1880), market, schools of art and science, the Torbay infirmary and dispensary, the Western hospital for consumption, Crypt House institution for invalid ladies and the Mildmay home for incurable consumptives. The control of the harbour, piers, pleasure grounds, &c., was acquired from the lord of the manor by the local board in 1886. The harbour has a depth of over 20 ft. at low water. The principal imports are coal, timber and slates, and the principal export stone of the Transition limestone or Devonshire marble. In the town are a number of marble-polishing works. Terra-cotta ware of fine quality is also manufactured from a deposit of clay at Watcombe and at Hele. The town is governed by a mayor, 9 aldermen and 27 councillors. Area, 3588 acres. There was a village at Torre even before the foundation of the abbey, and in the neighbourhood of Torre evidence has been found of Roman occupation. The manor was granted by William the Conqueror to Richard de Bruvere or de Brewere, and was subsequently known as Tor Brewer. After the defeat of the Spanish Armada, Don Pedro's galley was brought into Torbay; and William, prince of Orange, landed at Torbay on the sth of November 1688. Until the middle of the igth century it was an insignificant fishing village. It was incorporated in 1892. TORQUE, or TORC (Lat. torquis, torques, a twisted collar, torquere, to twist), the term given by archaeologists to the twisted collars or armlets of gold or other metal worn particu- larly by the ancient Gauls and other allied Celtic races. The typical torque is a circlet with twisted rope-like strands, the ends not joined together; the torque was usually worn with the opening in the front as seen in a figure of a Gaul in a sculptured sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum at Rome. In mechanics, the term " torque " is used of the turning-moment of a system- force, as in a series dynamo. TORQUEMADA, JUAN DE (1388-1468), or rather JOHANNES DE TURRECREMATA, Spanish ecclesiastic, was born at Valladolid, in 1388, and was educated in that city. At an early age he joined the Dominican order, and soon distinguished himself for learning and devotion. In 1415 he accompanied the general of his order to the Council of Constance, whence he proceeded to Paris for study, and took his doctor's degree in 1423. After teaching for some time in Paris he became prior of the Dominican house first in Valladolid and then in Toledo. In 1431 Pope Eugenius IV. called him to Rome and made him " magister sancti palatii." At the Council of Basel he was one of the ablest supporters of the view of the Roman curia, and he was rewarded with a cardinal's hat in 1439. He died at Rome on the 26th of September 1468. His principal works are In Gratiani Decretum commentarii (4 vpls., Venice, 1578) ; Expositio brevis et utilis super toto psalterio (Mainz, 1474); Quaesliones spirituales super evangelia totius anni (Brixen, 1498); Summa ecclesiastica (Salamanca, 1550). The last- named work has the following topics: (l) De universa ecclesia; (2) De Ecclesia romana et ppntificis primatu ; (3) De universali- bus conciliis ; (4) De schismaticis et haereticis. His De conceptime deiparae Mariae, libri viii. (Rome, 1547), was edited with preface and notes by E. B. Pusey (London, 1869 seq.). TORQUEMADA, THOMAS (1420-1498), inquisitor-general of Spain, son of Don Pedro Ferdinando, lord of Torquemada, a small town in Old Castile, was born in 1420 at Valladolid during the reign of John II. Being nephew to the well-known cardinal of the same name, he early displayed an attraction for the Dominican order; and, as soon as allowed, he joined the Friars Preachers in their convent at Valladolid. His biographers state that he showed himself from the beginning very earnest in austere life and humility; and he became a recognized example of the virtues of a Dominican. Valladolid was then the capital, and in due course eminent dignities were offered to him, but he gave signs of a determination to lead the simple life of a Friar Preacher, In the convent, his modesty was so great that he refused to accept the doctor's degree in theology, which is the highest prized honour in the order. His superiors, however, obliged him to take the priorship of the convent of Santa Cruz in Segovia, where he ruled for twenty-two years. The royal family, especially the queen and the infanta Isabella, often stayed at Segovia, and Torquemada became confessor to the infanta, who was then very young. He trained her to look on her future sovereignty as an engagement to make religion respected. Esprit Flechier, bishop of Nimes, in this Histoire du cardinal Jimenes (Paris, 1693), says that Torquemada made her promise that when she became queen she would make it her principal business to chastise and destroy heretics. He then began to teach her the political advantages of religion and to prepare the way for that tremendous engine in the hands of the state, the Inquisition. Isabella succeeded to the throne (1474) on the death of Henry IV. Torquemada had always been strong in his advice that she should marry Ferdinand of Aragon and thus consolidate the kingdoms of Spain. Hitherto he had rarely appeared at court ; but now the queen entrusted him not only with the care of her conscience, but also with the benefices in the royal patronage. He also helped her in quieting Ferdinand, who was chafing under the privileges of the Castilian grandees, and succeeded so well that the king also took him as confessor. Refusing the rich see of Seville and many other preferments he accepted that of councillor of state. For a long time he had pondered over the confusion in which Spain was, which he attributed to the intimate relations allowed between Christians and infidels for the sake of commerce. He saw Jews, Saracens, heretics and apostates roaming through Spain unmolested; and in this lax toleration of religious differences he thought he saw the main obstacle to the political union of the Spains, which was the necessity of the hour. He represented to Ferdinand and Isabella that it was essential to their safety to reorganize the Inquisition, which had since the I3th century (1236) been established in Spain. The bishops, who were ex officio inquisitors in their own dioceses, had not succeeded in putting a stop to the evils, nor had the friars, by whom they had been practically superseded. By the middle of the 15th century there was TORQUEMADA, T. 59 hardly an active inquisitor left in the kingdom. In 1473 Torquemada and Gonzalez de Mendoza, archbishop of Toledo, approached the sovereigns. Isabella had been for many years prepared, and she and Ferdinand, now that the proposal for this new tribunal came before them, saw in it a means of over- coming the independence of the nobility and clergy by which the royal power had been obstructed. With the royal sanction a petition was addressed to Sixtus IV. for the establishment of this new form of Inquisition; and as the result of a long intrigue, in 1479 a papal bull authorized the appointment by the Spanish sovereigns of two inquisitors at Seville, under whom the Dominican inquisitions already established elsewhere might serve. In the persecuting activity that ensued the Dominicans, " the Dogs of the Lord " (Domini canes), took the lead. Commissaries of the Holy Office were sent into different provinces, and ministers of the faith were established in the various cities to take cogni- sance of the crimes of heresy, apostasy, sorcery, sodomy and polygamy, these three last being considered to be implicit heresy. The royal Inquisition thus started was subversive of the regular tribunals of the bishops, who much resented the innovation, which, however, had the power of the state at its back. In 1481, three years after the Sixtine commission, a tribunal was inaugurated at Seville, where freedom of speech and licence of manner were rife. The inquisitors at once began to detect errors. In order not to confound the innocent with the guilty, Torquemada published a declaration offering grace and pardon to all who presented themselves before the tribunal and avowed their fault. Some fled the country, but many (Mariana says 17,000) offered themselves for reconciliation. The first seat of the Holy Office was in the convent of San Pablo, where the friars, however, resented the orders, on the pretext that they were not delegates of the inquisitor-general. Soon the gloomy fortress of Triana, on the opposite bank of the Guadalquivir, was prepared as the palace of the Holy Office; and the terror-stricken Sevil- lianos read with dismay over the portals the motto of the Inquisition: " Exsurge, Domine, Judica causam tuam, Capite nobis vulpes." Other tribunals, like that of Seville and under La Suprema, were speedily established in Cordova, Jaen and Toledo. The sovereigns saw that wealth was beginning to flow in to the new tribunals by means of fines and confiscations; and they obliged Torquemada to take as assessors five persons who would represent them in all matters affecting the royal prerogatives. These assessors were allowed a definite vote in temporal matters but not in spiritual, and the final decision was reserved to Torquemada himself, who in 1483 was appointed the sole inquisitor-general over all the Spanish possessions. In the next year he ceded to Diego Deza, a Dominican, his office of confessor to the sovereigns, and gave himself up to the congenial work of reducing heretics. A general assembly of his inquisitors was convoked at Seville for the 2gth of November 1484; and there he promulgated a code of twenty-eight articles for the guidance of the ministers of the faith. Among these rules are the following, which will give some idea of the procedure. Heretics were allowed thirty days to declare themselves. Those who availed themselves of this grace were only fined, and their goods escaped confiscation. Absolution in foro externo was forbidden to be given secretly to those who made voluntary confession; they had to submit to the ignominy of the public auto-de-fe. The result of this harsh law was that numerous applications were made to Rome for secret absolution; and thus much money escaped the Inquisition in Spain. Those who were reconciled were deprived of all honourable employment, and were forbidden to use gold, silver, jewelry, silk or fine wool. Against this law, too, many petitions went to Rome for rehabili- tation, until in 1498 the Spanish pope Alexander VI. granted leave to Torquemada to rehabilitate the condemned, and with- drew practically all concessions hitherto made and paid for at Rome. Fines were imposed by way of penance on those confessing willingly. If a heretic in the Inquisition asked for absolution, he could receive it, but subject to a life imprisonment; but if his repentance were but feigned he could be at once condemned and handed over to the civil power for execution. Should the accused, after the testimony against him had been made public, continue to deny the charge, he was to be con- demned as impenitent. When serious proof existed against one who denied his crime, he could be submitted to the question by torture; and if under torture he avowed his fault and confirmed his guilt by subsequent confession he was punished as one con- victed; but should he retract he was again to be submitted to the tortures or condemned to extraordinary punishment. This second questioning was afterwards forbidden; but the prohibi- tion was got over by merely suspending and then renewing the sessions for questioning. It was forbidden to communicate to the accused the entire copy of the declaration of the witnesses. The dead even were not free from the Holy Office; but processes could be instituted against them and their remains subjected to punishment. But along with these cruel and unjust measures there must be put down to Torquemada's credit some advanced ideas as to prison life. The cells of the Inquisition were, as a rule, large, airy, clean and with good windows admitting the sun. They were, in those respects, far superior to the civil prisons of that day. The use of irons was in Torquemada's time not allowed in the Holy Office; the use of torture was in accordance with the practice of the other royal tribunals; and when these gave it up the Holy Office did so also. Such were some of the methods that Torquemada introduced into the Spanish Inquisition, which was to have so baneful an effect upon the whole country. During the eighteen years that he was inquisitor-general it is said that he burnt 10,220 persons, condemned 6860 others to be burnt in effigy, and reconciled 97,321, thus making an average of some 6000 convictions a year. These figures are given by Llorente, who was secretary of the Holy Office from 1790 to 1792 and had access to the archives; but modern research reduces the list of those burnt by Torque- mada to 2000, in itself an awful holocaust to the principle of intolerance. The constant stream of petitions to Rome opened the eyes of the pope to the effects of Torquemada's severity. On three separate occasions he had to send Fray Alfonso Badaja to defend his acts before the Holy See. The sovereigns, too, saw the stream of money, which they had hoped for, diverted to the coffers of the Holy Office, and in 1493 they made com- plaint to the pope; but Torquemada was powerful enough to secure most of the money for the expenses of the Inquisition. But in 1496, when the sovereigns again complained that the inquisitors were, without royal knowledge or consent, disposing of the property of the condemned and thus depriving the public revenues of considerable sums, Alexander VI. appointed Jimenes to examine into the case and make the Holy Office disgorge the plunder. For many years Torquemada had been persuading the sove- reigns to make an attempt once for all to rid the country of the hated Moors. Mariana holds that the founding of the Inquisi- tion, by giving a new impetus to the idea of a united kingdom, made the country more capable of carrying to a satisfactory ending the traditional wars against the Moors. The taking of Zahaia in 1481 by the enemy gave occasion to reprisals. Troops were summoned to Seville and the war began by the siege of Alhama, a town eight leagues from Granada, the Moorish capital. Torquemada went with the sovereigns to Cordova, to Madrid or wherever the states-general were held, to urge on the war; and he obtained from the Holy See the same spiritual favours that had been enjoyed by the Crusaders. But he did not forget his favourite work of ferreting out heretics; and his ministers of the faith made great progress over all the kingdom, especially at Toledo, where merciless severity was shown to the Jews who had lapsed from Christianity. The Inquisition, although as a body the clergy did not mislike it, sometimes met with furious opposition from the nobles and common people. At Valentia and Lerida there were serious conflicts. At Saragossa Peter Arbue, a canon and an ardent inquisitor, was slain in 1485 whilst praying in a church; and the threats against the hated Torquemada made him go in fear of his life, and he never went abroad without an escort of forty familiars 6o TORRE ANNUNZIATA— TORRENS of the Holy Office on horseback and two hundred more on foot. In 1487 he went with Ferdinand to Malaga and thence to Valladolid, where in the October of 1488 he held another general congregation of the Inquisition and promulgated new laws based on the experience already gained. He then hurried back to Andalusia where he joined the sovereigns, who were now besieging Granada, which he entered with the conquering army in January 1492 and built there a convent of his order. The Moors being vanquished, now came the turn of the Jews. In 1490 had happened the case of El Santo nino de la Guardia — a child supposed to have been killed by the Jews. His existence had never been proved; and in the district of Guardia no child was reported as missing. The whole story was most probably the creation of imaginations stimulated by torture and despair, unless it was a deliberate fiction set forth for the purpose of provoking hostility against the Jews. For a long time' Torquemada had tried to get the royal consent to a general expulsion; but the sovereigns hesitated, and, as the victims were the backbone of the commerce of the country, proposed a ransom of 30x5,000 ducats instead. The indignant friar would hear of no compromise: "Judas," he cried, " sold Christ for 30 pence; and your highnesses wish to sell Him again for 300,000 ducats." Unable to bear up against the Domini- can's fiery denunciations, the sovereigns, three months after the fall of Granada, issued a decree ordering every Jew either to embrace Christianity or to leave the country, four months being given to make up their minds; and those who refused to become Christians to order had leave to sell their property and carry off their effects. But this was not enough for the in- quisitor-general, who in the following month (April) issued orders to forbid Christians, under severe penalties, having any communi- cation with the Jews or, after the period of grace, to supply them even with the necessaries of life. The former prohibition made it impossible for the unfortunate people to sell their goods which hence fell to the Inquisition. The numbers of Jewish families driven out of the country by Torquemada is variously stated from Mariana's 1,700,000 to the more probable 800,000 of later historians. The loss to Spain was enormous, and from this act of the Dominican the commercial decay of Spain dates. Age was now creeping on Torquemada, who, however, never would allow his misdirected zeal to rest. At another general assembly, his fourth, he gave new and more stringent rules, which are found in the Compilacidn de las instructions del officio de la Santa Inquisicidn. He took up his residence in Avila, where he had built a convent; and here he resumed the common life of a friar, leaving his cell in October 1497 to visit, at Salamanca, the dying infante, Don Juan, and to comfort the sovereigns in their parental distress. They often used to visit him at Avila, where in 1498, still in office as inquisitor-general, he held his last general assembly to complete his life's work. Soon afterwards he died, on the i6th of September 1498, " full of years and merit " says his biographer. He was buried in the chapel of the convent of St Thomas in Avila. The name of Torquemada stands for all that is intolerant and narrow, despotic and cruel. He was no real statesman or minister of the Gospel, but a blind fanatic, who failed to see that faith, which is the gift of God, cannot be imposed on any conscience by force. (E. TN.) TORRE ANNUNZIATA, a seaport of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, on the east of the Bay of Naples, and at the south foot of Mt Vesuvius, 14 m. S.E. of Naples by rail. Pop. (1901), 25,070 (town); 28,084 (commune). It is on the main line to Battipaglia, at the point of junction of a branch line from Cancello round the east of Vesuvius, and of the branch to Castellammare di Stabia and Gragnano. It has a royal arms factory established by Charles IV., and other ironworks, considerable manufacture of macaroni, paper, breeding of silkworms, and some fishing and shipping. The harbour is protected by moles. Remains attributed to the Roman post- station of Oplontis were discovered in making the railway between Torre del Greco and Torre Annunziata, a little west of the latter, in 1842. TORRE DEL GRECO, a seaport of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 7! m. S.E. of that city by rail. Pop. (1901), 35,328. It lies at the south-west foot of Vesuvius, on the shore of the Bay of Naples. It is built chiefly of lava, and stands on the lava stream of 1631, which destroyed two-thirds of the older town. Great damage was done by the eruptions of 1737 and 1794; the earthquake of 1857 and the eruption of the 8th of December 1861 were even more destructive. After each dis- aster the people returned, the advantage of the rich volcanic land overcoming apprehensions of danger. In the outskirts are many beautiful villas and gardens. The town has shipbuilding yards and lava quarries. The inhabitants take part in the coral and sponge fishing off the African and Sicilian coasts, and coral is worked in the town. There is also fishing for tunny, sardines and oysters; hemp is woven, and the neighbourhood is famed for its fruit and wine. In June the great popular festival "Dei Quattro Altari " is annually celebrated here in commemoration of the abolition of the feudal dominion in 1700. Remains of ancient villas and baths have been found here. TORRENS, ROBERT (1780-1864), English soldier and econo- mist, was born in Ireland in 1780. He entered the Marines in 1797, became a captain in 1806, and major in 1811 for bravery in Anhalt during the Walcheren expedition. He fought in the Peninsula, becoming lieutenant-colonel in 1835 and retiring as colonel in 1837. After abortive attempts to enter parliament in 1818 and 1826, he was returned in 1831 as member for Ashburton. He was a prolific writer, principally on financial and commercial policy. Almost the whole of the pro- gramme which was carried out in legislation by Sir Robert Peel had been laid down in his economic writings. He was an early and earnest advocate of the repeal of the corn laws, but was not in favour of a general system of absolute free trade, maintaining that it is expedient to impose retaliatory duties to countervail similar duties imposed by foreign countries, and a lowering of import duties on the productions of countries retaining their hostile tariffs would occasion a decline in prices, profits and wages. His principal writings of a general character were: The Economist [i.e. Physiocrat] refuted (1808); Essay on the Production of Wealth (1821); Essay on the External Corn-trade (eulogized by Ricardp) (1827) ; The Budget, a Series of Letters on Financial, Commercial and Colonial Policy (1841-1843); The Principles and Practical Operations of Sir Robert Peel's Act of 1844 Explained and Defended (1847). TORRENS, SIR ROBERT RICHARD (1814-1884), British colonial statesman, was born at Cork, Ireland, in 1814, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He went to South Aus- tralia in 1840, and was appointed collector of customs. He was an official member of the first legislative council and in 1852 was treasurer and registrar-general. When responsible govern- ment was established he was elected as a representative for Adelaide and became a member of the first ministry. In 1857 he introduced his famous Real Property Act, the principle of which consists of conveyance by registration and certificate instead of deeds. The system was rapidly adopted in the other colonies and elsewhere, and was expounded by the author during a visit to the United Kingdom in 1862-1864. After leaving South Australia, Sir R. R. Torrens represented Cambridge in the House of Commons from 1868 to 1874; in 1872 he was knighted. He was the author of works on the effect of the gold discoveries on the currency, and other subjects. He died on the 3ist of August 1884. TORRENS, WILLIAM TORRENS M'CULLAGH (1813-1894), English politician and social reformer, son of James M'Cullagh (whose wife's maiden name, Torrens, he assumed in 1863), was born near Dublin on the I3th of October 1813. He was called to the bar, and in 1835 became assistant commissioner on the special commission on Irisrupoor-relief, which resulted in the extension of the workhouse system in Ireland in 1838. In the "forties he joined the Anti-Corn Law League, TORRES NAHARRO, B. DE— TORRICELLI 61 and in 1846 published his Industrial History of Free Nations. In 1847 he was elected to parliament for Dundalk, and sat till 1852. In 1857 he was elected as a Liberal for Yarmouth and from 1865 to 1885 he represented Finsbury. Torrens was a well known man in political life, and devoted himself mainly to social questions in parliament. It was an amend- ment of his to the Education Bill of 1870 which established the London School Board, and his Artisans' Dwellings Bill in 1868 facilitated the clearing away of slums by local authorities. He published several books, and his Twenty Years in Parlia- ment (1893) and History of Cabinets (1894) contain useful material. He died in London on the 26th of April 1894. TORRES NAHARRO, BARTOLOM6 DE (1480-1530;, Spanish dramatist, was born towards the end of the isth century at Torres, near Badajoz. After some years of soldiering and of captivity in Algiers, Torres Naharro took orders, settled in Rome about 1511, and there devoted himself chiefly to writing plays. Though he alludes to the future pope, Clement VII. as his protector, he left Rome to enter the household of Fabrizio Colonna at Naples where his works were printed under the title of Propaladia (1517). He is conjectured to have returned to his native place, and to have died there shortly after 1529. His Dialogo del nacimiento is written in unavowed, though obvious, imitation of Encina, but in his subsequent plays he shows a much larger conception of dramatic possibilities. He classifies his pieces as comedias a noticia and comedias d fantasia; the former, of which the Soldatesca and Tinellaria are examples, present in dramatic form incidents within his personal experience; the latter, which include such plays as Serafina, Himenea, Calamita and Aquilana, present imaginary episodes with adroitness and persuasiveness. Torres Naharro is much less dexterous in stage- craft than many inferior successors, his humour is rude and boisterous and his diction is unequal; but to a varied knowledge of human nature he adds knowledge of dramatic effect, and his rapid dialogue, his fearless realism and vivacious fancy prepared the way for the romantic drama in Spain. TORRES NOVAS, a town of Portugal, in the district of San- tarem, 19 m. N.N.E. of Santarem on the Lisbon-Entroncamento railway. Pop. (1900), 10,746. It manufactures cottons, linens, jute, paper, leather and spirits. It was probably founded by Greeks, and was held by the Romans, Goths and Moors, from whom it was conquered in 1148 by Alphonso I. of Portugal. TORRES VEDRAS, a town of Portugal, in the district of Lisbon, 43 m. N. by W. of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-Figueira da Foz railway. Pop. (1900), 6900. Torres Vedras is built on the left bank of the river Sizandro; it has a Moorish citadel and hot sulphur baths. Roman inscriptions and other remains have been found here, but the Latin name of the town, Turres Veleres, is probably medieval. Here were the noted fortifica- tions known as the " lines of Torres Vedras," constructed by Wellington in 1810 (see PENINSULAR WAR). Here also in 1846 the troops of General Saldanha defeated those of the count de Bomfin and seized the castle and town (see PORTUGAL: History). TORRES Y VILLAROEL, DIEGO DE (1696-1759?), Spanish miscellaneous writer, was born hi 1696 at Salamanca, where his father was bookseller to the university. In his teens Torres escaped to Portugal where he enlisted under a false name; he next moved tc Madrid, living from hand to mouth as a hawker; in 1717 he was ordained subdeacon, resumed his studies at Salamanca, and in 1726 became professor of mathematics at the university. A friend of his having stabbed a priest, Torres was suspected of complicity, and once more fled to Portugal, where he remained till his innocence was proved. He then returned to his chair, which he resigned in 1751 to act as steward to two noblemen; he was certainly alive in 1758, but the date of his death is not known. Torres had so slight a smattering of mathematics that his appointment as professor was thought scandalous even in his own scandalous age; yet he quickly acquired a store of knowledge which he displayed with serene assurance. His almanacs, his verses, his farces, his devotional and pseudo-scientific writings show that he possessed the alert adaptiveness of the born adventurer; but all that remains of his fourteen volumes (1745-1752) is his autobiography, an amusing record of cynical effrontery and successful imposture. TORREVIEJA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the pro- vince of Alicante, 3 m. S.W. of Cape Cervera, and at the terminus of a railway to Albatera on the Alicante-Murcia line. Pop. (1900), 7706. The district is famous for its salt beds, which are owned and worked by the state, the Laguna Grande alone yielding more than 100,000 tons a year. The other industries are chiefly fishing, shipbuilding and the manufacture of ropes and sails. The roadstead affords safe anchorage. There is an active trade in fruit and agricultural products. TORREY, JOHN (1796-1873), American botanist, was bom at New York on the i5th of August 1796. When he was 15 or 16 years of age his father received a prison appointment at Greenwich, and there he made the acquaintance of Amos Eaton (i 776-1842), a pioneer of natural history studies in America. He thus learned the elements of botany, as well as something of mineralogy and chemistry. In 1815 he began the study of medicine, qualifying in 1818. In the following year he issued his Catalogue of Plants growing spontaneously within Thirty Miles of the City of New York, and in 1824 he issued the first and only volume of his Flora of the Northern and Middle States. In the same year he obtained the chair of chemistry and geology at West Point military academy, and three years later the pro- fessorship of chemistry and botany in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. In 1836 he was appointed botanist to the state of New York and produced his Flora of that state in 1843; while from 1838 to 1843 he carried on the publication of the earlier portions of Flora of North America, with the assistance of his pupil, Asa Gray. From 1853 he was chief assayer to the United States assay office, but he continued to take an interest in botanical teaching until his death at New York on the loth of March 1873. He made over his valuable herbarium and botanical library to Columbia College in 1860, and he was the first president of the Torrey Botanical Club in 1873. His name is commemorated in the small coniferous genus Torreya, found in North America and in China and Japan. T. taxifolia, a native of Florida, is known as the Torrey tree or savin, and also as the stinking cedar. TORREY, REUBEN ARCHER (1856- ), American evange- list, was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, on the 28th of January 1856. He graduated at Yale University in 1875 and at the Yale Divinity School in 1878. He became a Congregational minister in 1878, studied theology at Leipzig and Erlanger in 1882-1883, joined D. L. Moody in his evangelistic work in Chicago in 1889, and became pastor of the Chicago Avenue Church in 1894 and afterwards superintendent of the Moody Bible Institute of Chicago. In 1902-1903 he preached in nearly every part of the English-speaking world, and with Charles McCallon Alexander (b. 1867) conducted revival services in Great Britain in 1903- 1905; Torrey conducted a similar campaign in American and Canadian cities in 1906-1907. TORRICELLI, EVANGELISTA (1608-1647), Italian physicist and mathematician, was born at Faenza on the isth of October 1608. Left fatherless at an early age, he was educated under the care of his uncle, a Camaldolese monk, who in 1627 sent him to Rome to study science under the Benedictine Benedetto Castelli (1577-1644), professor of mathematics at the Collegio di Sapienza. The perusal of Galileo's Dialoghi delle nuove scienze (1638) inspired him with many developments of the mechanical principles there set forth, which he embodied in a treatise De motu (printed amongst his Opera geometrica, 1644). Its communication by Castelli to Galileo in 1641, with a proposal that Torricelli should reside with him, led to Torricelli repairing to Florence, where he met Galileo, and acted as his amanuensis during the three remaining months of his life. After Galileo's death Torricelli was nominated grand-ducal mathematician and professor of mathematics in the Florentine academy. The discovery of the principle of the barometer (q.v.) which has perpetuated his fame (" Torricellian tube " " Torricellian vacuum ") was made in 1643. TORRIDONIAN— TORRINGTON, EARL OF The publication amongst Torricelli's Opera geometrica (Florence, 1644) of a tract on the properties of the cycloic involved him in a controversy with G. P. de Roberval, who accused him of plagiarizing his earlier solution of the problem oi its quadrature. There seems, however, no room for doubt that Torricelli's was arrived at independently. The matter was still in debate when he was seized with pleurisy, and died at Florence on the 25th of October 1647. He was buried in San Lorenzo, and a commemorative statue of him erected at Faenza in 1864. Among the new truths detected by him was the valuable mechanical principle that if any number of bodies be so con- nected that, by their motion, their centre of gravity can neither ascend nor descend, then those bodies are in equilibrium. He also discovered the remarkable fact that the parabolas described (in a vacuum) by indefinitely numerous projectiles discharged from the same point with equal velocities, but in all directions have a paraboloid of revolution for their envelope. His theorem that a fluid issues from a small orifice with the same velocity (friction and atmospheric resistance being neglected) which it would have acquired in falling through the depth from its sur- face is of fundamental importance in hydraulics. He greatly ' improved both the telescope and microscope. Several large object lenses, engraven with his name, are preserved at Florence. He used and developed B. Cavalieri's method of indivisibles. A selection from Torricelli's manuscripts was published by Tommaso Bonaventura in 1715, with the title Lezioni accademiche (Florence). They include an address of acknowledgment on his admission to the Accademia della Crusca. His essay on the inun- dations of the Val di Chiana was printed in Raccolta d'autori che trattano del motodelV acque, iv. 115 (Florence, 1768), and amongst Opusculi idraidici, iii. 347 (Bologna, 1822). For his life see Fabroni, Vitae Italorum, i. 345 ; Ghinassi, Lettere fin qui inedite di Evan- gelista Torricelli (Faenza, 1864) ; Tiraboschi, Storia della lett. it. viii. 302 (ed. 1824); Montucla, Hist, des math., vol. ii. ; Marie, Hist, des sciences, iv. 133. TORRIDONIAN, in geology, a series of pre-Cambrian are- naceous sediments extensively developed in the north-west high- lands of Scotland and particularly in the neighbourhood of upper Loch Torridon, a circumstance which suggested the name Torridon Sandstone, first applied to these rocks by J. Nicol. The rocks are mainly red and chocolate sandstones, arkoses, flagstones and shales with coarse conglomerates locally at the base. Some of the materials of these rocks were derived from the underlying Lewisian gneiss, upon the uneven surface of which they rest; but the bulk of the material was obtained from rocks that are nowhere now exposed. Upon this ancient •denuded land surface the Torridonian strata rest horizontally or with gentle inclination. Their outcrop extends in a belt of variable breadth from Cape Wrath to the Point of Sleet in Skye, running in a N.N.E.-S.S.W. direction through Ross-shire and Sutherlandshire. They form the isolated mountain peaks of Canisp, Quinag and Suilven in the neighbourhood of Loch Assynt, of Slioch near Loch Maree and other hills. They attain their maximum development in the Applecross, Gairloch and Torridon districts, form the greater part of Scalpay, and occur also in Rum, Raasay, Soay and the Crowlin Islands. The Torridonian rocks have been subdivided into three groups: an upper Aultbea group, 3000-5000 ft.; a middle or Applecross group, 6000-8000 ft.; and a lower or Diabeg group, 500 ft. in Gairloch but reaching a thickness of 7200 ft. in Skye. See " The Geological Structure of the North- West Highlands of Scotland," Mem. Geol. Survey (Glasgow, 1907). (J. A. H.) TORRIGIANO, PIETRO (1472-1522), Florentine sculptor, was, according to Vasari, one of the group of talented youths who studied art under the patronage of Lorenzo the Magnificent in Florence. Benvenuto Cellini, reporting a conversation with Torrigiano, relates that he and Michelangelo, while both young, were copying the frescoes in the Carmine chapel, when some slighting remark made by Michelangelo so enraged Torrigiano that he struck him on the nose, and thus caused that disfigure- ment which is so conspicuous in all the portraits of Michelangelo. Soon after this Torrigiano visited Rome, and helped Pintu- ricchio in modelling the elaborate stucco decorations in the Apartamenti Borgia for Alexander VI. After some time spent as a hired soldier in the service of different states, Torrigiano was invited to England to execute the magnificent tomb for Henry VII. and his queen, which still exists in the lady chapel of West- minster Abbey. This appears to have been begun before the death of Henry VII. in I5O9> but was not finished till 1517. The two effigies are well modelled, and have lifelike but not too realistic portraits. After this Torrigiano received the com- mission for the altar, retable and baldacchino which stood at the west, outside the screen of Henry VII. 's tomb. The altar had marble pilasters at the angles, two of which still exist, and below the mensa was a life-sized figure of the dead Christ in painted terra-cotta. The retable consisted of a large relief of the Resurrection. The baldacchino was of marble, with enrich- ments of gilt bronze; part of its frieze still exists, as do also a large number of fragments of the terra-cotta angels which sur- mounted the baldacchino and parts of the large figure of Christ. The whole of this work was destroyed by the Puritans in the i7th century.1 Henry VIII. also commissioned Torrigiano to make him a magnificent tomb, somewhat similar to that of Henry VII., but one-fourth larger, to be placed in a chapel at Windsor; it was, however, never completed, and its rich bronze was melted by the Commonwealth, together with that of Wolsey's tomb. The indentures for these various works still exist, and are printed by Neale, Westminster Abbey, i. 54-59 (London, 1818). These interesting documents are written in English, and in them the Florentine is called " Peter Torrysany." For Henry VII. 's tomb he contracted to receive £1500, for the altar and its fit- tings £1000, and £2000 for Henry VIII. 's tomb. Other works attributed from internal evidence to Torrigiano are the tomb of Margaret of Richmond, mother of Henry VII., in the south aisle of his chapel, and a terra-cotta effigy in the chapel of the Rolls. While these royal works were going on Torrigiano visited Florence in order to get skilled assistants. He tried to induce Benvenuto Cellini to come to England to help him, but Cellini refused partly from his dislike to the brutal and swaggering manners of Torrigiano, and also because he did not wish to live among " such beasts as the English." The latter part of Torrigiano's life was spent in Spain, especially at Seville, where, besides the painted figure of St Hieronymus in the museum, some terra-cotta sculpture by him still exists. His violent temper got him into difficulties with the authorities, and he ended his life in 1522 in the prisons of the Inquisition. See Wilhelm Bode, Die italienische Plastik (Berlin, 1902). TORRINGTON, ARTHUR HERBERT, EARL OF (1647- 1716), British admiral, was the son of a judge, Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1591-1657). He entered the navy in 1663, and served in the Dutch wars of the reign of Charles II., as well as against the Barbary pirates. From 1680 to 1683 he commanded in the Mediterranean. His career had been honourable, and he had been wounded in action. The known Royalist sentiments of his family combined with his reputation as a naval officer to point him out to the favour of the king, and James II. appointed bim rear-admiral of England and master of the robes. The king no doubt counted on his support of the repeal of the Test Acts, as the admiral was member for Dover. Herbert refused, and was dismissed from his places. He now entered into com- munication with the agents of the prince of Orange, and promised to use his influence with the fleet to forward a revolution. After the acquittal of the seven bishops in 1688 he carried the nvitation to William of Orange. The Revolution brought him ample amends for his losses. He was named first lord, and took the command of the fleet at home. In 1689 he was at sea attempting to prevent the French admiral Chateau-Renault (q.ii.) from landing the troops sent by the king of France to the aid of King James in Ireland. Though he fought an action with 'An old drawing still exists showing this elaborate work; it is ngraved in the Hierurgia anglicana, p. 267 (London, 1848). Many lundreds of fragments of this terra-cotta sculpture were found a ew years ago hidden under the floor of the triforium in the abbey; hey are unfortunately too much broken and imperfect to be fitted together. TORRINGTON, VISCOUNT— TORRINGTON the French in Bantry Bay on the loth of May he failed to baffle Chateau-Renault, who had a stronger force. Being discontented with the amount of force provided at sea, he resigned his place at the admiralty, but retained his command at sea. In May 1689 he was created earl of Torrington. In 1690 he was in the Channel with a fleet of English and Dutch vessels, which did not rise above 56 in all, and found himself in front of the much more powerful French fleet. In his report to the council of regency he indicated his intention of retiring to the Thames, and losing sight of the enemy, saying that they would not do any harm to the coast while they knew his fleet to be " in being." The council, which knew that the Jacobites were preparing for a rising, and only waited for the support of a body of French troops, ordered him not to lose sight of the enemy, but rather than do that to give battle " upon any advantage of the wind." On the loth of July Torrington, after consulting with his Dutch colleagues, made a half-hearted attack on the French off Beachy Head in which his own ship was kept out of fire, and severe loss fell on his allies. Then he retired to the Thames. The French pursuit was fortunately feeble (see TOURVILLE, COMTE DE) and the loss of the allies was comparatively slight. The indignation of the country was at first great, and Torrington was brought to a court martial in December. He was acquitted, but never again employed. Although twice married, he was childless when he died on the i4th of April 1716, his earldom becoming extinct. The unfavourable account of his moral character given by Dartmouth to Pepys is confirmed by Bishop Burnet, who had seen much of him during his exile in Holland. An attempt has been made in recent years to rehabilitate the character of Torrington, and his phrase " a fleet in being " has been widely used (see Naval Warfare, by Vice-Admiral P. H. Colomb). See Charnock's Biog. Nav., i. 258. The best account of the battle of Beachy Head is to be found in " The Account given by Sir John Ashby Vice-Admiral and Rear-Admiral Rooke, to the Lords Com- missioners " (1691). TORRINGTON, GEORGE BYNG, VISCOUNT (1663-1733), English admiral, was born at Wrotham, Kent. His father, John Byng, was compelled by pecuniary losses to sell his property and his son entered the navy as a king's letter boy (see NAVY) in 1678. He served in a ship stationed at Tangier, and for a time left the navy to enter one of the regiments of the garrison, but in 1683 he returned to the navy as lieutenant, and went to the East Indies in the following year. During the year 1688, he had an active share in bringing the fleet over to the prince of Orange, and by the success of the revolution his fortune was made. In 1702 he was appointed to the command of the " Nassau," and was at the taking and burning of the French fleet at Vigo, and the next year he was made rear-admiral of the red. In 1704 he served in the Mediterranean under Sir Cloudesley Shovel, and reduced Gibraltar. He was in the battle of Malaga, and for his gallantry received the honour of knight- hood. In 1708 as admiral of the blue he commanded the squadron which baffled the attempt of the Old Pretender to land in Scotland. In 1718 he commanded the fleet which defeated the Spaniards off Cape Passaro and compelled them to withdraw from their invasion of Sicily. This commission he executed so well that the king made him a handsome present and sent him full powers to negotiate with the princes and states of Italy. Byng procured for the emperor's troops free access into the fortresses which still held out in Sicily, sailed afterwards to Malta, and brought out the Sicilian galleys and a ship belonging to the Turkey Company. By his advice and assistance the Germans retook the city of Messina in 1719, and destroyed the ships which lay in the basin — an achievement which completed the ruin of the naval power of Spain. To his conduct it was entirely owing that Sicily was subdued and the king of Spain forced to accept the terms prescribed him by the quadruple alliance. On his return to England in 1721 he was made rear-admiral of Great Britain, a member of the privy council, Baron Byng of Southill, in the county of Bedford and Viscount Torrington in Devonshire. He was also made one of the Knights Com- panions of the Bath upon the revival of that order in 1725. In 1727 George II. on his accession made him first lord of the admiralty, and his administration was distinguished by the establishment of the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth. He died on the I7th of January 1733, and was buried at Southill, in Bedfordshire. Two of his eleven sons, Pattee (1699-1747) and George (1701-1750), became respectively the 2nd and 3rd viscounts. The title is still held by the descendants of the latter. See Memoirs relating to Lord Torrington, Carnden Soc., new series 46, and A True Account of the Expedition of the British Fleet to Sicily 1718-1720, published anonymously, but known to be by Thomas Corbett of the admiralty in 1739. Forbin's Memoirs contain the French side of the expedition to Scotland in 1708. TORRINGTON, a borough of Litchfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Torrington, on the Naugatuck river, about 25 m. W. of Hartford. Pop. (1900), 8360, of whom 2565 were foreign-born; (1910) 15,483; of the township, including the borough (1900) 12,453; (1910) 16,840. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by an electric line con- necting with Winsted. It has a public library (1865) with 15,000 volumes in 1909. There is a state armoury in the borough. Torrington is a prosperous manufacturing centre. In 1905 the value of the factory product was $9,674,124. The township of Torrington, originally a part of the township of Windsor, was first settled in 1734, and was separately incorporated in 1740. The site was covered by pine trees, which were much used for ship-building, and for this reason it was known as Mast Swamp. In 1751 a mill was erected, but there were few, if any, residences until 1800. In 1806 the settlement was known as New Orleans village. In 1813 members of the Wolcott family of Litchfield, impressed with the water-power, bought land and built a woollen mill, and the village that soon developed was called Wolcottville. Its growth was slow until 1864. In 1881 its name was changed to Torrington, and in 1887 the borough was incorporated. See S. Orcutt's History of Torrington (Albany, 1878), and an article, " The Growth of Torrington," in the Connecticut Magazine, vol. ix., No. i. TORRINGTON (GREAT TORRINGTON), a market town and municipal borough in the South Molton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the Torridge, 225 m. W. by S. of London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 3241. It stands on a hill overlooking the richly wooded valley of the Torridge, here crossed by three bridges. Glove manufactures on a large scale, with flour and butter making and leather dressing, are the staple industries. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 3592 acres. Torrington (Toritone) was the site of very early settlement, and possessed a market in Saxon times. The manor was held by Brictric in the reign of Edward the Confessor, and in 1086 formed part of the Domesday fief of Odo Fitz Gamelin, which later constituted an honour with Torrington as its caput. In 1 221 it appears as a mesne borough under William de Toritone, a descendant of Odo and the supposed founder of the castle, which in 1228 was ordered to be razed to the ground, but is said to have been rebuilt in 1340 by Richard de Merton. The borough had a fair in 1221, and returned two members to parlia- ment from 1295 until exempted from representation at its own request in 1368. The government was vested in bailiffs and a commonalty, and no charter of incorporation was granted till that of Queen Mary in 1554, which instituted a governing body of a mayor, 7 aldermen and 18 chief burgesses, with authority to hold a court of record every three weeks on Monday; law-days and view of frankpledge at Michaelmas and Easter; a weekly market on Saturday, and fairs at the feasts of St Michael and St George. This charter was confirmed by Elizabeth in 1568 and by James I. in 1617. A charter from James II. in 1686 changed the style of the corporation to a mayor, 8 aldermen and 12 chief burgesses. In the i6th century Torrington was an important centre of the clothing trade, and in 1605 the town is described as very prosperous, with three TORSTENSSON— TORT fairs, and a great market " furnished from far on every quarter, being the most convenient place for occasions of king or county in those parts." The Saturday market is still maintained, but the fairs have been altered to the third Saturday in March and the first Thursday in May. In 1643 Colonel Digby took up his position at Torrington and put to flight a contingent of parliamentary troops; but in 1646 the town was besieged by Sir Thomas Fairfax and finally forced to surrender. The borough records were destroyed by fire in 1724. See Victoria County History: Devonshire; F. T. Colby, History of Great Torrington (1878). TORSTENSSON, LENNART, COUNT (1603-1651), Swedish soldier, son of Torsten Lennartsson, commandant of Elfsborg, was born at Forstena in Vestergotland. At the age of fifteen he became one of the pages of the young Gustavus Adolphus and served during the Prussian campaigns of 1628-29. In 1629 he was set over the Swedish artillery, which under his guidance materially contributed to the victories of Breitenfeld (1631) and Lech (1632). The same year he was taken prisoner at Alte Veste and shut up for nearly a year at Ingolstadt. Under Baner he rendered distinguished service at the battle of Wittstock (1636) and during the energetic defence of Pomerania in 1637-38, as well as at the battle of Chemnitz (1638) and in the raid into Bohemia in 1639. Illness compelled him to return to Sweden in 1641, when he was made a senator. The sudden death of Baner in May 1641 recalled Torstensson to Germany as generalissimo of the Swedish forces and governor-general of Pomerania. He was at the same time promoted to the rank of field marshal. The period of his command (1641-1645) forms one of the most brilliant chapters in the military history of Sweden. In 1642 he marched through Brandenburg and Silesia into Moravia, taking all the principal fortresses on his way. On returning through Saxony he well nigh annihilated the imperialist army at the second battle of Breitenfeld (Oct. 23, 1642). In 1643 he invaded Moravia for the second time, but was suddenly recalled to invade Denmark, when his rapid and unexpected intervention paralysed the Danish defence on the land side, though Torstensson's own position in Jutland was for a time precarious owing to the skilful handling of the Danish fleet by Christian IV. In 1644 he led his army for the third time into the heart of Germany and routed the imperialists at Jiiterbog (Nov. 23). At the beginning of November 1645 he broke into Bohemia, and the brilliant victory of Jankow (Feb. 24, 1645) laid open before him the road to Vienna. Yet, though one end of the Danube bridge actually fell into his hands, his exhausted army was unable to penetrate any farther and, in December the same year, Tor- stensson, crippled by gout, was forced to resign his command and return to Sweden. In 1647 he was created a count. From 1648 to 1651 he ruled all the western provinces of Sweden, as governor-general. On his death at Stockholm (April 7, 1651) he was buried solemnly in the Riddarholmskyrka, the Pantheon of Sweden. Torstensson was remarkable for the extraordinary and incalculable rapidity of his movements, though very frequently he had to lead the army in a litter, as his bodily infirmities would not permit him to mount his horse. He was also the most scientific artillery officer and the best and most successful engineer in the Swedish army. His son, Senator Count Anders Torstensson (1641-1686), was from 1674 to 1681 governor-general of Esthonia. The family became extinct on the sword-side in 1727. See J. W. de Peyster, History of the Life of L. Torstensson (Pough- keepsie, 1855); J. Feil, Torstensson before Vienna (trans, by de Peyster, New York, 1885); Gustavus III., Eulogy of Torstensson (trans, by de Peyster, New York, 1872). (R. N. B.) TORT (Fr. for wrong, from Lat. tortus, twisted, participle of torquere), the technical term, in the law of England, of those dominions and possessions of the British Empire where the common law has been received or practically adopted in civil affairs, and of the United States, for a civil wrong, i.e. the breach of a duty imposed by law, by which breach some person becomes entitled to sue for damages. A tort must, on the one hand, be an act which violates a general duty. The rule which it breaks must be one made by the law, not, as in the case of a mere breach of contract, a rule which the law protects because the parties have made it for themselves. On the other hand, a tort is essentially the source of a private right of action. An offence which is punishable, but for which no one can bring a civil action, is not a tort. It is quite possible for one and the same act to be a tort and a breach of contract, or a tort and a crime; it is even possible in one class of cases for the plaintiff to have the option — for purposes of procedural advantage — of treating a real tort as a fictitious contract; but there is no necessary or general connexion. Again, it is not the case that pecuniary damages are always or necessarily the only remedy for a tort; but the right to bring an action in common law juris- diction, as distinct from equity, matrimonial or admiralty jurisdiction, with the consequent right to damages, is invariably present where a tort has been committed. This technical use of the French word tort (which at one time was near becoming a synonym of wrong in literary English) is not very ancient, and anything like systematic treatment of the subject as a whole is very modern. Since about the middle of the i9th century there has been a current assumption that all civil causes of action must be founded on either contract or tort; but there is no historical foundation for this doctrine, though modified forms of the action of trespass — actions in consimili casu, or "on the case " in the accustomed English phrase — did in practice largely supplant other more archaic forms of action by reason of their greater convenience. The old forms were designed as penal remedies for manifest breach of the peace or corruption of justice; and traces of the penal element remained in them long after the substance of the procedure had become private and merely civil. The transition belongs to the general history of English law. In England the general scope of the law of torts has never been formulated by authority, the law having in fact been developed by a series of disconnected experiments with the various forms of action which seemed from time to time to promise the widest and most useful remedies. But there is no doubt that the duties enforced by the English law of torts are broadly those which the Roman institutional writers summed up in the precept Alterum non laedere. Every member of a civilized commonwealth is entitled to require of others a certain amount of respect for his person, reputation and property, and a certain amount of care and caution when they go about undertakings attended with risk to their neighbours. Under the modern law, it is submitted, the question arising when one man wilfully or recklessly harms another is not whether some technical form of action can be found in which he is liable, but whether he can justify or excuse himself. This view, at any rate, is countenanced by a judgment of the Supreme Court of the United States delivered in 1904. If it be right, the controverted question whether conspiracy is or is not a substantive cause of action seems to lose most of its importance. Instead of the doubtful proposition of law that some injuries become unlawful only when inflicted by concerted action, we shall have the plain proposition of fact that some kinds of injury cannot, as a rule, be inflicted by one person with such effect as to produce any damage worth suing for. The precise amount of responsibility can be determined only by full consideration in each class of cases. It is important to observe, however, that a law of responsibility confined to a man's own personal acts and defaults would be of next to no practical use under the conditions of modern society. What makes the law of torts really effective, especially with regard to redress for harm suffered by negligence, is the universal rule of law that every one is answerable for the acts and defaults of his servants (that is, all persons acting under his direction and taking their orders from him or some one representing him) in the course of their employment. The person actually in fault is not the less answerable, but the remedy against him is very commonly not worth pursuing. But for this rule corporations could not be liable for any negligence of their servants, however disastrous TORT to innocent persons, except so far as it might happen to constitute a breach of some express undertaking. We have spoken of the rule as universal, but, in the case of one servant of the same employer being injured by the default of another, an unfortunate aberration of the courts, which started about two generations ago from small beginnings, was pushed to extreme results, and led to great hardship. A partial remedy was applied in 1880 by the Employers' Liability Act; and in 1897 a much bolder step was taken by the Workmen's Compensation Act (super- seded by a more comprehensive act in 1906). But, as the common law and the two acts (which proceed on entirely different principles) cover different fields, with a good deal of overlapping, and the acts are full of complicated provisos and exceptions, and. contain very special provisions as to procedure, the improvement in substantial justice has been bought, so far, at the price of great confusion in the form of the law, and considerable difficulty in ascertaining what it is in any but the most obvious cases. The Workmen's Compensation Act includes cases of pure accident, where there is no fault at all, or none that can be proved, and therefore goes beyond the reasons of liability with which the law of torts has to do. In fact, it establishes a kind of compulsory insurance, which can be justified only on wider grounds of policy. A novel and extraordinary exception to the rule of responsibility for agents was made in the case of trade combinations by the Trade Disputes Act 1906. This has no interest for law as a science. There are kinds of cases, on the other hand, in which the law, without aid from legislation, has imposed on occupiers and other persons in analogous positions a duty stricter than that of being answerable for themselves and their servants. Duties of this kind have been called " duties of insuring safety." Gene- rally they extend to having the building, structure, or works in such order, having regard to the nature of the case, as not to create any danger to persons lawfully frequenting, using, or passing by them, which the exercise of reasonable care and skill could have avoided; but in some cases of " extra-hazardous " risk, even proof of all possible diligence — according to English authority, which is not unanimously accepted in America — will not suffice. There has lately been a notable tendency to extend these principles to the duties incurred towards the public by local authorities who undertake public works. Positive duties created by statute are on a similar looting, so far as the breach of them is capable of giving rise to any private right of action. The classification of actionable wrongs is perplexing, not because it is difficult to find a scheme of division, but because it is easier to find many than to adhere to any one of them. We may start either from the character of the defendant's act or omission, with regard to his knowledge, intention and otherwise; or from the character of the harm suffered by the plaintiff. Whichever of these we take as the primary line of distinction, the results can seldom be worked out without calling in the other. Taking first the defendant's position, the widest governing principle is that, apart from various recognized grounds of immunity, a man is answerable for the " natural and probable " consequences of his acts; i.e. such consequences as a reasonable man in his place should have foreseen as probable. Still more is he answer- able for what he did actually foresee and intend. Knowledge of particular facts may be necessary to make particular kinds of conduct wrongful. Such is the rule in the case of fraud and other allied wrongs, including what is rather unhappily called " slander of title," and what is now known as " unfair com- petition " in the matter of trade names and descriptions, short of actual piracy of trade-marks. But where an absolute right to security for a man's person, reputation or goods is interfered with, neither knowledge nor specific intention need be proved. In these cases we trespass altogether at our peril. It is in general the habit of the law to judge acts by their apparent tendency, and not by the actor's feelings or desires. I cannot excuse myself by good motives for infringing another man's rights, whatever other grounds of excuse may be available; xxvn. 3 and it is now settled conversely, though after much doubt, that an act not otherwise unlawful is not, as a rule, made unlawful by being done from an evil motive. This rule was known some time ago to apply to the exercise of rights of property, and such speculative doubt as remained was removed by the decision of the House of Lords in the leading case of Allen v. Flood (1898, A.C. i). We now know that it applies to the exercise of all common rights. The exceptions are very few, and must be explained by exceptional reasons. Indeed, only two are known to the present writer — malicious prose- cution, and the misuse of a " privileged occasion " which would justify the communication of defamatory matter if made in good faith. In each case the wrong lies in the deliberate perversion of a right or privilege allowed for the public good, though the precise extent of the analogy is not certain at present.1 It must be remembered, however, that the presence or absence of personal ill will, and the behaviour of the parties generally, may have an important effect, when liability is proved or admitted, in mitigating or aggravating the amount of damages awarded by juries and allowed by the court to be reasonable. It may likewise be noted, by way of caution, that some problems of criminal law, with which we are not here concerned, require more subtle consideration. However, it is hardly ever safe to assume that the bounds of civil and criminal liability will be found coextensive. Perhaps we may go so far as to say that a man is neither civilly nor criminally liable for a mere omission (not being disobedience to a lawful command which he was bound to obey), unless he has in some way assumed a special duty of doing the act omitted. We have already had to mention the existence of grounds of immunity for acts that would otherwise be wrongful. Such grounds there must be if the law is to be enforced and justice administered at all, and if the business of life is to be carried on with any freedom. Roughly speaking, we find in these cases one of the following conditions: Either the defendant was executing a lawful authority; or he was justified by extraordinary necessity; or he was doing something permitted by legislation for reasons of superior utility, though it may produce damage to others, and either with or without special provisions for compensating damage; or he was exercising a common right in matters open to free use and competition; or the plaintiff had, by consent or otherwise, disabled himself from having any grievance. Pure accident will hardly seem to any one who is not a lawyer to be a special ground of exemption, the question being rather how it could ever be supposed to be a ground of liability. But it was supposed so by many lawyers down to recent times; the reason lying in a history of archaic ideas too long to be traced here. Exercise of common rights is the category where most difficulty arises. Here, in fact, the point at which a man's freedom is limited by his neighbour's has to be fixed by a sense of policy not capable of formal demonstration. As Justice Holmes of the Supreme Court of the United States has said, we allow unlimited trade competition (so long as it is without fraud) though we know that many traders must suffer, and some may be ruined by it, because we hold that free com- petition is worth more to society than its costs. A state with different economic foundations might have a different law on this, as on many other points. This freedom extends not only to the exercise of one's calling, but to choosing with whom and under what conditions one will exercise it. Also the law will not inquire with what motives a common right is exercised ; and this applies to the ordinary rights of an owner in the use of his property 1 It was formerly supposed that an action by a party to a con- tract against a third person for procuring the other party to break his contract was within the same class, i.e. that malice must be proved. But since Allen v. Flood, and the later decision of the House of Lords in Quinn v. Leathern (1901, A.C. 495), this view seems untenable. The ground of action is the intentional violation of an existing legal right; which, however, since 1906, may be practised with impunity in the United Kingdom " in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute " : Trade Disputes Act, § 3. 66 TORTOISE as well as to the right of every man to carry on his business.1 Owners and occupiers of immovable property are bound, indeed, to respect one another's convenience within certain limits. The maxim or precept Sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas does not mean that I must not use my land in any way which can possibly diminish the profit or amenity of my neighbour's. That would be false. It is a warning that both his rights and mine extend beyond being free from actual unlawful entry, and that if either of us takes too literally the more popular but even less accurate maxim, " Every man may do as he will with his own," he will find that there is such a head of the law as nuisance. From the point of view of the plaintiff, as regards the kind of damage suffered by him, actionable wrongs may be divided into four groups. We have some of a strictly personal kind; some which affect ownership and rights analogous to owner- ship; some which extend to the safety, convenience and profit of life generally — in short, to a man's estate in the widest sense; and some which may, according to circumstances, result in damage to person, property or estate, any or all of them. Per- sonal wrongs touching a man's body or honour are assault, false imprisonment, seduction or " enticing away " of members of his family. Wrongs to property are trespass to land or goods, " conversion " of goods (i.e. wrongful assumption of dominion over them), disturbance of easements and other individual rights in property not amounting to exclusive possession. Tres- pass is essentially a wrong to possession; but with the aid of actions " on the case " the ground has been practically covered. Then there are infringements of incorporeal rights which, though not the subject of trespass proper, are exclusive rights of enjoyment and have many incidents of ownership. Actions, in some cases expressly given by statute, lie for the piracy of copyright, patents and trade marks. Wrongs to a man's estate in the larger sense above noted are defamation (not a strictly personal wrong, because according to English common law the temporal damage, not the insult, is, rightly or wrongly, made the ground of action); deceit, so-called "slander of title" and fraudulent trade competition, which are really varieties of deceit; malicious prosecution; and nuisance, which, though most important as affecting the enjoyment of property, is not considered in that relation only. Finally, we have the results of negligence and omission to perform special duties regarding the safety of one's neighbours or customers, or of the public, which may affect person, property, or estate generally. The law of wrongs is made to do a great deal of work which, in a system less dependent on historical conditions, we should expect to find done by the law of property. We can claim or reclaim our movable goods only by complaining of a wrong done to our possession or our right to possess. There is no direct assertion of ownership like the Roman vindicatio. The law of negligence, with the refined discussions of the test and measure of liability which it has introduced, is wholly modern; and the same may be said of the present working law of nuisance, 1 The rule that a man's motives for exercising his common rights are not examinable involves the consequence that advising or procuring another, who is a free agent, to do an act of this kind can, a fortiori, not be an actionable wrong at the suit of a third person who is damnified by the act, and that whatever the adviser's motives may be. This appears to be included in the decision of the House of Lords in Allen v. Flood. That decision, though not binding in any American court, is approved and followed in most American jurisdictions. It is otherwise where a system of coercion is exercised on a man's workmen or customers in order to injure him in his business. The extension of immunity to such conduct would destroy the value of the common right which the law pro- tects: Quinn v. Leathern. The coercion need not be physical, and the wrong as a whole may be made up of acts none of which taken alone would be a cause of action. In this point there is nothing novel, for it is so in almost every case of nuisance. Conspiracy is naturally a frequent element in such cases, but it does not appear to be necessary; if it were, millionaires and corporations might exceed the bounds of lawful competition with impunity whenever they were strong enough. The reasons given in Quinn v. Leathern are many and various, but the decision is quite consistent with Allen v. Flood. However, the Trade Disputes Act will probably have its intended effect of reducing the law on this head to relative insignificance in England. though the term is of respectable antiquity. Most recent of all is the rubric of " unfair competition," which is fast acquiring great importance. It will be observed that the English law of torts answers approximately in its purpose and contents to the Roman law of obligations ex delicto and' quasi ex delicto. When we have allowed for the peculiar treatment of rights of property in the common law, and remembered that, according to one plausible theory, the Roman law of possession itself is closely connected in its origin with the law of delicts, we shall find the corre- spondence at least as close as might be expected a priori. Nor is the correspondence to be explained by borrowing, for this branch of the common law seems to owe less to the classical Roman or medieval canon law than any other. Some few misunderstood Roman maxims have done considerable harm in detail, but the principles have been worked out in all but complete independence. A list of modern books and monographs will be found at the end of the article on " Torts " by the present writer in the Encyclo- paedia of the Laws of England (2nd ed.). Among recent editions of works on the law of torts and new publications the following may be mentioned here: Addison, by W. E. Gordon and W. H. Griffith (8th ed., 1906); Clerk and Lindsell, by Wyatt Paine (4th ed., 1906); Pollock (8th ed., 1908); Salmond, The Law of Torts (and ed., 1910). In America: Burdick, The Law of Torts (1905); Street, The Foundations of Legal Liability (1906), 3 vols. of which vol. i. is on Tort. (F. Po.) TORTOISE. Of the three names generally used for this order of reptiles, viz. tortoise, turtle and terrapin, the first is derived from the Old French word tortis, i.e. twisted, and was probably applied first to the common European species on account of its curiously bent forelegs. Turtle is believed to be a corruption of the same word, but the origin of the name terrapin is un- known: since the time of the navigators of the i6th century it has been in general use for fresh-water species of the tropics, and especially for those of the New World. The name tortoise is now generally applied to the terrestrial members of this group of animals, and that of turtle to those which live in the sea or pass a great part of their existence in fresh water. They consti- tute one of the orders of reptiles, the Chelonia: toothless reptiles, with well developed limbs, with a dorsal and a ventral shell composed of numerous bony plates, large firmly fixed quadrates, a longitudinal anal opening and an unpaired copulatory organ. The whole shell consists of the dorsal, more or less convex carapace and the ventral plastron, both portions being joined laterally by the so-called bridge. The carapace is (with the exception of Sphargis) formed by dermal ossifications which are arranged in regular series, viz. a median row (l nuchal, mostly 8 neurals and 1-3 supracaudal or pygal plates), a right and left row of costal plates which surround and partly replace the ribs, and a consider- able number (about 1 1 pairs) of marginal plates. The plas- tron consists of usually 9, rarely II, dermal bones, viz. paired epi-, hyo-, hypo- and xiphi-plastral plates and the unpaired endo-plastral ; the latter is homologous with the interclavicle, the epi-plastra with the clavicles, the rest with so-called abdominal ribs of other reptiles. In most Chelonians the bony shell is covered with a hard epi- dermal coat, which is divided into large shields, commonly called " tortoiseshell." These horny shields or scutes do not correspond in numbers and extent with the underlying bones, although there is a general, vague resemblance in their arrangement; for instance, there is a neural, a paired costal and a paired marginal series. The terminology may be learned from the accompanying illus- trations (figs, i and 2). The integuments of the head, neck, tail and limbs are either soft and smooth or scaly or tubercular, frequently with small osseous nuclei. All the bones of the skull are suturally united. The dentary portion of the mandible consists of one piece only, both halves being completely fused together. The pectoral arch remains separate in the median line ; it consists of the coracoids, which slope backwards, and the scapulae, which stand upright and often abut against the inside of the first pair of costal plates. Near the glenpid cavity for the humerus arises from the scapula a long process which is directed transversely towards its fellow ; it represents the acromial process of other vertebrates, although so much enlarged, and is neither the precoracoid, nor the clavicle, as stated by the thought- less. The tail is still best developed in the Chelydridae, shortest in the Trionychoidea. Since it contains the large copulatory organ, it is less reduced in the males. No Chelonians possess the slightest TORTOISE 67 traces of teeth, but their jaws are provided with horny sheaths, with hard and sharp edges, forming a beak. The number of Chelonians known at present may be estimated at about 200, the fresh-water species being far the most numerous, and are abundant in well-watered districts of the tropical and sub-tropical zones. Their number and variety decrease beyond the tropics, and in the north they disappear entirely about the 5<3th parallel in the western and about the 56th in the eastern hemisphere, whilst in the southern hemisphere the terrestrial forms seem to advance to 36° S. only. The marine turtles, which are spread over the whole of the equatorial and sub-tropical seas, sometimes stray beyond those limits. As in other orders FIGS. I, 2. — Shell of Testudo pardalis, to show the divisions of the integument, which are marked by entire lines, and of the osseous carapace, these being marked by dotted lines. Fig. I, Upper or dorsal aspect. Fig. 2, Lower or ventral aspect. Epidermal shields: — co, Costals. t>, Vertebrals. m, Marginals. g, Gulars. pg, Postgulars or numerals. p. Pectorals. ab, Abdominals. pa, Preanals or femorals. an, Anals. Bones of the Carapace: — co1, Costals. ne, Neurals. nu, Nuchal. py, Pygals. ml. Marginals. ent, Entoplastron. ep, Epiplastron. hyo, Hyoplastron. hyp, Hypoplastron. xyp, Xiphiplastron. of reptiles, the most specialized and the largest forms are restricted to the tropics (with the exception of Macroclemmys) ; but, unlike lizards or snakes, Chelonians are unable to exist in sterile districts or at great altitudes. They show a great divergence in their mode of life — some living constantly on land, others having partly terrestrial partly aquatic habits, others again rarely leaving the water or the sea. The first-mentioned, the land tortoises proper, have short club-shaped feet with blunt claws, and a very convex, heavy, completely ossified shell. In the fresh-water forms the joints of the limb bones are much more mobile, the digits distinct, armed with sharp claws, and united by a membrane or web; their shell is less convex, and is flattened, and more or less extensive areas may remain unossified, or transparent windows are formed with age, for instance in Batagur. As a rule, the degree of development of the interdigital web and of convexity of the shell indicates the prevalence of aquatic or terrestrial habits of a species of terrapin. Finally, the marine turtles have paddle-shaped limbs resembling those of Cetaceans. Land tortoises are sufficiently protected by their carapace, and therefore have no need of any special modification of structure by means of which their appearance would be assimi- lated to the surroundings and thus give them additional security from their enemies. These, however, are few in number. On the other hand, among the carnivorous terrapins and fresh- water turtles instances of protective resemblance are not scarce, and may even attain to a high degree of specialization, as in Chelys, the matamata. The colours of land tortoises are generally plain, or in yellow and brown patterns, whilst those of many terrapins are singularly varied, bright and beautiful, especially in the very young, but all this beauty is lost in the adult of many species. Chelonians are diurnal animals; only a few are active during the night, habitually or on special occasions, as, for instance, during oviposition. Land tortoises are slow in all their move- ments, but all kinds living in water can execute rapid motions, either to seize their prey or to escape from danger. All Chelonians are stationary, residing throughout the year in the same locality, with the exception of the marine turtles, which periodically migrate to their breeding-stations. Species inhabiting temperate regions hibernate. Land tortoises, a few terrapins, and some of the marine turtles are herbivorous, the others carnivorous, their prey con- sisting chiefly of fish, frogs, molluscs, and other small aquatic animals; some, e.g. Clemmys insculpta and Cistudo Carolina, have a mixed vegetable and animal diet. All Chelonians are oviparous, and the eggs are generally covered with a hard shell, mostly elliptical, rarely quite round, as in the case of the marine turtles. The various modifications, and also the not uncommon individual variations, in the composition of the carapace plates and the number and disposition of the shields, are very significant. They show an unmistakable tendency towards reduction in numbers, a concentration and simplification of the shell and its covering shields. We can to a certain extent reconstruct a generalized ancestral tortoise and thereby narrow the wide gap which separates the Chelonia from every other reptilian order. The early Chelonians possessed most likely more than five longitudinal dorsal rows of plates. The presence of several small supramarginal shields in Macroclemmys may be an indication that the total number of longitudinal rows was originally at least seven. The number of transverse rows, both of plates and shields, was also greater. We can account for at least twelve median plates and as many pairs of marginals, but for only eieht median and eight pairs of costal shields (individual variations observed in Thalassochelys) . It stands to reason that originally each trunk metamere had its full complement of plates and shields ; consequently that about twelve trunk metameres partook in the formation of the shell, which, with subsequent shortening and broadening of the trunk, has under- gone considerable concentration and reduction, a process which has reduced the costal plates to seven pairs in the American species of Trionyx, has completely abolished the neural plates of some Chelydidae, and has brought down the costal shields to four pairs in the majority of recent Chelonians. In several species of Testudo the little nuchal shield is suppressed, thereby reducing the unpaired median shields to five. The complete absence of shields in the Triony- chidae and in Carettochelys is also due to a secondary process, which, however, has proceeded in a different way. Classification of Chelonia. H. Stannius in 1854 clearly separated the Trionychoidea from the rest. E. D. Cope, in 1870, distinguished between Pleurodira and Cryptodira according to whether the neck, Sept) or SetpTj, is bent sidewards, or hidden by being withdrawn in an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane; he also separated Sphargis as Athecae from all the other Chelonians, for which L. Dollo, in 1886, proposed the term Thecophora. These terms are most unfortunate, misleading. Athecae (from OitKij, shell) has reference to the absence of a horny shell-covering in the leathery turtle; but since the same character applies to Trionychoidea and to Carettochelys, nobody can guess that 68 TORTOISE the term Athecae in Dollo's sense refers to the fact that the shell of the leathery turtle is not homologous with the typical shell or 61)107 of the other Chelonians. The grouping of the latter into families recognizable by chiefly internal, skeletal characters has been effected by G. A. Boulenger. For practical purposes the following " key " is preferable to those taxonomic characters which are mentioned in the descriptions of the different families. The relationships between them may be indicated as follows: — f Athecae Sphargidae ("Pelomedusidae Chelonia-j fPleurodira J. Chelydidae Carettochelydidae rChelydridae — Derma- temydidae-Cinosternida [Thecophora Cryptodira -I Platysternidae Testudinidae Chelonidae Neck bending sideways under the shell Trionychoidea Key to the Families of Chelonia. Shell covered with horny shields. Digits distinct, with five or four claws. Pectoral shields separated from the mar- ginals by inframarginals. Tail long and crested. Plastron small and cruciform ....... Chelydridae Tail long, covered with rings of shields. Plastron large Platysternidae _ .. , ( Dermatemydidae Tail short { Cinosternidae Pectoral shields in contact with the mar- ginals. Plastral shields 1 1 or 12, without an inter- gular. Neck retractile in an S-shaped vertical curve Testudinidae Plastral shields 13, an intergular being present. ( Chelydidae \ Pelomedusidae Limbs paddle-shaped, with one or two claws Chelonidae Shell without horny shields, covered with soft leathery skin. Digits distinct, broadly webbed, but with only three claws Trionychoidea Limbs paddle-shaped. Shell composed of regular series of bony plates. Two claws Carettochelydidae Shell composed of very many small plates arranged like mosaic. No claws . . Sphargidae. Sub-order I. Athecae. — The shell consists of a mosaic of numerous small polygonal osseous plates and is covered with leathery skin without any horny shields. The limbs are transformed into paddles, without claws. Marine. Sole representative Sphargis or Derma- tochelys coriacea, the leathery turtle or luth ; it is the largest of living Chelonians, surpassing 6 ft. in length, has a wide distribution over all the intertropical seas, but is very rare everywhere; a few stragglers have appeared as far north as the coasts of Long Island, and those of Great Britain, Holland and France. It is a curious fact that only adults and young, but none of intermediate size, happen to be known. This creature shows many im- portant features. The vertebrae and ribs are not fused with, but remain free from, the cara- pace, and this is fundamentally different from and not homologous with that of other Chelon- ians. O. P. Hay has suggested that the mosaic polygonal components of the shell of Sphargis are, so to speak, an earlier generation of osteo- dermal plates than the fewer and larger plates of the Thecophora, which in them fuse with the neural arches and the ribs. Sphargis has, how- ever, the later category in the plastron and in its first neural or nuchal plate. If this suggestion is correct, this turtle has either lost or perhaps never had developed the horny shields. The many mosaic plates comprise larger plates which form an unpaired median, two pairs of other dorsal, a lateral and three pairs of ventral series or ridges ; thirteen, or when the inner ventral pair fuses, twelve pairs in all. The skull, excellently studied by J. F. van Bemmelen, much resembles that of Chelone, but so-called epipterygoids are absent; further, the pterygoids, instead of sending lateral arms to the jugals and maxillaries, are widely separated from these bones by the palatines, and these do not at all ventrally roof over the choanae. The position of Sphargis in the system is still a moot question. G. A. Boulenger looks upon it as the sole remnant of a primitive group in opposition to all the other recent Chelonia; G. Baur con- sidered it the most specialized descendant of the Chelonidae, a FIG. 3. — A portion of the Osseous Plates of the Carapace of Sphargis coriacea, showing three large keeled plates of one of the longitudinal ridges of the carapace, with a number of the small irregular plates on either side of them. view which has been supported by W. Dames, E. C. Case, and to a certain extent by J. F. van Bemmelen. For literature, &c., see L. Dollo, Bull. S. R. Bruxelles (Fevrier 4, 1901). Sub-order II. Thecophora. — The bony shell is composed of several longitudinal series of plates (on the dorsal side a median or neural, a paired lateral or costal series, and marginal plates). With few exceptions this shell is covered with large horny scutes or shields. Super-family I. Cryptodira. — The neck, if retractile, bends in an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane. The pelvis is not fused with the shell, and this is covered with large horny shields, except in Carettochelys. Family I . Chelydridae. — The plastron is rather narrow, and cross- shaped ; the bridge is very narrow and is covered by a pair of shields, the displaced abdominals, which are separated from the marginals by a few inframarginals. The limbs, neck and head are so stout that they cannot completely be withdrawn into the shell. The tail is very long. Only two genera with three species, confined to America. Chelydra serpentina, the " snapping turtle," ranging from the Canadian lakes through the United States east of the Rockies ; Ecuador. closely allied is C. rossignoni of Central America and Macroclemmys temmincki, the " alligator turtle," is the largest known fresh- water Chelonian, its shell growing to a length FIG. 4. — The Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina). of 3 ft. It is characterized by the three series of strong prominent keels ajong the back; it inhabits the whole basin of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Family 2. Dermatemydidae. — The pectoral shields are widely separated from the marginals by inframarginals, the gulars are small or absent, and the tail is extremely short. Only a few species, in Central America. The plastron is composed of nine plates. The nuchal plate has a pair of rib-like processes like those of the Chelydridae. One or more of the posterior costal plates meet in the middle line. The shell of these aquatic, broadly web-fingered tortoises, is very flat and the covering shields are thin. They feed TORTOISE 69 upon leaves, grass and especially fruit. Staurotypus, e.g. salvini with 23, Dermalemys, e.g. mawi, with 25 marginal shields. Family 3. Cinosternidae. — Closely allied to the two previous families from which Cinosternum, the only genus, differs chiefly by the absence of the endo-plastral plate. Inframarginals are present. The nuchal plate has a pair of rib-like processes. The neural plates are interrupted by the meeting of several pairs of the costal plates. Twenty-three marginal shields. In some species the skin of the legs and neck is so baggy that these parts slip in, the skin rolling off, when such a turtle withdraws into its shell. In some the plastron is hinged and the creature can shut itself up tightly, e.g. C. leucostoma of Mexico; in others the plastron leaves gaps, or it is narrow and without hinges, e.g. C. odoratum, the mud turtle or stinkpot terrapin of the eastern half of North America. About a dozen species, mostly Central American. Family 4. Platysternidae. — Platysternum megacephalum, the only species, from Burma to southern China. The total length of these thick-headed, very long-tailed turtles is about I ft., only 5 in. belonging to the shell. The plastron is large, oblong, not cruci- form, composed of nine plates. The nuchal is devoid of rib-like processes. A unique arrangement is that the jugals are completely shut off from the orbits owing to the meeting of the post-frontals with the maxillaries. Family 5. Testudinidae. — The shell is always covered with well- developed shields; those which cover the plastral bridge are in direct contact with the marginals. The plastron is composed of nine bones. The digits have four or five claws. The neck is completely retractile. This family contains the majority of tortoises, divided into as many as 20 genera. These, starting with Entys as the least special- ized, can be arranged in two main diverging lines, one culminating in the thoroughly aquatic Batagur, the other in the exclusively terrestrial forms. Emys, with the plastron movably united to the carapace; with well-webbed limbs, amphibious. E. orbicularis or europaea was, towards the end of the Pleistocene period, distributed over a great part of middle Europe, remains occurring in the peat of England, Belgium, Denmark and Sweden ; it is now withdrawing eastwards, being restricted in Germany to isolated localities east of Berlin, but it reoccurs in Poland and Russia, whence it extends into western Asia ; it is common in south Europe. The other species, E. blandingi, lives in Canada and the north-eastern states of the Union. Clemmys with the plastron immovably united to the cara- §ace; temperate holarctic region, e.g. C. caspica, C. leprosa in pain and Morocco; C. insculpta, in north-east America. Mala- coclemmys with a few species in North America, e.g. M. terrapin, the much prized " diamond-back. " Chrysemys with many American species, e.g. Ch. picta, the " painted terrapin " and C. concinna, most of them very handsomely coloured and marked when still young. Batagur and Kachuga in the Indian sub-region. Cistudo Carolina, the box tortoise of North America, with the plastron divided into an anterior and a posterior movable lobe, so that the creature can shut itself up completely. Although essen- tially by its internal structure a water tortoise, it has become absolutely terrestrial in habits, and herewith agree the high- backed instead of depressed shell, the short webless fingers and its general coloration. It has a mixed diet. The eyes of the males are red, those of the females are brown. From Long Island to Mexico. Cinixys, e.g. belliana of tropical Africa, has the posterior portion of the carapace movably hinged. Pyxis arachnoides of Madagascar has the front-lobe of the plastron hinged. Testudo, the main genus, with about 40 species, is cosmopolitan in tropical and sub-tropical countries, with the exception of the whole of the Australian and Malay countries; most of the species are African. T. graeca, in Mediterranean countries and islands. T. marginata in Greece with the posterior margin of the carapace much flanged or serrated, and T. ibera or mauritanica from Morocco to Persia; both differ from T. graeca by an unpaired supracaudal, marginal shield, and by the possession of a strong, conical, horny tubercle on the hinder surface of the thigh. With age the posterior portion of the plastron develops a transverse ligamentous hinge. T. polyphemus, the " gopher " of southern United States, lives in pairs in self-dug burrows. T. labulata is one of the few South American terrestrial tortoises. Of great interest are the so-called gigantic land tortoises. In former epochs truly gigantic species of the genus Testudo had a wide and probably more continuous distribution. There was T. atlas, of the Pliocene of the Sivalik hills with a skull nearly 8 in. long, but the shell probably measured not more than 6 ft. in length, the restored specimen in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington being exaggerated. T. perpigniana of Pliocene France was also large. Large land tortoises, with a length of shell of more than 2 ft., became restricted to two widely separated regions of the world, viz. the Galapagos Islands (called thus after the Spanish galapago, i.e. tortoise), and islands in the western Indian Ocean viz. the Mascarenes (Bourbon, Mauritius and Rodriguez) and Aldabra. When they became extinct in Madagascar is not known, but T. grandidieri was a very large kind, of apparently very recent date. At the time of their discovery those smaller islands were un- inhabited by man or any predaceous mammal. It was on these peaceful islands that land tortoises lived in great numbers; with plenty of food there was nothing for them to do but to feed, to propagate, to grow and to vary. Most of the islands were or are inhabited by one or more typical, local forms. As they provided, like the equally ill-fated dodo and solitaire, a welcome provision of excellent meat, ships carried them about, to be slaughtered as occasion required, and soon almost exterminated them; some were occasionally liberated on other islands, for instance, on the Seychelles and on the Chagos, or they were left as presents, in Ceylon, Java or on Rotuma near the Fijis. Thus it has come to pass that the few survivors have been very much scattered. The small genuine stock at Aldabra is now under government protection, in a way. A large male of T. gigantea or elephanlina or hololissa or ponderosa, was brought to London and weighed 870 ft; another specimen had in 1908 been living at St Helena for more than one hundred years. A specimen of T. daudini, native of the South Island of Aldabra, was known for many years on Egmont Island, one of the Chagos group, then it was taken to Mauritius and then to England, where of course it soon died ; its shell measures 55 in. in a straight line, and it weighed 560 ft. The type specimen of T. sumeirei, supposed to have come originally from the Seychelles, was in 1908 still kept in the barrack grounds at Port Louis, Mauri- tius, and had been known as a large tortoise for about 1 50 years. T. vosmaeri was a very thin-shelled species in Rodriguez. Of the Galapagos species T. ephippium still survives on Duncan Island; T. abingdoni lived on Abingdon Island; of T. elephanlopus or vicina, G. Baur still collected 21 specimens in 1893 on Albemarle Island. One monster of this kind is said to have measured 56 in. over the curve of the carapace, with a skull a little more than 7 in. in length. All the Galapagos species are remarkable for their comparatively small head and the very long neck, which is much larger and more slender than that of the eastern species. Family 6. Chelonidae. Marine turtles, with only two recent genera, with three widely distributed species. The limbs are paddle- shaped, with only one or two claws, and the shell is covered with horny shields. The neck is short and incompletely retractile. The parietals, post-frontals, squamosals, quadrato-jugals, and jugals are much expanded and form an additional or false roof over the temporal region of the skull. The Chelonidae are a highly specialized offshoot of the Cryptodira, adapted to marine life. Fundamentally they agree most with the Testudinidae, and there is nothing primitive about them except that they still possess complete series of inframarginal shields. Chelone, with only 4 pairs of costal shields, with 5 neurals and a broad nuchal. C. mydas s. viridis, the " green or edible turtle," FIG. 5. — Green Turtle (Chelone mydas). has, when adult, a nearly smooth shell. It attains a length of nearly 4 ft., and may then weigh more than three hundredweight. Their food consists of algae, and of Zostera marina. Their capture forms a regular pursuit wherever they occur in any numbers. Comparatively few are caught in the open sea, others in staked nets, but the majority are intercepted at well-known periods and localities where they go ashore to deposit their eggs. These are round, with a parchment-like shell and buried in the sand, above the high-tide mark, as many as 100 to 250 being laid by one female. They are eagerly searched for and eaten. The famous turtle- soup is made not only of the meat and the fat, but also from the thick and gelatinous layer of subcutaneous tissue which lines the inside of the shell. Only the females are eaten ; the males, recogniz- able by the longer tail, are rejected at the London market. This species inhabits the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. C. imbricata, the " hawksbill turtle. " The shields are thick, strongly overlapping each other from before backwards, but in old specimens the shields lose their keel, flatten and become juxta- posed. The horny cover of the upper jaw forms a hooked beak. This species lives upon fish and molluscs and is not eaten; but is much persecuted for the horny shields which yield the 7o TORTOISE " tortoise-shell, " so far as this is not a fraudulent imitation. When heated in oil, or boiled, the shields (which singly are not thick enough to be manufactured into larger articles) can be welded together under pressure and be given any desired shape. The " hawksbill " FIG. 6. — Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata). ranges over all the tropical and sub-tropical seas and scarcely reaches 3 ft. in length, but such a shell yields up to 8 Ib of tortoiseshell. Thalassochelys caretla, the " loggerhead, " has normally five pairs of costal shields, but whilst the number of shields in the genus Chelone is very constant, that of the loggerhead varies individually to an astonishing extent. The greatest number of neurals ob- served, and counting the nuchal as the first, is 8, and 8 pairs of costal, in all 24; the lowest numbers are 6 neurals with 5 pairs of costals; odd costals are frequent. The most interesting facts are that some of the supernumerary shields are much smaller than the others, sometimes mere vestiges in all stages of gradual suppression, and that the abnormalities are much more common in babies and small specimens than in adults. The importance of these ortho- genetic variations has been discussed by H. Gadow in A. Willey's Zoolog. Results, pt. iii. p. 207-222, pis. 24, 25 (Cambridge 1899). FIG. 7. — Loggerhead (Thalassochelys caretta). The " loggerhead " is carnivorous, feeding on fish, molluscs and crustaceans, and is not esteemed as food. A great part of the turtle-oil which finds its way into the market is obtained from it; its tortoiseshell is of an inferior quality. Besides all the inter- tropical seas it inhabits the Mediterranean, and is an accidental visitor of the western coasts of Europe. The old specimen captured on the Dutch coast in 1894 contained the enormous number of 1150 eggs. Super-family 2. Pleurodira. — The long neck bends laterally and is tucked away between the anterior portion of the carapace and the plastron. The dorsal and ventral ends of the pelvis are anchylosed to the shell. Fresh-water tortoises of South America, Australia, Africa and Madagascar. FIG. 8. — The Matamata (Chelys fimbriata) with side view of head, and separate view of plastron. Family I . Pelomedusidae. — Neck completely retractile. ' which the nuchal is wanting. Carapace covered with horny shields, of which the nuchal is wanting. Plastron composed of II plates. With 24 marginal and 13 plastral shields, FIG. 9. — Lower view of Trionyx euphratica. inclusive of a conspicuous intergular. Sternolhaerus in Africa and Madagascar. Pelomedusa galeata in Madagascar and from the Cape to the Sinaitic peninsula. Podocnemis is common in tropical South America, e.g. P. expansa of Brazilian rivers, noteworthy for TORTOISESHELL— TORTONA the millions of eggs which are, or were, annually collected for the sake of their oil. Bates (The Naturalist on the River Amazon) gives a most interesting account of these turtles, which are entirely frugivorous. Family 2. Chelydidae. — The neck, when bent, remains partly exposed. Shell covered with shields. Plastron composed of 9 Elates, but covered with 13 shields. This family, still represented y nearly 30 species, with 8 genera, is found in South America and in Australia. Chelys fimbriata, the " matamata " in the rivers of Guiana and North Brazil; total length about 3 ft.; with animal diet. Hydromedusa, e.g. tectifera, with very long neck, in Brazil, much resembling Chelodina, e.g. longicollis of the Australian region. Family 3. Carettochelydidae. — Carettochelys insculpta, the only species, in the Fly river of New Guinea; still imperfectly known. This peculiar turtle seems to stand in the same relation to the Chely- didae and to the Trionychidae as do the Chelonidae to the Testu- dinidae by the transformation of the limbs into paddles with only two claws, and the complete reduction of the horny shields upon the shell, which is covered with soft skin. The plastron is composed of 9 plates; the 6 neural plates are all separated from one another by the costals. The premaxilla is single, as elsewhere only in FIG. 10. — Upper view of the Turtle of the Euphrates (Trionyx euphratica). Chelys and in the Trionychidae. The neck is short and non-retractile. Length of shell about 18 in. Super-family 3. Trionychoidea. — The shell is very flat and much smaller than the body, and covered with soft leathery skin, but traces of horny structures are still represented, especially in the young of some species, by numerous scattered little spikes on the back of the shell and even on the soft parts of the back. The limbs are short, broadly webbed and only the three inner digits are pro- vided with claws. Head and neck are retractile, bending in a sig- moid curve in a vertical plane. The jaws are concealed by soft lip-like flaps and the nose forms a short soft proboscis. The tem- poral region is not covered in by any arches; the quadrate is trumpet- shaped as in the Chelydidae, but the jugular arch is complete. The pelvis is not anchylosed to the shell. The carapace is much reduced in size, the ribs extending beyond the costal plates, and there are no marginals; except in the African Cyclanorbts the neural plates form a continuous series. All the nine elements of the plastron are deficient and but very loosely connected with each other. Most of these reductions in the skeletal and tegumentary armature are the result of life in muddy waters, in the bottom of which these creatures bury themselves with only the head exposed. They feed upon aquatic animals; those which are partial to hard- shelled molluscs soon wear down the sharp horny edges of the jaws, and thick horny crushing pads are developed in their stead. They only crawl upon land in order to lay their round brittle eggs. Trionyxes inhabit the rivers of Asia, Africa and North America. Trionyx ferox, the " soft-shelled turtle," in the whole of the Missis- sippi basin and in the chain of the great northern lakes. T. triunguis in Africa, the largest species, with a length of shell of 3 ft. T. hurum and T. gangeticus are the commonest Indian species. The young are ornamented with two or three pairs of large, round, ocellated spots on the back. (H. F. G.) TORTOISESHELL. The tortoiseshell of commerce consists of the epidermic plates covering the bony carapace of the hawksbill turtle, Chelonia imbricata, the smallest of the sea turtles. The plates of the back or carapace, technically called the head, are 13 in number, 5 occupying the centre, flanked by 4 on each side. These overlap each other to the extent of one-third of their whole size, and hence they attain a large size, reaching in the largest to 8 in. by 13 in., and weighing as much as 9 oz. The carapace has also 24 marginal pieces, called hoofs or claws, forming a serrated edge round it; but these, with the plates of the plastron, or belly, are of inferior value. The plates of tortoiseshell consist of horny matter, but they are harder, more brittle, and less fibrous than ordinary horn. Their value depends on the rich mottled colours they display — a warm translucent yellow, dashed and spotted with rich brown tints — and on the high polish they take and retain. The finest tortoiseshell is obtained from the Eastern Archipelago, par- ticularly from the east coast of Celebes to New Guinea; but the creature is found and tortoiseshell obtained from all tropical coasts, large supplies coming from the West Indian Islands and Brazil. Tortoiseshell is worked precisely as horn; but, owing to the high value of the material, care is taken to prevent any waste in its working. The plates, as separated by heat from the bony skeleton, are keeled, curved, and irregular in form. They are first flattened by heat and pressure, and superficial inequalities are rasped away. Being harder and more brittle than horn, tortoiseshell requires careful treatment in moulding it into any form, and as high heat tends to darken and obscure the material it is treated at as low a heat as practicable. For many purposes it is necessary to increase the thickness or to add to the superficial size of tortoiseshell, and this is readily done by careful cleaning and rasping of the surfaces to be united, softening the plates in boiling water or sometimes by dry heat, and then pressing them tightly together by means of heated pincers or a vice. The heat softens and liquefies a superficial film of the horny material, and that with the pressure effects a perfect union of the surfaces brought together. Heat and pressure are also employed to mould the substance into boxes and the numerous artificial forms into which it is made up. Tortoiseshell has been a prized ornamental material from very early times. It was one of the highly esteemed treasures of the Far East brought to ancient Rome by way of Egypt, and it was eagerly sought by wealthy Romans as a veneer for their rich furniture. In modern times it is most characteristically used in the elaborate inlaying of cabinet-work known as buhl furniture, and in com- bination with silver for toilet articles. It is also employed as a veneer for small boxes and frames. It is cut into combs, moulded into snuff-boxes and other small boxes, formed into knife-handles, and worked up into many other similar minor articles. The plates from certain other tortoises, known commercially as turtle-shell, possess a certain industrial value, but they are either opaque or soft and leathery, and cannot be mistaken for tortoiseshell. A close imitation of tortoiseshell can be made by staining translucent horn or by varieties of celluloid. TORTOLI, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia, on the east coast, 140 m. N.N.E. of Cagliari by rail (55 m. direct). Pop. (1901), 2105. It lies 60 ft. above sea-level to the south-west of a large lagoon, which renders it unhealthy. The harbour is 2\ m. to the east, and serves for the export of the wine and agricultural produce of the Ogliastra. A little to the south of Tortoli was the station of Sulci on the Roman coast road, known to us only from the itineraries. TORTONA (anc. Dertona), a town and episcopal see of Pied- mont, Italy, in the province of Alessandria, from which it is 14 m. E. by rail, on the right bank of the Scrivia, at the northern foot of the Apennines, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 11,308 (town); 17,419 (commune). Tortona is on the main line from Milan to Genoa; from it a main line runs to Alessandria, a branch to Castelnuovo Scrivia, and a steam tramway to Sale. Its fortifications were destroyed by the French after Marengo (1799); the ramparts are now turned into shady TORTOSA— TORTURE promenades. The cathedral, erected by Philip II., contains a remarkably fine Roman sarcophagus of the Christian period. Silk- weaving, tanning and hat-making are the chief industries; and there is some trade in wine and grain. Dertona, which may have become a Roman colony as early as the 2nd century B.C. and certainly did so under Augustus, is spoken of by Strabo as one of the most important towns of Liguria. It stood at the point of divergence of the Via Postumia (see LIGURIA) and the Via Aemilia, while a branch road ran hence to Pollentia. A number of ancient inscriptions and other objects have been found here. In the middle ages Tortona was zealously attached to the Guelphs, on which account it was twice laid waste by Frederick Barbarossa, in 1 155 and 1163. (T. As.) TORTOSA, a fortified city of north-east Spain, in the province of Tarragona; 40 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of Tarragona, on the river Ebro 22 m. above its mouth. Pop. (1900), 24,452. Tortosa is for the most part an old walled town on the left bank of the river, with narrow, crooked and ill-paved streets, in which the houses are lofty and massively built of granite. But some parts of the old town have been rebuilt, and there is a modern suburb on the opposite side of the Ebro. The slope on which old Tortosa stands is crowned with an ancient castle, which has been restored and converted into barracks and a hospital. All the fortifications are obsolete. The cathedral occupies the site of a Moorish mosque built in 914. The present structure, which dates from 1347, has its Gothic character disguised by a classical facade with Ionic pillars and much tasteless modernization. The stalls in the choir, carved by Cristobal de Salamanca in 1588-1593, and the sculpture of the pulpits, as well as the iron-work of the choir-railing and some of the precious marbles with which the chapels are adorned, deserve notice. The other public buildings include an episcopal palace, a town- hall and numerous churches. There are manufactures of paper, hats, leather, ropes, porcelain, majolica, soap, spirits, and ornaments made of palm leaves and grasses. There is an important fishery in the river, and the harbour is accessible to vessels of 100 tons burden. Corn, wine, oil, wool, silk, fruits and liquorice (a speciality of the district) are exported. The city is connected with Barcelona and Valencia by the coast railway, and with Saragossa by the Ebro valley line; it is also the terminus of a railway to San Carlos de la Rapita on the Mediterranean. Near Tortosa are rich quarries of marble and alabaster. Tortosa, the Derlosa of Strabo and the Colonia Julia Augusta Dertosa of numerous coins, was a city of the Ilercaones in Hispania Tarraconensis. Under the Moors it was of great im- portance as the key of the Ebro valley. It was taken by Louis the Pious in 811 (after an unsuccessful siege two years before), but was soon recaptured. Having become a haunt of pirates, and exceedingly injurious to Italian commerce, it was made the object of a crusade proclaimed by Pope Eugenius III. in 1148, and was captured by Ramon Berenguer IV., count of Barcelona, assisted by Templars, Pisans and Genoese. An attempt to recapture the city in 1149 was defeated by the heroism of the women, who were thenceforth empowered by the count to wear the red sash of the Order of La Hacha (The Axe), to import their clothes free of duty, and to precede their bridegrooms at weddings. Tortosa fell into the hands of the duke of Orleans in 1708; during the Peninsular War it surrendered in 1811 to the French under Suchet, who held it till 1814. TORTURE (from Lat. torquere, to twist), the general name for innumerable modes of inflicting pain which have been from time to time devised by the perverted ingenuity of man, and especially for those employed in a legal aspect by the civilized nations of antiquity and of modern Europe. From this point of view torture was always inflicted for one of two purposes: (i) As a means of eliciting evidence from a witness or from an accused person either before or after condemnation; (2) as a part of the punishment. The second was the earlier use, its function as a means of evidence arising when rules were gradually formulated by the experience of legal experts. Torture as a part of the punishment may be regarded as including every kind of bodily or mental pain beyond what is necessary for the safe custody of the offender (with or without enforced labour) or the destruction of his life — in the language of Bentham, an " afflictive " as opposed to a " simple " punish- ment. Thus the unnecessary' sufferings endured in English prisons before the reforms of John Howard, the peine forte et dure, and the drawing and quartering in executions for treason, fall without any straining of terms under the category of torture. The whole subject is now one of only historical interest as far as Europe is concerned. It was, however, up to a comparatively recent date an integral part of the law of most countries (to which England, Aragon and Sweden1 formed honourable exceptions) — as much a commonplace of law as trial by jury in England.2 The prevailing view, no doubt, was that truth was best obtained by confession, the regina probationum. Where confession was not voluntary, it must be extorted. Speaking generally, torture may be said to have succeeded the ordeal and trial by battle. Where these are found in full vigour, as in the capitularies of Charlemagne, there is no provision for torture. It was no doubt accepted reluctantly as being a quasi judicium Dei, but tolerated in the absence of any better means of eliciting truth, especially in cases of great gravity, on the illogical assumption that extraordinary offences must be met by extraordinary remedies. Popular feeling too, says Verri, preferred, as causes of evil, human beings who could be forced to confess, rather than natural causes which must be accepted with resignation. Confession, as probatio probatissima and vox vera, was the best of all evidence, and all the machinery of law was moved to obtain it. The trials for witchcraft remain on record as a refutation of the theory. The opinions of the best lay authorities have been almost unanimously against the use of torture, even in a system where it was as completely established as it was in Roman law. " Tor- menta," says Cicero,3 in words which it is almost impossible to translate satisfactorily, " gubernat dolor, regit quaesitor, flectit libido, corrumpit spes, infirmat metus, ut in tot rerum angustiis nihil veritati loci relinquatur." Seneca says bitterly, " it forces even the innocent to lie." St Augustine4 recognizes the fallacy of torture. " If," says he, " the accused be innocent, he will undergo for an uncertain crime a certain punishment, and that not for having committed a crime, but because it is unknown whether he committed it." At the same time he regards it as excused by its necessity. The words of Ulpian, in the Digest of Justinian,6 are no less impressive: " The torture (quaestio) is not to be regarded as wholly deserving or wholly undeserving of confidence; indeed, it is untrustworthy, perilous and decep- tive. For most men, by patience or the severity of the torture, come so to despise the torture that the truth cannot be elicited from them; others are so impatient that they will lie in any direction rather than suffer the torture; so it happens that they depose to contradictions and accuse not only themselves but others." Montaigne's6 view of torture as a part of the punish- ment is a most just one: "All that exceeds a simple death appears to me absolute cruelty; neither can our justice expect that he whom the fear of being executed by being beheaded or hanged will not restrain should be any more awed by the imagina- tion of a languishing fire, burning pincers, or the wheel." He continues with the curious phrase: " He whom the judge has tortured (gehenne) that he may not die innocent, dies inno- cent and tortured." Montesquieu7 speaks of torture in a most guarded manner, condemning it, but without giving reasons, and eulogizing England for doing without it. The system was condemned by Bayle and Voltaire with less reserve. Among 1 But even in these countries, whatever the law was, torture certainly existed in fact. 1 Primitive systems varied. There is no trace of it in Babylonian or Mosaic law, but Egyptian and Assyrian provided for it; and the story of Regulus seems to show that it was in use at Carthage. 8 Pro Sulla, c. 28. 4 De civ. Dei, bk. xix. c. 6. 6 Dig. xlviii. 18, 23. 'Essay Ixv. (Cotton's trans.) 7 Esprit des lois, bk. vi. c. 17. TORTURE 73 the Germans, Sonnenfels (1766), and, among the Italians, Beccaria,1 Verri2and Manzoni3 will be found to contain most that can be said on the subject. The influence of Beccaria in rendering the use of torture obsolete was undoubtedly greater than that of any other legal reformer. The great point that he makes is the unfair incidence of torture, as minds and bodies differ in strength. Moreover, it is, says he, to confound all relations to expect that a man should be both accuser and accused, and that pain should be the test of truth, as though truth resided in the muscles and fibres of a wretch under torture. The result of the torture is simply a matter of calculation. Given the force of the muscles and the sensibility of the nerves of an innocent person, it is required to find the degree of pain necessary to make him confess himself guilty of a given crime. Bentham's4 objection to torture is that the effect is exactly the reverse of the intention. " Upon the face of it, and probably enough in the intention of the framers, the object of this institution was the protection of innocence; the protection of guilt and the aggravation of the pressure upon innocence was the real fruit of it." The apologists of torture are chiefly among jurists. But theoretical objections to it are often urged by the authors of books of practice, as by Damhouder, von Rosbach, von Boden, Voet, and others named below under the head of The Netherlands. It is worthy of note as illustrative of the feeling of the time that even Bacon 5 compares experiment in nature to torture in civil matters as the best means of eliciting truth. Muyart de Vouglans 6 derives the origin of torture from the law of God. Other apologists are Simancas, bishop of Badajoz,7 Engel,8 Pedro de Castro,9 and in England Sir R. Wiseman.10 Greece. — The opinion of Aristotle was in favour of torture as a mode of proof. ' It is," he says, " a kind of evidence, and appears to carry with it absolute credibility because a kind of constraint is applied." It is classed as one of the " artless persuasions " (&Tfx"°i T(t, in the plural, like tormenta. As might be expected, torture was frequently inflicted by the Greek despots, and both Zeno and Anaxarchus are said to have been put to it by such irre- sponsible authorities. At Sparta the despot Nabis was accustomed, as we learn from Polybius,18 to put persons to death by an instrument of torture in the form of his wife Apega, a mode of torture no doubt resembling the Jungfernkuss once used in Germany. At Argos, as Diodorus informs us (xv. 57), certain conspirators were put to the torture in 371 B.C.19 1 Dei Delilti e delle pene, c. xvi. ! Osservazioni sutta tortura. 3 Storia delta Colonna infatne. 4 Works, vii. 525. 6 Nov. Org., bk. i. aph. 98. In the Advancement of Learning, bk. iv. ch. 4, Bacon collects many instances of constancy under torture. ' Instituts du droit criminel (Paris, 1757). 7 De catholicis institutionibus liber, ad praecavendas el extirpandas haereses admodum necessarius (Rome, 1575). 8 De tortura ex for is christianis non proscribenda (Leipzig, 1733). ' Defensa de la tortura (Madrid, 1778). 10 Law of Laws, p. 122 (London, 1686). 11 Rhet. i. 15, 26. 12 In Onetum, i. 874. 13 Usually by the diaetetae in the Hephaestaeum, Isocrates, Trapez. 361. 14 The opinion of Cicero (De partitionibus oratoriis, § 34), that it was so applied at Athens and Rhodes, seems, as far as regards Athens, not to be justified by existing evidence. 16 The demand for, or the giving up of, a slave for torture was called TpAcX7| 2 Inst. 48 b. been led to countenance it in practice. The strongest authority is the resolution of the judges in Felton's case (1628), that he ought not by the law to be tortured by the rack, for no such punishment is known or allowed by our law."10 In accordance with this are the opinions of Sir John Fortescue,11 Sir Thomas Smith u and Sir E. Coke. The latter says, " As there is no law to warrant tortures in this land, nor can they be justified by any prescription, being so lately brought in."13 In spite of all this, torture in criminal proceedings was inflicted in England with more or less frequency for some centuries, both as a means of obtaining evidence and as a part of the punishment. But it should be remarked that torture of the former kind was invariably ordered by the Crown or council, or by some tribunal of extraordinary authority, such as the Star Chamber, not professing to be bound by the rules of the common law. In only two instances was a warrant to torture issued to a common law judge.14 A licence to torture is found as early as the Pipe Roll of 34 Hen. II." The Templars were tortured in 1310 by royal warrant addressed to the mayor and sheriffs of London.16 In this case it is recorded that torture was unknown in England, and that no torturer was to be found in the realm.17 A commission was issued concerning the tortures at Newgate in I334-18 The rack in the Tower is said to have been introduced by the duke of Exeter in the reign of Henry VI., and to have been thence called "the duke of Exeter's daughter."19 In this reign torture seems to have taken its place as a part of what may be called extraordinary criminal procedure, claimed, and it may be said tacitly recognized, as exercisable by virtue of the prerogative, and continued in use down to l64O.20 The infliction of torture gradually became more common under the Tudor monarchs. Under Henry VIII. it appears to have been in frequent use. Only two cases are recorded under Edward VI., and eight under Mary.21 The reign of Elizabeth was its culminating point. In the words of Hallam, " the rack seldom stood idle in the Tower for all the latter part of Elizabeth's reign."22 The varieties of torture used at this period are fully described by Dr Lingard,23 and consisted of the rack, the scavenger's daughter,24 the iron gauntlets or bilboes, and the cell called " Little Ease." The registers of the council during the Tudor and early Stuart reigns are full of entries as to the use of torture, both for state and for ordinary offences.26 Among notable prisoners put to the torture were Anne Askew, the Jesuit Campion, Guy Fawkes26 and Peacham (who was examined by Bacon " before torture, in torture and after torture ").27 The prevalence of torture in Elizabeth's reign led to the well-known defence at- tributed to Lord Burghley, " A declaration of the favourable dealing of Her Majesty's commissioners appointed for the examination of certain traitors, and of tortures unjustly reported to be done upon them for matter of religion," 1583. ffl The use of torture in England being always of an extraordinary and extra-judicial nature, it is 10 3 State Trials, 371. 11 De laudibus legum Angliae, c. 22. 12 Commonwealth of England, bk. ii. c. 27 (1583; ed. by L. Alston, 1906). It is curious that Sir T. Smith, with all his hatred of torture, was directed by a warrant under the queen's seal alone (not through the council) to torture the duke of Norfolk's servants in 1571. In a letter to Lord Burghley he pleaded for exemption from so hateful a task. 13 3 Inst. 35. Nevertheless, in the trials of Lord Essex and Southampton, Coke is found extolling the queen's mercy for not racking or torturing the accused (i State Trials, 1338). (See further authorities in Pollock and Maitland, Hist, of English Law, ii. 656.) 14 Jardine, Reading on the Use of Torture in the Criminal Law of England (1837), p. 52. 6 L. O. Pike, Hist, of Crime in England, i. 427. 16 Rymer, Foedera, iii. 228, 232. 17 Walter of Hemingford, p. 256. 18 Pike i. 481. 19 3 Inst. 34. 20 This is the date of the latest warrant in Jardine's work, but it was used on three Portuguese at Plymouth during the Common- wealth (Thurloe iii. 298). 21 It is to be noticed, as Jardine observes, that all these are cases of an ordinary nature, and afford no ground for the assertions made by Strutt and Bishop Burnet that torture was used to heretics as heretics. 22 Const. Hist. i. 201. 23 Hist, of England, vol. viii. app. note v. 24 These two were exactly opposite in principle. The rack stretched the limbs of the sufferer; the scavenger's daughter compressed him into a ball. 25 Fifty-five of these will be found in the appendix to Mr Jardine's work. An ordinary robber of plate was threatened with torture in 1567. — Froude, Hist, of England, viii. 386. 26 It is not certain whether he was racked, but probably he was, in accordance with the king's letter: " If he will not otherwise confess the gentlest tortures are to be first used to him, and so on, step by step, to the most severe, and so God speed the good work." 27 Dalrymple, Memoirs and Letters of James I. p. 85; Macaulay's essay on the works of Bacon. 28 Lord Somers's Tracts, i. 189. 76 TORTURE comparatively certain that it could hardly have been applied with that observation of forms which existed in countries where it was regulated by law. There were no rules and no responsibility beyond the will of the Crown or council. This irresponsibility is urged by Selden * as a strong objection to the use of torture. The main differences between the infliction of torture in England and on the continent of Europe seem to be that English lawyers made no dis- tinction of those liable to it, never allowed torture of witnesses, and elaborated no subtle rules as to plena and semiplena probatio. So far of what may be called torture proper, to which the common law professed itself a stranger. There were, however, cases fully recognized by the common law which differed from torture only in name. The peine forte el dure was a notable example of this. If a prisoner stood mute of malice instead of pleading, he was condemned to the peine, that is, to be stretched upon his back and to have iron laid upon him as much as he could bear, and more, and so to continue, fed upon bad bread and stagnant water through alternate days until he pleaded or died.2 It was abolished by 12 Geo. III. c. 20. 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 28 enacted that a plea of " not guilty " should be entered for a prisoner so standing mute. A case of peine occurred as lately as 1726. At times tying the thumbs with whip-cord was used instead of the peine. This was said to be a common practice at the Old Bailey up to the i8th century.3 In trials for witchcraft the legal proceedings often partook of the nature of torture, as in the throwing of the reputed witch into a pond to see whether she would sink or swim, in drawing her blood,4 and in thrusting pins into the body to try to find the insensible spot. Confessions, too, appear to have been often extorted by actual torture, and torture of an unusual nature, as the devil was supposed to protect his votaries from the effects of ordinary torture. Torture as a part of the punishment existed in fact, if not in name, down to a very recent period. Mutilation as a punishment appears in some of the pre-Conquest codes, such as those of Alfred, Athelstan and Canute, in the laws attributed to William the Conqueror and in the assize of Northampton (1176). Bracton, who does not notice torture as a means of obtaining evidence, divides corporal punishment into that inflicted with and without torture.5 Later instances are the punishment of burning to death inflicted on heretics under the Six Articles (31 Hen. VIII. c. 14) and other acts, and on women for petit treason (abolished by 30 Geo. III. c. 48), the mutilation inflicted for violence in a royal palace by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 12, the punishment for high treason, which existed nominally until 1870, the pillory (abolished by 7 Will. IV. and i Viet. c. 23), the stocks, branks and cucking-stool, and the burning in the hand for felony (abolished by 19 Geo. III. c. 74^). Corporal punishment now exists only in the case of juvenile offenders and of robbery with violence. It was abolished in the army by the Army Act i88i.6 Cruelty in punishment did not entirely cease in prisons even after the Bill of Rights. See such cases as R. v. Huggins, 17 State Trials, 298; Castell v. Bambridge, 2 Strange's Rep. 856. Scotland. — Torture was long a recognized part of Scottish criminal procedure, and was acknowledged as such by many acts and warrants of the Scottish parliament and warrants of the Crown and the privy council. Numerous instances occur in the Register of the Privy Council.7 Two acts in 1649 dealt with torture; one took the form of a warrant to examine witnesses against William Barton by any form of probation,8 the other of a warrant to a committee to inquire as to the use of torture against persons suspected of witchcraft.9 The judges in 1689 were empowered by the estates to torture Chiesly of Dalrye, charged with the murder of the lord president Lockhart, in order to discover accomplices. In the same year the use of torture without evidence or in ordinary cases was declared illegal in the Claim of Right. The careful wording of this will be noticed : it does not object to torture altogether, but reserves it for cases where a basis of evidence had already been laid, and for crimes of great gravity, thus admitting the dangerous principle, founded on Roman law, that the importance of the crime is a reason for departing from the ordinary rules of justice. However great the crime, it is no more certain than in the case of a crime of less gravity that the person accused was the person who committed it. A warrant issued in the same year to put to the torture certain persons accused of conspiring against the government, and also certain dragoons suspected of corresponding with Lord Dundee. In 1690 an act passed reciting the torture of William Carstares, a minister, in 1683, and re-establishing his competency as a witness.10 The last warrant appears to be one in 1690 for torturing a man accused of rape and murder. In 1708 torture in Scotland was finally abolished by 7 1 Table Talk, " Trial." 1 Stephen, Hist, of the Criminal Law, i. 297. 1 Stephen i. 300; Kelyng, Reports, p. 27. 4 The superstition was that any one drawing a witch's blood was free from her power. This is alluded to in Henry VI. pt. i. act i. sc. 5; " Blood will I draw on thee; thou art a witch." 6 1046. 7 E.g. i. 525, iv. 680, vi. 156. ' c. 370. "The thumbscrew with which Carstares had been tortured was afterwards presented to him as a remembrance by the privy council. 8 44 Viet. c. 9, s 7. 8 c. 333. Anne c. 21, 55. Many details of the tortures inflicted will be found in Pitcairn's Criminal Trials, the introduction to ]. Maclaurins' R. Criminal Cases and J. H. Burton's Narratives from Criminal Trials. Among other varieties — the nature of some of them can only be guessed — were the rack, the pilniewinkis, the boot,11 the caschie-laws, the lang irnis, the narrow-bore, the pynebankis, and worst of all, the waking, or artificial prevention of sleep.12 The ingenuity of torture was exercised in a special degree on charges of witchcraft, notably in the reign of James VI., an expert both in witchcraft and in torture. The act of 1649 already cited shows that the principle survived him. Under the government of the dukes of Lauderdale and York torture as a practice in charges of religious and political offences reached its height. " The privy council was accustomed to extort confessions by torture; that grim divan of bishops, lawyers and peers sucking in the groans of each undaunted enthusiast, in hope that some imperfect avowal might lead to the sacrifice of other victims, or at least warrant the execution of the present." 13 With such examples before them in the law, it is scarcely to be wondered at that persons in positions of authority, especially the nobility, sometimes exceeded the law and inflicted torture at their own will and for their own purposes. There are several instances in the Register of the Privy Council of suits against such persons, e.g. against the earl of Orkney, in 1605, for putting a son of Sir Patrick Bellenden in the boots. Ireland seems to have enjoyed comparative immunity from torture. It was not recognized by the common or statute law, and the cases of its infliction do not appear to be numerous. In 1566 the president and council of Munster, or any three of them, were empowered to inflict torture, " in cases necessary, upon vehement presumption of any great offence in any party committed against the Queen's Majesty." 14 In 1583 Hurley, an Irish priest, was tortured in Dublin by toasting his feet against the fire with hot boots." 15 In 1627 the lord deputy doubted whether he had authority to put a priest named O'Cullenan to the rack. An answer was returned by Lord Killultagh to the effect that " you ought to rack him if you saw cause and hang him if you found reason." " The latest case of peine forte et dure seems to have been in 1740. British Colonies and Dependencies. — The infliction of torture in any British colony or dependency has usually been regarded as contrary to law, and ordered only by arbitrary authority. It is true that in the trial of Sir Thomas Picton in 1806, for subjecting, while governor of Trinidad, a woman named Luisa Calderon to the torture of the picquet, l7 one of the grounds of defence was that such torture was authorized by the Spanish law of the island, but the accused was convicted in spite of this defence, and the final decision of the cofirt of king's bench, in 1812, decreeing a respite of the defendant's recognizances till further order, was perhaps not so much an affirmation of the legality in the particular instance as the practical expression of a wish to spare an eminent public servant.18 As to India, the second charge against Warren Hastings was extortion from the begums of Oude by means of the torture of their servants.19 In the present Indian Penal Code and Evidence Acts there are provisions intended, as Sir James Stephen says,20 to prevent the practice of torture by the police for the purpose of extracting con- fessions from persons in their custody.21 In Ceylon torture, which had been allowed under the Dutch government, was expressly abolished by royal proclamation in 1799. In the Channel Islands confessions of persons accused of witch- craft in the I7th century were frequently obtained by torture.22 United States.— ^One instance of the peine forte et dure is known. It was inflicted in 1692 on Giles Cory of Salem, who refused to plead when arraigned for witchcraft.23 The constitution of the United States provides, in the words of the Bill of Rights, that cruel and unusual punishments are not to be inflicted.24 This is repeated in the constitutions of most states. The infliction of cruel and unusual punishment by the master or officer of an American vessel on the high seas, or within the maritime jurisdiction of the United States, is punishable with fine or imprisonment, or both.25 There have been a good many decisions on the question of cruel and unusual punishments; e.g. Wilkerson v. Utah, 99 U.S. Rep. 130; 11 Persons subjected to more than usual torture from the boot were said to be " extremely booted." 12 This seems to have been used in one case in England. Lecky, Rationalism in Europe, i. 122. 13 Hallam, Const. Hist. iii. 436. See Burnet, Hist, of Own Time, i. 583; and SCOTLAND. 14 Frpude, Hist, of England, viii. 386. 15 Ibid xi. 263. 16 Jardine, p. 54. 17 In the picquet the sufferer was supported only on the great toe (which rested on a sharp stake), and by a rope attached to one arm. 18 30 State Trials, 449, besides many pamphlets of the period. 19 See the Report of the Proceedings, vol. i. 20 Stephen, Indian Evidence Act, p. 126. 21 Sections 327-331 of code; ss. 25-27 of act. 22 J. L. Pitts, Witchcraft in the Channel Islands, p. o. (Guernsey, 1886). 23 Bouvier, Law Diet., s.y. " Peine forte et dure." 24 Amendments, art. viii. (1789). 26 Revised Stat. 5347. TORTURE 77 Territory of New Mexico v. Ketchum, 65 Pacific Rep. 169 (death penalty for train robbery held not unconstitutional). Continental European States. — These fall into four main groups, the Latin, Teutonic, Scandinavian and Slav states respectively. The principles of Roman law were generally adopted in the first and second groups. Latin States. — In France torture does not seem to have existed as a recognized practice before the itth century. From that period until the I7th century it was regulated by a series of royal ordonnances at first of local obligation, afterwards applying to the whole kingdom. Torture was used only by the royal courts, its place in the seigneurial courts being supplied by the judicial combat. The earliest ordonnance on the subject was that of Louis IX. in 1254 for the reformation of the law in Languedoc. It enacted that persons of good fame, though poor, were not to be put to the question on the evidence of one witness.1 Numerous other provisions were made between 1254 and 1670, when an ordonnance was passed under Louis XIV., which regulated the infliction of torture for more than a century. Two kinds were recognized, the question preparatoire and the question prealable. The first was used where strong evidence of a capital crime — strong, but of itself insufficient for conviction — was produced against the accused. The second was used to obtain a confession of accomplices after conviction. There was also a mitigated torm called the presentment, in which the accused was simply bound upon the rack in terrorem and there interrogated. No person was exempt on the ground of dignity, but exemption was allowed to youths, old men, sick persons and others. Counsel for the accused were usually not allowed. The question preparatoire was abolished by royal decree in 1780, but in 1788 the parliaments refused to register a decree abolishing the prealable. But torture of all kinds was abolished by an ordonnance in 1789. The Declaration of Right in 1791 (art. viii.) affirmed that the law ought not to establish any punishments other than such as are strictly and evidently necessary. In modern law the code penal enacts that all criminals shall be punished as guilty of assassination who for the execution of their crimes employ torture.2 The code also makes it punishable to subject a person under arrest to torture.3 The theory of semiplena probalio was worked out with more refinement than in other systems. In some parts of France not only were half-proofs admitted, but quarters and eighths of proofs.* Among the numerous cases of historical interest were those of the Templars in 1307, Villon about 1457, Dolet in 1546, the marquise de Brinvilliers in 1676 and Jean Galas in 1762. 5 The law as it existed in Italy is contained in a long line of authorities chiefly supplied by the school of Bologna, beginning with the glossatores and coming down through the post-glossatores, until the system attained its perfection in the vast work of Farinaccius, written early in the I7th century, where every possible question that could arise is treated with a revolting completeness. One of the earliest jurists to treat it was Cino da Pistoia, the friend of Dante.6 He treats it at no great length. With him the theory of indicia exists only in embryo, as they cannot be determined by law but must be at the discretion of the judge. Differing from Bartolus, he affirms that torture cannot be repeated without fresh indicia. The writings of jurists were supplemented by a large body of legis- lative enactments in most of the Italian states, extending from the constitutions of the emperor Frederick II. down to the i8th century. It is not until Bartolus (1314-1357) that the law begins to assume a definite and complete form. In his commentary on book xlviii. of the Digest he follows Roman law closely, but introduces some further refinements: e.g. though leading questions may not be asked in the main inquiry they are admissible as subsidiary. There is a beginning of classification of indicia. A very full discussion of the law is contained in the work on practice of Hippolytus de Marsiliis,7 a jurist of Bologna, notorious, on his own admission, as the inventor of the torture of keeping without sleep. He defines the question as inquisitio veritatis per tormenta et cordis dolorem, thus recognizing the mental as well as the physical elements in torture. It was to be used only in capital cases and atrocious crimes. The works of Farinaccius and of Julius Clarus nearly a century later were of great authority from the high official positions filled by the writers. Farinaccius was procurator-general to Pope Paul V., and his discussion of torture is one of the most complete of any.8 It occupies 251 closely printed folio pages with double columns. The length at which the subject is treated is one of the best proofs 1 Ordonnances des rois, i. 72. * s. 303. * s. 344. 4 See Pollock and Maitland, ii. 658, note. 6 On the French system generally see Imbettus, Institutiones forenses gallicae (Utrecht, 1649); N. Weiss, La Chambre ardente, 1540-1550 (Paris, 1889). A large number of authorities deal mainly with the ordonnance of 1670; Muyart de Vouglans, Inst. crim. (Paris, 1767), and Jousse, Traite de la justice crim. (Paris, 1771), are examples. F. Siegneux de Correvon, Essai sur V usage, I'abus, et les inconveniens de la torture (Geneva, 1768), is one of the opponents of the system. 6 Cinus Pistorensis, Super codice, de tormentis (Venice, 1493). 7 Practica criminalis quae Ayerolda nuncupatur (Venice, 1532). 'Praxis et theorica criminalis, bk. ii. tit. v. quaest. 36-51 (Frankfort, 1622). of the science to which it had been reduced. The chief feature of the work is the minute and skilful analysis of indicia, jama, prae- sumptio, and other technical terms. Many definitions of indicium are suggested, the best perhaps being conjectura ex probabUibus et nan necessariis orta, a quibus potest abesse veritas sed non verisimilitude. For every infliction of torture a distinct indicium is required. A single witness or an accomplice constitutes an indicium. But this rule does not apply where it is inflicted for discovering accomplices or for discovering a crime other than that for which it was originally inflicted. Torture may be ordered in all criminal cases, except small offences, and in certain civil cases; such as denial of a depositum, bankruptcy, usury, treasure trove, and fiscal cases. It may be inflicted on all persons, unless specially exempted (clergy, minors, &c.), and even those exempted may be tortured by command of the sovereign. There are three kinds of torture, levis, gravis and gravissima, the first and second corresponding to the ordinary torture of French writers, the last to the extraordinary. The extraordinary or gravissima was as much as could possibly be borne without destroying life. The judge could not begin with torture; it was only a subsidium. If inflicted without due course of law, it was void as a proof. The judge was liable to penalties if he tortured without proper indicia, if a privileged person, or if to the extent that death or permanent illness was the result. An immense variety of tortures is mentioned, and the list tended to grow, for, as Farinaccius says, judges continually invented new modes of torture to please themselves. Numerous casuistical questions are treated at length, such as, what kinds of reports or how much hearsay evidence constituted fame? Were there three or five grades in torture? Julius Clarus of Alessandria was a member of the council of Philip II. To a great extent he follows Farinaccius.' He puts the questions for the consideration of the judge with great clearness. They are — whether (i) a crime has been committed, (2) the charge is one in which torture is admissible, (3) the fact can be proved other- wise, (4) the crime was secret or open, (5) the object of the torture is to elicit confession of crime or discovery of accomplices. The clergy can be tortured only in charges of treason, poisoning and violation of tombs. On the great question whether there are three or five grades, he decides in favour of five, viz. threats, taking to the place of torment, stripping and binding, lifting on the rack, racking.9 Other Italian writers of less eminence have been referred to for the purposes of this article. The burden of their writings is practically the same, but they have not attained the systematic perfection of Farinaccius. Citations from many of them are made by Manzoni (see below). Among others are Guido de Suzara, Paris de Puteo, Aegidius Bossius of Milan, Casonus of Venice, Decianus, Follerius and Tranquillus Ambrosianus, whose works cover the period from the 1 3th to the end of the 1 7th century. The law depended mainly on the writings of the jurists as interpreters of custom. At the same time in all or nearly all the Italian states and colonies10 the customary law was limited, supplemented, or amended by legislation. That a check by legislative authority was necessary appears from the glimpses afforded by the writings of the jurists that the letter of the law was by no means always followed. The earliest legislation after the Roman law seems to be the constitutions of the emperor Frederick II. for Sicily promulgated in 1231. Torture was abolished in Tuscany in 1786, largely owing to the influence of Beccaria, whose work first appeared in 1764, and other states followed, but the puntale or piquet seems to have existed in practice at Naples up to 1859. Several instances of the torture of eminent persons occur in Italian history, such as Savonarola, Machiavelli, Giordano Bruno, Cam- panella. Galileo appears to have only been threatened with the esame rigoroso. The historical case of the greatest literary interest is that of the persons accused of bringing the plague into Milan in 1630 by smearing the walls of houses with poison. An analysis of the case was undertaken by Verri " and Manzoni,12 and puts in a clear light some of the abuses to which the system led in times of popular panic. Convincing arguments are urged by Manzoni, after an exhaustive review of the authorities, to prove the ground- lessness of the charge on which two innocent persons underwent the torture of the canape, or hempen cord (the effect of which was partial or complete dislocation of the wrist), and afterwards suffered death by breaking on the wheel. The main arguments, shortly stated, are these, all based upon the evidence as recorded, and the law as laid down by jurists, (i) The unsupported evidence of an accomplice was treated as an indicium in a case not one of those exceptional ones in which such an indicium was sufficient. The evidence of two witnesses or a confession by the accused was neces- sary to establish a remote indicium, such as lying. (2) Hearsay evidence was received when primary evidence was obtainable. (3) The confession made under torture was not ratified afterwards. (4) It was made in consequence of a promise of impunity. (5) It was of an impossible crime. * Practica criminalis finalis (Lyons, 1637). 10 It is obvious from the allusion at the end of Othello that Shake- speare regarded torture as possible in Cyprus when it was a Venetian colony. 11 Osservazioni sulla tortura. 12 Storia della Colonna infame. Neither writer alludes to Beccaria. TORTURE In Spain, as in Italy, the law depended partly on the writings of jurists, partly on legislation. Roman law was carried through the Visigothic Code and the Fuero juzgo1 (which repeats it almost word for word) down to the Siete partidas? This treatise, com- piled by Alphonso the Wise about 1243, but not promulgated till 1256, amended the previously existing law in the direction of greater precision. Torment is defined as a manner of punishment which lovers of justice use, to scrutinize by it the truth of crimes committed secretly and not provable in any other manner. Repetition was allowed in case of grave crimes. There were the usual provisions for the infliction of torture only by a judge having jurisdiction, and for the liability of the judge for exceeding legal limits. Subsequent codes did little more than amend the Partulas in matters of pro- cedure. Torture is not named in the Ordenanzas reales of Ferdinand and Isabella (1485). The Nueva recopilacion of Philip II. enacted that torture was to be applied by the alcaldes on due sentence of the court-^-even on hidalgos in grave crimes — without regard to alleged privilege or custom. In the Novisima recopilacion of 1775 the only provisions on the subject are that the alcaldes are not to condemn to torment without preceding sentence according to law, and that hidalgos are not to be tormented or suffer infamous punishment. In Aragon, while it was an inde- pendent state, torture was not in use to the same extent as in other parts of Spain. It was abolished in the I3th century by the General Privilege of 1283 except in the case of vagabonds charged with coin- ing. A statute of 1335 made it unlawful to put any freeman to the torture.3 On the other hand, the Aragonese nobility had a power, similar to the peine forte et dure, of putting a criminal to death by cold, hunger and thirst.4 The jurists dealing with the subject are not as numerous as in Italy, no doubt because Italian opinions were received as law in all countries whose systems were based on Roman law.6 Some of the Italian jurists too, like Clarus, were at that same time Spanish officials. The earliest Spanish secular jurist appears to be Suarez de Paz.6 According to him the most usual tortures in Spain were the water and cord, the pulley or strappado, the hot brick, and the tablillas, or thumbscrew and boot combined. Three was the greatest number of times that any torture could be applied. It might be decreed either on demand of the accuser or at will of the judge. The Roman rule of beginning with the weakest was amplified into a series of regulations that a son was to be put to the question before a father, a woman before a man, &c. The fullest statement of Spanish law is to be found in the work of Antonio Gomez, a professor at Salamanca.7 With him no exceptions apply in charges of iaesa majeslas divina or humana. A judge is liable to different punishment according as he orders torture dolose or culpabiliter. Differing from Hippolytus de Marsiliis, Gomez holds that the dying accusation of a murdered man is not an indicium. A confession on insufficient indicia is void. His division of torture into tortura actualis and terror propinquus is the same as that of the French jurists into torture and presentment. The conclusions of the ecclesiastical writers of Spain, such as Eymerico and Simancas, were accepted wholly or partially by the secular writers, such as Alvarez de Velasco,8 and the Peruvian, Juan de Hevia Bolanos,9 who points out differences in the ecclesiastical and secular systems, e.g. the former brought up the accused for ratification in three days, the latter in twenty-four hours. A good deal of the Spanish law will be found in the proceedings against Sir Thomas Picton (see above). Torture in Spain seems to have been inflicted on Jews to an extraordinary extent, as it was also in Portugal, where the latest legislation as to torture seems to be of the year 1678. In 1790 it had become obsolete,10 and in a work on criminal procedure four years later it is only referred to for the purpose of stating that when it did exist it was realis or verbalist Teutonic Slates. — Germany (including Austria) is distinguished by the possession of the most extensive literature and legislation 1 vi. 4, 5. 2 Partida, vii. 30. It was one of the earliest books printed in Spain, the earliest edition appearing in 1491. ' Cited Hallam, Middle Ages, iii. 76. 4 Du Cange, s.v. Fame necare. • In all the Latin countries the idea of torture had become a commonplace. The dramatists contain frequent allusions to it. In Lope de Vega's El Perro del hortelano (" The Dog in the Manger "), one of the characters says, " Here's a pretty inquisition!" to which the answer is, " The torture will be next applied." Moliere and Racine both make use of it. In L'Avare, act iv. sc. J, Harpagon threatens to put his whole household to the question. In Les Plaideurs Dandin invites Isabelle to see la question as a mode of passing an hour or two. In England Bacon (Essay Ivi.) says, " There is no worse torture than the torture of laws." The same jdea occurs again in the Advancement of Learning, viii. 3, 13, " It is a cruel thing to torture the laws that they may torture men." • Praxis ecclesiastica et saecularis, vol. i. pt. v. §. 3 (Salamanca, 1583)- 7 Variae resolutiones, p. 412 (Antwerp, 1593). ' Judex perfectus (Lausanne, 1740). • Curia fuipica (Madrid, 1825). u Repertorio geral das leis extravagantes, p. 381 (Coimbra, 1815). u Paschal Freirus, Inst. jur. crim. lusitani, p. 203 (Lisbon, 1794). on the subject. The principal writers are Langer, von Rosbach and von Boden. In addition may be cited the curious Layenspiegel of Ulrich Tengler (1544), and the works of Remus, Casonus and Carpzow.12 Legislation was partly for the empire, partly for its component states. Imperial legislation dealt with the matter in the Golden Bull (1356), the Ordinance of Bamberg (1507), the Carolina (;532)13 and the Constitulio criminalis theresiana (1768). u The Carolina followed the usual lines, the main difference being that the infliction must be in the presence of two scabini and a notary, who was to make a detailed record of the proceedings. The code of Maria Theresa defines torture as " a subsidiary means of eliciting truth." It could be applied only in cases where condemna- tion would have involved capital or severe corporal punishment. The illustrated edition was suppressed by Prince Kaunitz a few days after its appearance. Torture was formally abolished in the empire in 1776. In Prussia it was practically abolished by Frederick the Great in 1740, formally in 1805. Even before its abolition it was in use only to discover accomplices after conviction." In some other states it existed longer, in Baden as late as 1831. It was carried toexcess in Germany, as in the Netherlands and Scotland in charges of witchcraft. The Netherlands. — The principal legislative enactment was the code of criminal procedure promulgated by Philip II. in 1570 and generally known as the Ordonnance sur le style.16 One of its main objects was to assimilate the varieties of local custom, as the Nueva. recopilacion had done in Spain three years earlier. The French ordonnance of 1670 is probably largely based on it. In spite of the attempt of the ordinance to introduce uniformity, certain cities of Brabant, it is said, still claimed the privilege of torturing in certain cases not permitted by the ordinance, e.g. where there was only one witness.17 The law of 1670 continued to be the basis of cnrnutal procedure in the Austrian Netherlands until 1787. In the United Provinces it was not repealed until 1798. The principal Itext-writers are Damhouder,18 van Leeuwen 19 and Voet. Van Leeuwen lays down as a fundamental principle that no one was to be condemned to death without confession, and such confession, if attainable in no other way, ought to be elicited by torture. Witnesses could be tortured only if they varied on confrontation. One of the indicia not always recognized by jurists was previous conviction for a similar crime. Voet's commentary ad Pandectas20 is interesting for its taking the same view as St Augustine as to the uselessness of torture, and compares its effect with that of the trial by battle. At the same time he allows it to be of some value in the case of very grave crimes. The value of torture was doubted by others as well as Voet, e.g. by A. Nicholas21 and by van Essen.22 At the same time a writer was found to compose a work on the unpromising subject of the rack.23 Scandinavian Countries. — There is a notice of torture in the Ice- landic Code known as the Gragas (about 1119). Judicial torture is said to have been introduced into Denmark by Valdemar I. in 1 157.24 In the code of Christian V. (1683) it was limited to cases of treason.26 It was abolished by the influence of Struensee in 1771, but notwithstanding this he was threatened with it, though it was not actually inflicted, before his execution in 1772. In Sweden torture never existed as a system, and in the code of 1734 it was expressly forbidden.26 It was however occasionally inflicted, as in England, by extrajudicial authorities, called secret committees. 11 Extracts from these and other writers will be found in Lea, Superstition and Force, and in R. Quanter, Die Falter in der deutschen Rechtspflege sonst und jetzt (Berlin, 1900). 13 Chs. 33-44. 14 Art. 38 (Vienna, 1769). 16 This statement is made on the authority of a work attributed to Frederick himself, Dissertation sur les raisons d'etablir ou d'abroger les lois (1748). " A list of the numerous commentaries on this code will be found in Nybels, Les Ordonnances criminelles de Philippe II. de 1570, p. 23 (Brussels, 1856). 17 Nybels, pp. 31, 33. 18 Pratique judiciaire en causes criminelles (Antwerp, 1564). 19 Censura forensis, pt. ii. bk. ii. chs. 8, 9 (Leiden, 1677). 20 On Dig. xlviii. 18. There are numerous editions of Voet, the sixth (generally found in libraries) is the Hague (1734). 21 Si la torture est un moyen sur a verifier les crimes (Amsterdam, 1681). Also by an anonymous writer thirty years earlier, De Pijnbank wedersproken en bematigt (Rotterdam, 1651). 22 Jus ecclesiaslicum universum (Louvain, 1720). 23 Hieronymi Magii Anglarenis de equuleo liber postumus (Amster- dam, 1664). There are several works dealing with torture in witchcraft proceedings. A large number of cases will be found in I. Scheltema, Geschiedenis der Hexen-processen (Haarlem, 1828). For torture in the i8th century see E. Hubert, La Torture aux Pays Bas autrichiens pendant la xviii' siecle (Brussels, 1897). 24 Baden, Dansk juridisk Ordbog, s.v. " Tortur " (Copenhagen,. 1828). 26 Kolderup-Rosenvinge, Udvalg af gamle Danske-Domme, bk. i. c. 20 (Copenhagen, 1848). 28 Cod. leg. svecicarum, pp. 233, 370 (Stockholm, 1743). TORUS— TOTEMISM 79 The " cave of roses," where reptiles were kept for the purpose of torture, was closed by Gustavus III. in 1772. Slav Countries. — The earliest mention of torture seems to be that of the mutilation provided for certain offences by the code of Stephen Dushan in 1349. In Russia torture does not occur in the recensions of the earlier law. It was possibly of Tatar origin, and the earliest mention of it in an official document is probably in the Sudebnik of Ivan the Terrible (1497). In the ordinance of 1556 there are elaborate regulations, which one learns from history were not always observed in periods of political disturbance, and torture seems to have been used even as a means of enforcing payment of debts. The reaction begins with Peter the Great and culminates with Catharine II., who was largely influenced by the opinions of Beccaria and Voltaire. In the instructions to the commission for framing a criminal code (1766), it is declared that all punishments by which the body is maimed ought to be abolished,1 and that the torture of the rack violates the rules of equity and does not produce the end proposed by the laws.2 It was formally abolished by Alexander I. in 1801, and in 1832 the Svod Zakonov subjected to penalties any judge who presumed to order it. But even as late as 1847 it seems to have been inflicted in one or two exceptional cases.3 AUTHORITIES. — For England Jardine's is still the standard work. Much general information and numerous authorities will be found in Lipenius, Bibliotheca realis Juridica, s.v. " Tortura " (Frankfort, 1679), and in the more modern work of J. Helbing, Die Tortur (Berlin, 1902). For those who can obtain access to it the catalogue issued at the sale of M. G. Libri (1861) is valuable. He had collected most of the books on the subject. There are several publications dealing with cases of individuals in addition to the numerous ones on witchcraft trials, e.g. those of William Lithgow, the Amboyna case, Dellon and Van Halen. Lithgow' s story has been republished (Glasgow, 1907). (J. W.) TORUS, a Latin word, meaning a round swelling or pro- tuberance, applied to a convex moulding in architecture, which in section is generally a semicircle. The earliest examples are found in Egypt, where it was carried up the angles of the pylon and temple walls and horizontally across the same. Its most frequent employment is in the bases of columns; in the Roman Doric order being the lowest moulding; in the Ionic orders there are generally two torus mouldings separated by a scotia with fillets. Both in Greek and Roman bases sometimes the torus is elaborately carved. (See MOULDING.) TORZHOK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, on the river Tvertsa, 21 m. by rail S.W. of the Likhoslavl, station of the St Petersburg & Moscow railway. Pop. (1900), 15,119. It dates from the nth century, and the name (market- place) shows that this dependency of Novgorod was a commercial centre. It was fortified with a stone wall, which only partially protected it from the attacks of Mongols, Lithuanians and Poles. Torzhok is celebrated in Russia for its embroidered velvet and embroidered leather-work, for the manufacture of travelling bags, and for its trade in corn and flour. TOSCANELLA (anc. Tuscana, q.v.}, a town of the province of Rome, Italy, 15 m. N.E. of Corneto by road, 545 ft. above sea- level. Pop. (1901), 4839. The medieval walls with their towers are still preserved. On the ancient citadel hill is the Romanesque church of S. Pietro, belonging to four different periods — 739, 1093 (the date of the reconstruction of the crypt), the middle of the 1 2th and the end of the i2th century. It has the shape of a Roman basilica, with a nave and two aisles and one apse. The elaborate facade with its rose window also belongs to the I2th century. S. Maria in the valley below dates from 1050 to 1206, and has a similar facade and a massive square campanile. In the town are two other Romanesque churches. See G. T. Rivoira, Origini dell architettura Lombarda i. 146 (Rome 1901). TOSTIG (d. 1066), earl of Northumbria, was a son, probably the third, of Earl God wine, and in 1051 married Judith, sister or daughter of Baldwin V., count of Flanders. In the year of his marriage he shared the short exile of his father, returning with him to England in 1052, and became earl of Northumbria after the death of Earl Siward in 1055. He was very intimate with his brother-in-law, Edward the Confessor, and in 1061 he visited Pope Nicholas II. at Rome in the company of Aldred, archbishop of York. By stern and cruel measures Tostig 1 Art. 96. s Ibid. 192-197. * See the various histories of Russian law, such as Maceiovski, Lange and Zagoskin, under the heads of puitka or muchenie. introduced a certain amount of order into the wild northern district under his rule; this severity made him exceedingly unpopular, and in 1065 Northumbria broke into open revolt. Declaring Tostig an outlaw and choosing Morkere in his stead, the rebels marched southwards and were met at Oxford by Earl Harold, who, rather against the will of the king, granted their demands. Tostig sailed to Flanders and thence to Nor- mandy, where he offered his services to Duke William, who was related to his wife and who was preparing for his invasion of England. He then harried the Isle of Wight and the Kentish and Lincolnshire coasts, and, after a stay in Scotland and possibly a visit to Norway, joined another invader, Harald III. Hardrada, king of Norway, in the Tyne. Together they sailed up the Hum- ber and at Gate Fulford, near York, defeated Earls Morkere and Edwine and entered York. But Harold, now king, was hurrying to the north. Taking the Norwegians by surprise at Stamford Bridge he destroyed their army on the 25th of September 1066, and in this battle both Tostig and the king of Norway were slain. Tostig's two sons appear to have taken refuge in Norway, and his widow Judith married Welf , duke of Bavaria. See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. ii. and iii. (1870-1876). TOTANA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, on the Lorca-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 13,703. The town, which consists of two parts, the Barrio de Sevilla and Barrio de Triana, contains several handsome public buildings, among them the church of Santiago, with its three naves. Water is conveyed to Totana from the Sierra de Espuna by an aqueduct 7 m. long. Saltpetre is obtained among the hills, and there is a thriving trade in wheat, oranges, olives, almonds, and wine from the Sangonera valley. Other industries are the manufac- ture of linen, leather and the earthenware jars called tinajas, which are used for the storage of oil and wine. TOTEMISM. The word " totem " is used in too many varying senses by students of early society and religion. The term came into the English language in the form of " totam," through a work of 1791, by J. Long, an interpreter between the whites and the Red Indians of North America.4 Long himself seems to have used the word to denote the protective familiar, usually an animal, which each Indian selected for himself, generally through the monition of a dream during the long fast of lads at their initiation. Such selected (or, when bestowed by medicine-men or friends, " given ") totems are styled " personal totems " and have no effect in savage law, nor are they hereditary, with any legal consequences. In stricter terminology " totem " denotes the object, gene- rally of a natural species, animal or vegetable, but occasionally rain, cloud, star, wind, which gives its name to a kindred actual or supposed, among many savages and barbaric races in America, Africa, Australia and Asia and the isles. Each child, male or female, inherits this name, either from its mother (" female descent ") or from its father (" male descent "). Between each person and his or her name-giving object, a certain mystic rapport is supposed to exist. Where descent wavers, persons occasionally have, in varying degrees, the totems of both parents. Religious Aspect of the Totem. — As a rule, by no means in- variable, the individual may not kill or eat the name-giving object of his kin, except under dire necessity; while less usually it is supposed to protect him and to send him monitory dreams. This is the " religious " or semi-religious aspect of the totem, or this aspect is, by some students, called " religious." We also hear of customs of burying and lamenting dead ani- mals which are regarded with reverence by this or that " family," or " clan." This custom is reported among the Samoans, and one " clan " was said to offer first-fruits to its sacred animal, the eel; while the " clan " that revered the pigeon kept and fed a tame specimen.6 But in Samoa, though the sacred animals of "clans " or " families " are, in all probability, survivals of totemism, they are now regarded by the people as the vehicles 4 Long, Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter (1791), p. 86. 6 Turner, Samoa, p. 71. 8o TOTEMISM of " clan " or " family " gods, and therefore receive honours not paid to the hereditary totems of Australia and North America, which have nothing godlike. It is to be presumed that " totem dances " in which some Australian tribes exhibit, in ballets d'action, the incidents of a myth concerning the totem, are, in a certain sense, " religious "; when they are not magical, and intended to foster and fertilize the species, animal or vegetable or other to which the totem belongs. The magical performances for the behoof of the totem crea- tures may be studied in the chapters on " Intichiuma " in Messrs Spencer and Gillen's Native Tribes of Central Australia, and Native Tribes of Northern Australia. Among the many guesses at the original purpose of totemism, one has been that the primal intention of totem sets of human beings was to act as magical co-operative stores for supplying increased quantities of food to the tribe. But this opinion has gone the way of other conjectures. The " religious " status of the totem is lowest among peoples where its influence on social regulations is greatest, and vice versa, a topic to which we recur. There are also various rites, in various tribes, connecting the dead man with his totem at his funeral; perhaps at his initia- tion, when a boy, into the esoteric knowledge and rules of his tribe. Men may identify themselves with their totems, or, mark themselves as of this or that totem by wearing the hide or the plumage of the bird or beast, or by putting on a mask resembling its face. The degree of " religious " regard for the revered object increases in proportion as it is taken to contain the spirit of an ancestor or to be the embodiment of a god: ideas not found among the most backward savages. The supreme or superior being of low savage religion or mythology is never a totem. He may be able, like Zeus in Greek mythology, to assume any shape he pleases; and in the myths of some Australian tribes he ordained the institution of totemism. Byamee, among the Euahlayi tribe of north-west New South Wales, had all the totems in him, and when he went to his paradise, Bullimah, he distributed them, with the mar- riage rules, among his people.1 In other legends, especially those of central and northern Australia, the original totem creatures, animal in form, with bestial aspect, were developed in a marine or lacustrine environment, and from them were evolved the human beings of each totem kin. The rule of non-inter- marriage within the totem was, in some myths, of divine institu- tion; in others, was invented by the primitive wandering totemic beings; or was laid down by the wisdom of mere men who saw some unknown evil in consanguine unions. The strict regard paid to the rule may be called " religious "; in so far as totemists are aware of no secular and social raison d" lire of the rule it has a mysterious character. But whereas to eat the totem is sometimes thought to be automatically punished by sickness or death, this danger does not attach to marriage within the totem save in a single known case. The secular penalty alone is dreaded; so there seems to be no religious fear of offending a superior being, or the totem himself: no tabu of a mystic sort. Social Aspect of the Totem. — The totem has almost always a strong influence on or is associated with marriage law, and except in the centre of Australia, and perhaps in the little-known West, men and women of the same totem may not intermarry, " however far apart their hunting grounds," and though there is no objection on the score of consanguinity. This is the result, in Australia, of the custom, there almost universal, which causes each individual to belong, by birth, to one or other of the two main exogamous and intermarrying divisions of the tribe (usually called " phratries "). The phra- tries (often known by names of animals, as Eagle Hawk and Crow, Crow and White Cockatoo) contain each a number of totem kins, as Dog, Wild Cherry, Wombat, Frog, Owl, Emu, Kangaroo, and so on, and (except among the Arunta " nation " of five tribes in Central Australia) the same totem kin never occurs in both phratries. Thus as all persons except in the Arunta nation, marry out of their own phratry, none can marry into his or her totem kin. 1 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe. In some parts of North America the same rule prevails; with this peculiarity that the phratries, or main exogamous divisions, are not always two, as in Australia, but, for example, among the Mohegans three — Wolf, Turtle, and Turkey.2 In Wolf all the totems are quadrupeds; under Turtle they are various species of turtles and the yellow eel; and under Turkey all the totems are birds. Clearly this ranking of the totems in the phratries is the result of purposeful design, not of accident. Design may also be observed in such phratries of Australian tribes as are named after animals of contrasted colours, such as White Cockatoo and Crow, Light Eagle Hawk and Crow. It has been supposed by Mr J. Mathew, Pere Schmidt and others that these Australian phratries arose in an alliance with connubium between a darker and a lighter race.3 But another hypothesis is not less prob- able; and as we can translate only about a third of Australian phratry names, conjecture on this subject is premature. Both in Australia and America the animals, as Eagle Hawk and Crow, which give their names to the phratries, are almost always totem kins within their own phratries.4 The Moquis of Arizona are said to have ten phratries, by Captain Ulick Bourke in his Snake Dance of the Moquis, but • possibly he did not use the term " phratry " in the sense which we attach to it. Among the Urabunna of Southern Central Australia, and among the tribes towards the Darling River, a very peculiar rule is said to prevail. There are two phratries, and in each are many totem kins, but each totem kin may intermarry with only one totem kin which must be in the opposite phratry.6 Thus there are as many exogamous divisions as there are totems in the tribes, which reckon descent in the female line; children in- heriting the mother's totem only. Corroboration of these statements is desirable, as the tribes implicated are peculiarly " primitive," and theirs may be the oldest extant set of marriage rules. The existence of two or more main exogamous divisions, named or unnamed, is found among peoples where there are either no totem kins, or where they have fallen into the back- ground, as in parts of Melanesia, among the Todas and Meitchis of India and the Wanika in East Africa.6 An extraordinary case is reported from South Australia where people must marry in their own phratry, while their children belong to the opposite phratry.7 This awaits corroboration. We now see some of the numerous varieties which prevail in the marriage rules connected with the totems. Even among a tribe whose members, it is reported, may marry into their own phratries, it appears that they must not marry within their own totem kins. This is, indeed, the rule wherever totemic societies are found in anything approaching to what we deem their most archaic constitution as in south-east Australia and some tribes of North America. Exogamy: The Arunta Abnormality. — Meanwhile, in Central Australia, in the Arunta " nation," the rule forbidding marriage within the totem kin does not exist. Totems here are not, as everywhere else, inherited from either parent, but a child is of what we may call " the local totem " of the place where its mother first became conscious of its life within her. The idea is that the spirits of a primal race, in groups each of one totem only (" Alcheringa folk"), haunt various localities; or spirits (ratapa) emanating from these primal beings do so; they enter into passing married women, and are incarnated and born again.8 2 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 174. * Mathew, Eagle Hawk and Crow; Schmidt, Anthropos (1909). 4 See Lang, The Secret of the Totem, pp. 154, 170; and N. W. Thomas, Kinship and Marriage in Australia, pp. 9, 31. 6 Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, pp. 93, 181, 188; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 60, 61, Northern Tribes, p. 71 ; Lang, Anthropological Essays; Tyler's Fest- schrift, pp. 203-210. 8 Thomas, ut supra, p. 10. See, for numerous examples, T. G. Frazer, Totemism (1910). 7 MS. of Mrs Bates. 8 It is necessary to state here the sources of our information about the central, north, north-western and south-eastern forms of TOTEMISM 81 Thus if a woman, whatever her own totem, and whatever her husband's may be, becomes conscious of her child's life in a known centre of Wild Cat spirits, her child's totem is Wild Cat, and so with all the rest. As a consequence, a totem sometimes here appears in what the people call the " wrong " (i.e. not the original) exogamous division; and persons may marry within their own totem name, if that totem be in the " right " exogamous division, which is not theirs. Each totem spirit is among the Arunta associated with an amulet or churinga of stone; these are of various shapes, and are decorated with concentric circles, spirals, cupules, and other archaic patterns. These amulets are only used in this sense by the Arunta nation and their neighbours the Kaitish, " and it is this idea of spirit individuals associated with churinga and resident in certain definite spots that lies at the root of the present totemism. About the central Arunta tribe with its neighbours, the Urabunna, we have the evidence very carefully collected by Mr Gillen, a protector of the aborigines, and Professor Baldwin Spencer (Native Tribes of Central Australia). Concerning the peoples north from the centre to the Gulf of Carpentaria, the same scholars furnish a copious account in their Northern Tribes. These two explorers had the confidence of the blacks ; witnessed their most secret ceremonies, magical and initiatory; and collected their legends. Their, books, however, contain no philological information as to the structure and interrelation of the dialects, information which is rarely to be found in the works of English observers in Australia. As far as appears, the observers conversed with the tribes only in " pidgin English." If this be the case that lingua franca is current among some eighteen central-northern tribes speaking various native dialects. We are told nothing about the languages used in each case; perhaps the Arunta men who accompanied the expedition arranged a system of interpreters. For the Dieri tribe, neighbours of the Urabunna, we have copious evidence in Native Tribes of South-East Australia by the late Mr A. W. Howitt, who studied the peoples for forty years; was made free of their initiatory ceremonies; and obtained intelligence from settlers in regions which he did not visit. We have also legends with Dieri texts and translations from the Rev. Mr Siebert, a mis- sionary among the Dieri. That tribe appears now to exist in a very dwindled condition under missionary supervision. The accounts of tribes from the centre to the south-east by Mr R. E. Mathew, are scattered in many English, Australian and American learned periodicals. Mr Mathew has given a good deal of information about some of the dialects. His statements as to the line of descent and on other points among certain tribes are at variance with those of Messrs Spencer and Gillen (see an article by Mr A. R. Brown in Man, March 1910). Mr Mathew, however, does not enable us to test the accuracy of his informants among the northern tribes, which is unfortunate. For the Aranda (or Arunta) of a region apparently not explored by Messrs Spencer and Gillen, and for the neighbouring Loritja tribe, we have Die Aranda und Loritja Stamme, two volumes by the Rev. C. Strehlow (Baer, Frankfurt am Main, 1907, 1908). Mr Strehlow is a German missionary who, after working among the Dieri and acquiring their language, served for many years among a branch of the Arunta (the Aranda), differing considerably in dialect, myths and usages from the Arunta of Messrs Spencer and Gillen. In some points, for example as to the primal ancestors and the spirits diffused by them for incarnation in human bodies, the Aranda and Loritja are more akin to the northern tribes than to Mr Spencer's Arunta. In other myths they resemble some south-eastern tribes reported on by Mr Howitt. Unlike the Arunta of Messrs Spencer and Gillen, but like the Arunta described by Mr Gillen earlier in The Horn Expedition, they believe in " a magnified non-natural man," Altjira, with a goose-foot, dwelling in the heavens. Unlike the self-created Atnatu of the Kaitish of Messrs Spencer and Gillen, he is not said to have created things, or to take any concern about human beings, as Atnatu does in matters of ceremonial. Mr Strehlow gives Aranda and Lortija texts in the original, with translations and philological remarks. Mr Frazer, in his Totemism, makes no use of Mr Strehlow's information (save in a single instance). To us it seems worthy of study. His reason for this abstention is that, in a letter to him (Melbourne, March 10, 1908), Mr Spencer says that for at least twenty years the Lutheran Missions have taught the natives " that altjira means ' god ' ; have taught that their sacred ceremonies and secular dances are ' wicked ' ; have prohibited them, and have never seen them. Flour and tobacco, &c., are only given to natives who attend church and school. Natives have been married who, according to native customary law, belong to groups to which marriage is forbidden. For these reasons Mr Frazer cannot attempt " to filter the native liquor clear of its alien sediment," (Totemism, i. 186, note 2). Against this we may urge that, as regards the goose-footed sky- dweller, Mr Strehlow reports less of his active interest in human affairs than Mr Gillen does concerning his " Great Ulthaana of the totemic system of the Arunta," says Messrs Spencer and Gillen.1 Every Arunta born incarnates a pre-existent primal spirit attached to one of the stone churinga dropped by primal totemic beings, all of one totem in each case, at a place called an oknanikilla. Each child belongs to the totem of the primal beings of the place, where the mother became aware of the child's life. Thus the peculiar causes which have produced the unique Arunta licence of marrying within the totem are conspicuously obvious. Contradictory Theories about the Arunta Abnormal Totemism. — At this point theories concerning the origin of totemism begin to differ irreconcilably. Mr Frazer, Mr Spencer, and, apparently Dr Rivers, hold that, in Australia at least, totemism was originally " conceptional." It began in the belief by the women that pregnancy was caused by the entrance into them of some spirit associated with a visible object, usually animal or vegetable; while the child born, in each case, was that object. Hence that class of objects was tabued to the child; was its totem, but such totems were not hereditary. Next, for some unknown reason, the tribes were divided into two bodies or segments. The members of segment A may not intermarry; they must marry persons of segment B, and vice versa. Thus were evolved the primal forms of totemism and exogamy now represented in the law of the Arunta nation alone. Here, and here alone, marriage within the totem is permitted. The theory is, apparently, that, in all other exogamous and totemic peoples, totems had been, for various reasons, made hereditary, before exogamy was enforced by the legislator in his wisdom. Thus, all over the totemic world, except in the Arunta nation, the method of the legislator was simply to place one set of totem kins in tribal segment A, and the other in segment B, and make the segments exogamous and intermarrying. Thus it was impossible for any person to marry another of the same totem. This is the theory of Mr Frazer. Upholders of the contradictory system maintain that the Arunta nation has passed through and out of the universal and normal system of hereditary and exogamous totemism into its. present condition, by reason of the belief that children are incarnations of pre-existing animal or vegetable spirits, plus the unique Arunta idea of the connexion of such spirits with their stone churinga. Where this combination of the two beliefs does not occur, there the Arunta non-hereditary and non-exogamous totemism does not occur. It would necessarily arise in any normal tribe which adopted the two Arunta beliefs, which are not " primitive." Arguments against Mr Frazer' s Theory. — There was obviously a time, it is urged, when all totems were, as everywhere else, heavens " among the Arunta. Mr Strehlow's being, Altjira, has a name apparently meaning " mystic " or sacred, which is applied to other things, for example to the inherited maternal totem of each native. His names for Altjira (god) and for the totemic ancestors (totem gods), are inappropriate, but may be discounted. Many other tribes who are discussed by Mr Frazer have been long under missionary influence as well as the Aranda. According to Mr Frazer the Dieri tribe had enjoyed a German Lutheran mission station (since 1866) for forty-four years up to 1910. About 150 Dieri were alive in 1909 (Totemism, iii. 344). Nevertheless the Dieri myths published by Mr Siebert in the decadence of the tribe, and when the remnant was under missionaries, show no " alien sediment." Nor do the traditions of Mr Strehlow's Aranda. Their traditions are closely akin, now to those of the Arunta, now to those of the northern tribes, now to those of the Euahlayi of Mrs Langloh Parker (The Euahlayi Tribe) in New South Wales, and once more to those of Mr Howitt's south-eastern tribes. There is no trace of Christian influence in the Aranda and Loritja matter, no vestige of " alien " (that is, of European) " sediment," but the account of Atnatu among the Kaitish reported on by Messrs Spencer and Gillen reads like a savage version of Milton's " Fall of the Angels " in Paradise Lost. For these reasons we do not reject the information of Mr Strehlow, who is master of several tribal languages, and, of course, does not encourage wicked native rites by providing supplies of flour, tobacco, &c., during the performances, as Mr Howitt and others say that they found it necessary to do. Sceptical colonists have been heard to aver that natives will go on performing rites as, long as white men will provide supplies. 1 Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 123. 82 TOTEMISM in what the Arunta call "the right" divisions; Arunta, that is, were so arrayed that no totem existed in more than one division. Obliged, as row, to marry out of their own exogamous division (one of four sub-classes among the Arunta) into one of the four sub-classes of the opposite side, no man could then find in it a woman of his own totem to marry. But when Arunta ceased to be hereditary, and came to be acquired, as now, by the local accident of the totem spirits — all, in each case, of one totem name, which haunt the supposed place of a child's conception — • some totems inevitably would often get out of their original sub-class into another, and thus the same totems are in several divisions. But granting that a man of division A may legally marry a woman of division B, he is not now prevented from doing so because his totem (say Wild Cat) is also hers. His ..or hers has strayed, by accident of supposed place of conception, out of its " right " into its " wrong " division. The words " right " and " wrong " as here used by the Arunta make it certain that they still perceive the distinction, and that, before the Arunta evolved the spiritual view of conception, they had, like other people, their totems in each case confined to a single main exogamous division of their tribe, and therefore no persons could then marry into their own totems. But when the theory of spiritual conception arose, and was combined, in the Arunta set of tribes alone (it is common enough elsewhere in northern and western Australia), with the churinga doctrine, which gave totems by accident, these two factors, as Messrs Spencer and Gillen say, became the causes — •" lie at the root " — of the present Arunta system by which persons may marry others of " the right " division, but of " the wrong " totem. That system is strictly confined to the group of tribes (Ilpirra, Loritja, Unmaterja, Kaitish, Arunta) which constitute " the Arunta nation." Elsewhere the belief in spiritual conception widely prevails, but not the belief in the connexion of spirits of individuals with the stone churinga of individuals. Consequently the Arunta system of marriage within the totem exists nowhere, and the non-exogamous non-hereditary totem exists nowhere, except in the Arunta region. Everywhere else hereditary totems are exogamous.1 Thus the practice of acquiring the totem by local accident is absolutely confined to five tribes where the churinga doctrine coexists with it. That the churinga belief, coexistent with the spiritual theory of conception, is of relatively recent origin is a demonstrable fact. Had it always been present among the Arunta the inevitable result, in the course of ages, would be the scattering of the totems almost equally, as chance would scatter them among the eight exogamous divisions. This can be tested by experiment. Take eight men, to represent the eight exogamous divisions, and set them apart in two groups of four. Take four packs of cards, 208 cards, to represent the Arunta totems, which are over 200 in number. Deal the cards round in the usual way to each of the eight men; each will receive 26 cards. It will not be found that group A has " the great majority " of spades and clubs, while group B has " the great majority " of diamonds and hearts, and neither group will have " the great majority " of court cards. Accident does not work in that way. But while accident alone now determines the totem to which an Arunta shall belong, nevertheless " in the Arunta, as a general rule, the great majority of the members of any one totemic group belong to one moiety of the tribe; but this is by no means universal . . . " — that is, of the totems the great majority in each case, as a rule, belongs to one or the other set of four exogamous sub-classes.2 The inference is obvious. While chance has now placed only the small minority of each totem in all or several of the eight exogamous divisions, the great majority of totems is in one or another of the divisions. This great majority cannot come by chance, as Arunta totems now come; consequently it is but lately that chance has determined the totem of each individual. Had chance from the first been the determining cause, each totem 1 N.T.C.A.p. 257; cf. Frazer, Totemism, i. 200-201. 1 Northern Tribes, pp. 151 sqq. would not be fairly equally present in each of the two sets of four exogamous divisions. But determination by accident has only existed long enough to affect " as a general rule " a small minority of cases. " The great majority " of totems remain in what is recognized as " the right," the original divisions, as elsewhere universally. Arunta myth sometimes supports, sometimes contradicts, the belief that the totems were originally limited, in each case, to one or other division only, and, being self- contradictory, has no historic value. A further proof of our point is that the northern neighbours of the Arunta, the Kaitish, have only partially accepted Arunta ideas, religious and social. Unlike the Arunta they have a creative being, Atnatu, from whom half of the population descend; the other half were evolved out of totemic forms.3 In the same way the Kaitish totems " are more strictly divided between the two moieties " (main exogamous divisions) " of the tribe."4 Consequently a man may marry a woman of his own totem if she be in the right exogamous division. " She is not actually forbidden to him, as a wife becomes of this identity and totem, as she would be in the Warramunga neighbouring tribe . . ." " It is a very rare thing for a man to marry a woman of the same totem as himself,"6 naturally, for the old rule holds, in sentiment, and a totem is still very rarely in the wrong division. The Arunta system of accidental determination of the totem has as yet scarcely produced among the Kaitish any of its natural and important effects. This view of the case seems logical: Arunta non-exogamous non-hereditary totemism is the result, as Messrs Spencer and Gillen show, of the theory of spiritual conception and the theory of the relation of the spirit part of each individual to his churinga. These two beliefs have already caused a minority of Arunta totems to get out of the original and into the wrong exogamous Arunta divisions. The process is not of old standing; if it were, all totems would now be fairly distributed among the divisions by the laws of chance. In the Kaitish tribe, on the other hand, the processes must be of very recent operation, for they have only begun to produce their necessary effects. The totemism of the Arunta is thus the reverse of " primitive," and has but slightly affected the Kaitish. Precisely the opposite view of the facts is taken by Mr Frazer in his erudite and exhaustive work Totemism. In the Kaitish, he writes, " we may detect the first stage in the transition from promiscuous marriage and fortuitous descent of the totem to strict exogamy of the totem clans and strict heredity of the totems in the paternal line."6 By "promiscuous marriage," marriage within or without the totem, at pleasure, is obviously intended, for the Arunta do not marry " promiscuously " — do not marry their nearest kin. How, on Mr Frazer's theory, was the transition from the condition of the Arunta to that of the Kaitish made? If the Kaitish were once in the actual Arunta stage of totemism, how did their totems come now to be much more strictly divided between the two moieties, though " the division is not so absolute as amongst the Urabunna in the south and the tribes farther north . . ."? How did this occur? The Kaitish have not made totems hereditary by law; they are acquired by local accident. They have not made a rule that all totems should, as among the more northern neighbours of the Arunta, be regimented so that no totem occurs in more than one division: to this rule there are exceptions. A man " is not actually forbidden " to marry a woman of his own totem provided she be of " the right division," but it is clear that he " does not usually do so." This we can explain as the result of a survival in manners of the old absolute universal prohibition. Meanwhile our view of the facts makes all the phenomena seem natural and intelligible in accordance with the statement of the observers, Messrs Spencer and Gillen, that the cause of the unique non-hereditary non-exogamous totems of the Arunta is the combination of the churinga spiritual belief with the belief in spiritual conception. This cause, though now present among ' Northern Tribes, pp. 153, 154, 175. * Ibid. p. 152. 6 Ibid. p. 175. * Totemism, i. 244. TOTEMISM the Kaitish, has, so far, operated but faintly. We have been explicit on these points because on them the whole problem of the original form of totemism hinges. In our view, for the reasons stated, the Arunta system of non-exogamous non-hereditary totemism is a peculiarity of comparatively recent institution. But Mr Frazer, and the chief observer of the phenomena, Mr Spencer, consider the Arunta system, non-exogamous and non- hereditary, to be the most archaic form of totemism extant. As to non-hereditary, we find another report of the facts in Die Aranda und Loritja Stiimme, by the Rev. Mr Strehlow, who has a colloquial and philological knowledge of the language of these tribes. As he reports, among other things, that the Aranda (Arunta) in his district inherit their mother's totems, in addition to their " local totems," they appear to retain an archaic feature from which their local totem system and marriage rules are a departure.1 The hereditary maternal totem is, in Mr Strehlow's region, the protective being (altjira) of each Arunta individual. Are the Arunta " Primitive " or not? — In the whole totemic controversy the question as to whether the non-exogamous non-hereditary totemism of the Arunta or the hereditary and exogamous totemism of the rest of Australia and of totemic mankind, be the earlier, is crucial. That Arunta totemism is a freak or " sport," it is argued, is made probable first by the fact that the Arunta inherit all things hereditable in the male line, whereas inheritance in the female descent is earlier. (To this question we return; see below, Male and Female Lines of Descent.) M. Van Gennep argues that tribes in contact, one set having female, the other male, descent, " like the Arunta have combined the systems."2 But several northern tribes with male descent of the totem which are not in contact with tribes of female descent show much stronger traces of the " combination " than the Arunta, who intermarry freely with a tribe of female descent, the Urabunna; while the Urabunna, though intermarrying with the Arunta who inherit property and tribal office in the male line, show no traces of " combination." Thus the effects occur where the alleged causes are not present; and the alleged causes, in the case of the Urabunna and Arunta, do not produce the effects. Next the Arunta have no names for their main exogamous divisions, these names being a very archaic feature which in many tribes with sub-classes tend to disappear. In absence of phratry names the Arunta are remote from the primitive. M. Van Gennep replies that perhaps the Arunta have not yet made the names, or have not yet borrowed them. This is also the view of Mr Frazer. As he says, the Southern Arunta lived under the rule of eight classes, but of these four were anonymous, till the names for them were borrowed from the north. The people can thus have anonymous exogamous divisions; the two main divisions, or phratries, of the Arunta may, therefore, from the first, have been anonymous. To this the reply is that people borrow, if they can, what they need. The Arunta found names for their four hitherto anony- mous classes to be convenient, so they borrowed them. But when once class-names did, as they do, all that is necessary, the Arunta had no longer any use for the names of the two primary main divisions: these were forgotten; there is nothing to be got by borrowing that; while four Arunta " sub-classes " are gaining their names, the " classes " (phratries or main divisions) have lost them. It is perfectly logical to hold that while things useful, but hitherto anonymous, are gaining names, other things, now totally useless, are losing their names. One process is as natural as the other. In all Australia tribes with two main divisions and no sub-classes, the names of the two main divisions are found, because the names are useful. In several tribes with named sub-classes, which now do the work previously thrown on the main divisions, the names of the main divisions are unknown: the main divisions being now useless, and superseded by the sub- classes. The absence of names of the two main divisions in the Arunta is merely a result, often found, of the rise of the sub- 1 Strehlow, ii. 57 (1908). 2 Mythes et legendes d'Australie, p. xxxii. classes, which, as Mr Frazer declares, are not primitive, but the result of successive later legislative acts of division.' Manifestly on this point the Arunta are at the farthest point from the earliest organization: their loss of phratry names is the consequence of this great advance from the " primitive." All Arunta society rests on a theory of reincarnated spirits, a theory minutely elaborated. M Van Gennep asks " why should this belief not be primitive? " Surely neither the belief in spirits, nor the elaborate working out of the belief connecting spirits with manufactured stone amulets, can have been primitive. Nobody will say that peculiar stone amulets and the Arunta belief about spirits associated with them are primitive. To this M Van Gennep makes no reply.4 The Arunta belief that children are spirit-children (ralapa) incarnated is very common in the other central and northern tribes, and, according to Mrs Bates, in Western Australia; Dr Roth reports the same for parts of Queensland. It is alleged by Messrs Spencer and Gillen that the tribes holding this belief deny any connexion between sexual unions and procreation. Mr Strehlow, on the other hand, says that in his region the older Arunta men understand the part of the male in procreation ; and that even the children of the Loritja and Arunta understand, in the case of animals.5 (Here corroboration is desirable and European influence may be asserted.) Dr Roth says that the Tully River blacks of Queensland admit procreation for all other animals, which have no Koi or soul, but not for men, who have souls. (Their theory of human birth, therefore, merely aims primarily at accounting for the spiritual part of man.)6 According to Mrs Bates, some tribes in the north of South Australia, tribes with the same " class " names as the Arunta, hold that to have children a man must possess two spirits (ranee). If he has but one, he remains childless. If he has two, he can dream of an animal, or other object, which then passes into his wife, and is born as a child, the animal thus becoming the child's totem. This belief does not appear to apply to reproduc- tion in the lower animals. It is a spiritual theory of the begetting of a soul incarnated. If a man has but one spirit, he cannot give one to a child, therefore he is childless. It is clear that this, and all other systerr s in which reproduction is explained in spiritual terms, can only arise among peoples whose whole mode of thinking is intensely " animistic." It is also plain that all such myths answer two questions — (i) How does a being of flesh and spirit acquire its spiritual part? — (2) How is it that every human being is in mystical rcpport with an animal, plant, or other object, the totem? Manifestly the second question could not arise and need answer before mankind were actually totemists. It may be added that in the south of Western Australia the name for the mythical " Father of All " (a being not there worshipped, though images of him are made and receive some cult at certain licentious festivals) and the name for " father-stock " is maman, which Mrs Bates finds to be the native term for membrum virile. All this appears to be proof of understand- ing of the male part in reproduction, though that understanding is now obscured by speculation about spirits. The question arises then, is the ignorance of procreation, where that ignorance exists, " primitive," and is the Arunta totemism also " primitive," being conditioned, as we are told it is, by the unique belief in some churinga? Or is the ignorance due to attempts of native thinkers to account for the spirit in man as a pre-existing entity that has been from the beginning? The former view is that of Messrs Spencer and Gillen, and Mr Frazer. For the latter see Lang, Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor, pp. 210-218. We can hardly call people primitive because they have struggled with the problem " how has material man an indwelling spirit?" Theories of the Origin of Totemic Exogamy. — Since the word " exogamy " as a name for the marriage systems connected (as a rule) with totemism was used by J. F. McLennan in his. 8 Totemism, i. 282, 283. 4 Van Gennep, pp. xxxiii-xxxv. 6 Loritja Stiimme, p. 52, note 7. • Roth, Bulletin, No. 5, pp. 17, 22, 65, 81. 84 TOTEMISM Primitive Marriage (1866), theories of the origin of exogamy have been rife and multifarious. All, without exception, are purely conjectural. One set of disputants hold that man (whatever his original condition may have been) was, when he first passed an Act of Exogamy, a member of a tribe. Hewitt's term for this tribe was " the undivided commune." It had, according to him, its inspired medicine-man, believed to be in communication with some superior being. It had its pro- bouleutic council of elders or " headmen " and its general assembly. Such was man's political condition.1 It is not dis- tinguishable from that of many modern Australian tribes. Other tribes, said by some to be the most primitive, the Arunta and their neighbours, pay no attention to the dictates of a superior being, and the Arunta of Spencer and Gillen seem to know no such entity, though as Atnatu, Tukura, Altjira, and " the Great Ulthaana of the heavens," he exists in a dwindled form among the Kaitish, Loritja and outlying portions of the Arunta tribe. In religion Howitt's early men were already in advance of Mr Spencer's Arunta. Socially, man, at this date, according to Howitt, at first left the relations of the sexes wholly unregulated; the nearest kinsfolk by blood coupled at will, though perfectly aware that they were, at least on the maternal side, actual brothers and sisters, parents and children. Upholders of the first theory, that man lived promiscuously in a tribal state with legislative assemblies and then suddenly reformed promiscuity away, must necessarily differ in their opinion as to the origins of totems and exogamy from the friends of the second theory, who believe that man never was "pro- miscuous," and given to sexual union with near kin. Why man, on the first theory — familiar as he was with unions of the nearest kin — suddenly abolished them is explained in four or five different ways. Perhaps the most notable view is Mr Frazer's; he easily confutes, in thirty-five pages, the other hypotheses. 2 Man saw, or thought he saw, injurious consequences to the wedded near- related couples, and therefore he prohibited, first, unions between mothers and sons, and brothers and sisters.3 But, in his fourth volume, Mr Frazer sees conclusive objections to this view4 and prefers another. Some peoples, far above the estate of savagery, believe that human incest blights and sterilizes the crops, women and animals. " If any such belief were entertained by the founders of exogamy, they would clearly have been perfectly sufficient motives for instituting the system, for they would perfectly explain the horror with which incest has been regarded and the extreme severity with which it has been punished."6 That is to say, people had a horror and hatred of incest because they supposed that it blighted the crops and other things. Mr Frazer had previously written (iv. 108) " It is important to bear steadily in mind that the dislike of certain marriages must always have existed in the minds of the people, or at least of their leaders, before that dislike, so to say, received legal sanction by being embodied in an exogamous rule." Again (iv. 112) " There had, for some reason unknown to us, been long growing up a strong aversion to consanguineous unions " — before any legislative bar was raised against them. This is insisted on. The prohibition " must have answered to certain general sentiments of what was right and proper " (iv. 121). But here the theorist has to explain the origin of the strong aversion, the general sentiment that unions of near kin are wrong and improper. But Mr Frazer does not seem to explain the point that most needs explanation. That " strong aversion," that " general sentiment," cannot have arisen from a growing belief that unions of close kin spoiled the crops or the natural resources of the country. That superstition could only arise as a consequence of the horror and aversion with which " incest " was regarded. Now no idea corresponding to " incest " could arise before unions of near kin were deemed abominable. When once such unions were thought hateful to gods and men, and an upsetting of the cosmic balance, then, but not till then, they might be regarded as injurious to the crops. All such beliefs are sanctions of ideas already in strong 1 N.T.S.E.A. pp. 89, 90. » Ibid. i. 165. 1 Totemism, iv. 75-120. 4 Ibid. iv. 155, 156. 6 Ibid. iv. 158. force. The idea that such or such a thing is wrong begets the prohibition, followed by the sanction — the belief that the practice of the thing is injurious in a supernormal way: where that belief exists. We do not know it in Australia, for example. A belief that close sexual unions were maleficent cosmic influences could not possibly arise previous to, and could not then cause, " the dislike of certain marriages "; " the strong aversion to consanguineous unions " — which existed already. This latest guess of Mr Frazer at the origin of the idea of " incest " — of the abomination of certain unions — is untenable. What he has to explain is the origin of the dislike, the aversion, the horror. Once that has arisen, as he himself observes, the prohibition follows, and then comes the supernormal sanction. Thus no theory of exogamous rules as the result of legislation to prevent the unions of persons closely akin, can produce, or has produced, any reason for the aversion to such unions arising among people to whom, on the theory, they were familiar. Mr Frazer has confuted the guesses of MacLennan, Morgan, Durkheim and others; but his own idea is untenable. The Supposed Method of Reform. — On Mr Frazer's theory the reformers first placed half of the mothers of the tribe, with their children, in division A; and the rest of the mothers, with their children, in division B. The members of each division (phratry) must marry out of it into the other, and thus no man could marry his sister or mother. (The father could marry his daughter, but in tribes with no exogamous explicit rule against the union, he never does.) Later the two divisions were bisected each into a couple of pairs (classes) preventing marriage between father and daughter; and another resegmentation prohibited the unions of more distant relations. These systems, from the simplest division into two phratries, to the more complex with two " sub-classes " in each phratry, and the most elaborate of all with four sub-classes in each phratry, exist in various tribes. Environment and climate have nothing to do with the matter. The Urabunna and the Arunta live in the same climate and environment, and inter- marry. The Urabunna have the most primitive, the Arunta have the most advanced of these organizations. While the rules are intended to prevent consanguineous marriages, the names of the " sub-classes " (when translatable, the names of animals) cannot perhaps be explained. They have a totemic appearance. Totems in Relation to Exogamy. — So far, in this theory nothing has been said of totems, though it is an all but universal rule that people of the same totem may not intermarry, even if the lovers belong to tribes separated by the breadth of the continent. In fact, according to the hypothesis which has been set forth, totems, though now exogamous, played no original part in the evolution of exogamy. They came in by accident, not by design, and dropped into their place in a system carefully devised. Originally, on this theory, a totem came to a child, not as is usual now, by inheritance, but by pure accident; the mother supposing that any object which caught her attention at the moment when she first felt the life of her child, or any article of food which she had recently eaten, became incarnate in her, so that the emu (say) which she saw, or had eaten of, was her child. He or she was an Emu man or woman, by totem was an Emu. Certain localities, later, were somehow associated each with one given object — cat, kangaroo, grub, or anything else, and now " local totems " (if the phrase may be used) took the place of " conceptional totems," as among the Arunta. The child inevitably was of the local totem and its supposed place of conception. Finally all tribes except the Arunta " nation " made the totem hereditary, either from mother or father; and as the mother or father, an Emu, was in division A, so was the child, and he or she must marry out of that division into the other, B.' The objections taken to this theory are now to be stated: ' Frazer, Totemism, i. 157-167. TOTEMISM (i.) The theory can by no possibility apply to tribes with three or more main exogamous divisions or phratries, such as we find in North America. In a three-phratry tribe we are reduced to suppose that there were three sexes, or resort to some other solution not perhaps compatible with the theory, (ii.) We have no evidence that any totemic people, except the Navajoes, think the closest sexual unions injurious to the parties or their offspring. The theory is thus merely extracted from the facts — certain unions are forbidden, therefore they must have been deemed injurious. Now, even if they were generally thought injurious, the belief would be a mere inference from the fact that they were forbidden, (iii.) The supposed original legisla- tive exogamous division produced a very different effect than that said to be aimed at, namely, the prohibition of marriage between brothers and sisters. It forbade to every man marriage with half the women of his tribe, most of whom were not, even in the wide native use of the term, his " tribal " sisters, that is, women in a man's phratry of the same status as his own sisters. Such relationships, of course, could not exist before they were created by the supposed Act of Division. It would have been easy to prohibit marriages of brothers with sisters directly, just as, though no exogamous rule forbids, the father, in tribes of female descent, is directly forbidden to marry his daughters. The natives can take a simple instead of a bewilder- ing path. To this natural objection Mr Frazer replies:1 " If we assume, as we have every right to do, that the founders of exo- gamy in Australia recognized the classificatory system of rela- tionship, and the classificatory system of relationship only, we shall at once perceive that what they intended to prevent was not merely the marriage of a man with his sister, his mother, or his daughter in the physical sense in which we use these terms; their aim was to prevent his marriage with his sister, his mother and his daughter in the classificatory sense of these terms; that is, they intended to place bars to marriage not between individuals merely but between the whole groups of persons who designated their group, not their individual relationships, their social, not their consanguineous ties, by the names of father and mother, brother and sister, son and daughter. And in this intention the founders of exogamy succeeded per- fectly." Mr Frazer's theory of the origin of exogamy appears now to waver. It was2 that the primal bisection of the tribe was " deliberately devised and adopted as a means of preventing the marriage, at first, of brother with sisters. . . ." Here was the place to say, if it was then intended to say, that the Australians " recognized the classificatory system of rela- tionships only." As a matter of fact they recognize both the consanguine and the classificatory systems. It is not the case that " the savage Australian, it may be said with truth, has no idea of relationships as we understand them, and does not discriminate between his actual father and mother and the men and women who belong to the group, each member of which might have lawfully been either his father or his mother, as the case may be." This statement is made inadvertently and unfortunately by Messrs Spencer and Gillen,3 but it is contradicted by their own observations. An Arunta can tell you, if asked, which of all the men whom he calls " father " is his very own father.4 The Dieri have terms for " great " (actual) and " little " (tribal) father, and so for other relationships. In Arunta orgies a woman's " tribal " " fathers " and " brothers " and " sons " are admitted to her embraces; her actual father and brothers and sons are excluded.6 Thus, if the prohibition be based on aversion to unions of persons closely akin by blood, as the actual father is excluded, the actual father, among the Arunta, is, or has been, amongst that people, regarded as near of blood to his daughters. The Arunta are ignorant, we are told, of the part of the male in procreation. Be it so, but there has been a time when they were not ignorant, and when the father was recognized as of the nearest kin by blood to his daughters. If 1 Totemism, i. 288. 1 Northern Tribes, pp. 95 seq. ; 4 Central Tribes, p. 57. 2 Ibid. i. 163. Totemism, i. 289. 6 Ibid. p. 97. not, and if the prohibition is based on hatred of unions of close kin, why is the father excluded? Nothing, in short, can be more certain than that Australian tribes distinguish between " social " or " tribal " relations on the one hand, and close consanguine relations on the other. Among the Arunta office is inherited by a man from his mother's husband, his father quern nuptiae demonstrant; not from any " tribal " father.6 Mr Frazer7 apparently meant in his earlier statement that brothers and sisters consanguine, and these only, were to be excluded from intermarriage, because he went on to say that science cannot decide as to whether the closest interbreeding is injurious to the offspring of healthy parents, however near in blood; and that very low savages could not discover what is hidden from modern science. He had therefore marriages of consanguine brothers and sisters present to his mind: " the closest interbreeding." Brothers and sisters were finally for- bidden, on this theory, to intermarry, not because of any dread of injury to the offspring. " The only alternative open to us seems to be to infer that these unions were forbidden because they were believed to be injurious to the persons engaged in them, even when they were both in perfect health."8 These " incestuous unions " are between brothers and sisters, mothers and sons. Here brothers and sisters consanguine, children of the same mother in each case, certainly appear to be intended. Who else, indeed, can be intended? But presently9 we are to assume that the Australians, before they made the first exogamous division of the tribe " recognized the classificatory system of relationship, and the classificatory system only." They meant, now, to bar marriage between " whole groups of persons," related by " social, not consanguineous ties." But this seems to be physically impossible. These " whole groups " never existed, and never could exist, as far as we can see, till they were called into being by the legislative division of the tribe into two exogamous phratries — which had not yet been made. How could a man call a whole group of women " nupa," as at present (the word being applied to his wife and to all women of the opposite phratry to his whom he might legally marry) before the new law had constituted such a group? In what sense, again, were all women of a certain status called my " sisters " (like my actual sisters) before the new law made a new group of them — in regard to marriage as sacred as my own sisters now were to me? It cannot be said that all women of my status were called, collectively, my " sisters " before the new division of the tribe and new rule arose, because previously, all women of my status in the tribe have been my " sisters." Who else could be collectively my " sisters "? If to marry a " sister " were reckoned dangerous to her and to me, I must have been forbidden to marry all the women of my status in the tribe. How could a law which merely halved the number of my " sisters " remove the unknown danger from half of them? If any women except my actual sisters were, before the new rule, reckoned as socially my sisters, all women in the tribe of a certain status must have been so reckoned. If all dangerous, I must marry none of them. But by the new rule, I may marry half of them! Why have they ceased to be dangerous? If the theory be that originally only brothers and sisters con- sanguine were thought dangerous to each other in sexual rela- tions, and the superstition was later extended so as to include all " classificatory " brothers and sisters, who were in these days (before the exogamous division) classificatory brothers and sisters? How and for what reason were some marriageable girls in the tribe classificatory sisters of a young man while others, equally young and marriageable, were not ? The classi- ficatory brothers and sisters must have been all the marriageable youth of both sexes in a generation, in the tribe. But then if all the youth of a generation, of both sexes, were classificatory brothers and sisters, and if therefore their unions were dangerous to themselves, or to the crops, the danger could not be prevented by dividing them into two sets, and 6 See Proceedings of British Academy, iii. 4. Lang, "^Origin of Terms of Human Relationships." 7 Totemism, i. 163. " Ibid. i. 165. • Ibid. i. 288. 86 TOTEMISM allowing each set of brothers to marry each set of sisters. The only way to parry the danger was to force all these brothers and sisters to marry out of the local tribe into another local tribe with the same superstition. When that was done, the two local tribes, exogamous and intermarrying, were constituted into the two phratries of one local tribe. But that is not the theory of observers on the spot: their hypothesis is that a promiscuous and communistic local tribe, for no known or conceivable reason, bisected itself into two exogamous and intermarrying " moieties." On the face of it, it is a fatal objection to the theory that when men dwelt in an undivided commune they recognized no system of relationships but the classificatory, yet were well aware of consanguineous relationships; were determined to prohibit the marriages of people in such relationships; and included in the new prohibition people in no way consanguineous, but merely of classificatory kin. The reformers, by the theory, were perfectly able to distinguish consanguineous kinsfolk, so that they might easily have forbidden them to intermarry; while if all the members of the tribe were not in the classificatory degrees of relationship, who were? How were persons in classifi- catory relationships with each other discriminated from other members of the tribe who were not? They were easily discrim- inated as soon as the phratries were instituted, but, we think, not before. Term of Classificatory Relationships. — Here it is necessary to say a few words about " classificatory " terms of relationship. Among many peoples the terms or names which with us denote relationships of consanguinity or affinity, such as Father, Mother, Brother, Sister, Son, Daughter, Husband, Wife, are applied both to the individuals actually consanguineous in these degrees, and also to all the other persons in the speaker's own main exogamous division or phratry who are of the same " age-grade " and social status as the Father, Mother, Brother, Sister, Son, Daughter, Husband, Wife, and so forth. As a man thus calls all the women whom he might legally have married by the same term as Re calls his wife, and calls all children of persons of his own " age-grade," class and status by the same name as he calls his own children, many theorists hold this to be a proof of the origin of the nomenclature " in a system of group marriage in which groups of men exercised marital rights over groups of women, and the limitation of one wife to one husband was unknown. Such a system would explain very simply why every man gives the name of wife to a whole group of women, and every woman gives the name of husband to a whole group of men," and so on with all such collective terms of relationship.1 Certainly this is a very simple explanation. But if we wished to explain why every Frenchman applies the name which he gives to his " wife " (femme) to every " woman " in the world, it would be rather simpler than satisfactory to say that this nomenclature arose when the French people lived in absolute sexual promiscuity. The same reasoning applies to English " wife," German Weib, meaning " woman," and so on in many languages. Moreover the explanation, though certainly very simple, is not " the only reasonable and probable explanation." Suppose that early man, as in a hypothesis of Darwin's, lived, not in large local tribes with the present polity of such tribes in Australia, but in " cyclopean families," where the sire con- trolled his female mates and offspring; and suppose that he, from motives of sexual jealousy, and love of a quiet life, forbade amours between his sons and daughters. Suppose such a society to reach the dimensions of a tribe. The rules that applied to brothers and sisters, mothers and sons, would persist, and the original names for persons in such relationships in the family would be extended, in the tribe, to all persons of the same status: new terms being adopted, or old terms extended, to cover new social relationships created by social laws in a wider society. Another Theory of the Origin of Totemism and Exogamy. — How this would happen may be seen in studying the other hypothesis 1 Totemism, \. 304. of exogamy and totemism.2 Man was at first, as Darwin sup- posed, a' jealous brute who expelled his sons from the neighbour- hood of his women; he thus secured the internal peace of his. fire circle; there were no domestic love-feuds. The sons there- fore of necessity married out — were exogamous. As man became more human, a son was permitted to abide among his kin, but he had to capture a mate from another herd (exogamy). The groups received sobriquets from each other, as Emu, Frog, and so forth, a fact illustrated copiously in the practice of modern and English and ancient Hebrew villages.* The rule was now that marriage must be outside of the local group-name. Frog may not marry Frog, or Emu, Emu. The usual savage superstition which places all folk in mystic rapport with the object from which their names are derived gradually gave a degree of sanctity to Emu, Frog and the rest. They became totems. Perhaps the captured women in' group Emu retained and bequeathed to their children their own group-names; the children were Grubs, Ants, Snakes, &c. in Emu group. Let two such groups, Emu and Kangaroo, tired of fighting for women, make peace with connubium, then we have two phra- tries, exogamous and intermarrying, Emu and Kangaroo, with totem kins within them. (Another hypothesis is necessary if the original rule of all was, as among the Uraburtha and other tribes, that each totem kin mustmarryout of itself into only one other totem kin.4 But we are not sure of the fact of one totem to one totem marriage.) In short, the existence of the two main exogamous divisions in a tribe is the result of an alliance of two groups, already exogamous and intermarrying, not of a deliberate dissection of a promiscuous horde.6 The first objection to this system is that it is not held by observers on the spot, such as Mr Howett and Mr Spencer. But while all the observed facts of these observers are accepted (when they do not contradict their own statements, or are not corrected by fresh observations), theorists are not bound to accept the hypotheses of the observers. Every possible respect is paid to facts of observation. Hypotheses as to a stage of society which no man living has observed may be accepted as freely from Darwin as from Howitt, Spencer and L. Morgan. It is next objected that " the only ground for denying that the elaborate marriage-system" (systems?) "of the Australian aborigines has been devised by them for the purpose which it actually serves, appears to be a preconceived idea that these savages are incapable of thinking out and putting in practice a series of checks on marriage so intricate that many civilized persons lack either the patience or the ability to understand them . . . The truth is that all attempts to trace the origin and growth of human institutions without the intervention of human intelligence and will are radically vicious and foredoomed to failure."* But nobody is denying that the whole set of Australian systems of marriage is the result of human emotions, intelligence and will. Nobody is denying that, in course of time, the aborigines have thought out and by successive steps have elaborated their systems. The only questions are, what were the human motives and needs which, in the first instance, set human intelligence and will to work in these directions; and how, in the first instance, did they work? The answers given to these questions are purely and inevitably hypothetical, whether given by observers or by cloistered students. It is objected, as to the origin of totemism, that too much influence is given to accident, too little to design. The answer is that " accident " plays a great part in all evolution, and that, 5 Lang and Atkinson, Social Origins and Primal Law. Lang, Secret of the Totem. 3 Lang, Social^ Origins and Secret of the Totem. 4 Anthropological Essays, pp. 206-209. 6 This theory, already suggested by the Rev. J. Mathew, and Mr Daniel McLennan, occurred independently to M. Van Gennep, who, in Mythes it leeendes d'Australie, suppressed his chapter on it, after reading The Secret of the Totem. The conclusions were almost identical with those of that work (Op. cit. pp. vi. xxxiv.). The details of the evolution, which are many, may be found in Social Origins and Primal Law, and revised in The Secret of the Totem. 6 Totemism, i. 280, 281. TOTEMISM in the opposed theory, the existence and actual exogamous function of totems is also accidental, arising from ignorance and a peculiar superstition. It is urged that no men would accept a nickname given from without by hostile groups. This is answered by many examples of cases in which tribes, clans, political parties, and, of course, individuals, have accepted sobriquets from without, and even when these were hostile and derisive.1 It is asked, Why, on this theory, are there but two exogamous divisions in the tribe? The reply is that in America there may be three or more: that in the Urabunna there are as many exogamous divisions (dual) as there are totems, and that these, like the main exogamous divisions, go in pairs, because marriage is between two contracting parties.2 It is maintained in this theory that Australian blacks, who are reflective and by no means illogical men, have long ago observed that certain marriages are rigorously barred by their social system, for no obvious reason. Thus a man learns that he must not marry in his own main exogamous division, say Eagle Hawk. He must choose a wife from the opposite division, Crow. She must belong to a certain set of women in Crow, whose tribal status is precisely that, in Crow, of his own sisters, and his " little sisters " (the women of his sister's status) in Eagle Hawk. The reflective tribesman does not know why these rules exist. But he perceives that the marriageable women in his own main division bear the same title as his sisters by blood. He therefore comes to the conclusion that they are all what his own sisters manifestly are, " too near flesh," as the natives say in English; and that the purpose of the rule is to bar marriage to him with all the women who bear the name " sisters " that denotes close consanguinity. Presently he thinks that other kinsfolk, actual, or bearing the same collective title as actual kinsfolk of his, are also " too near flesh," and he goes on to bar them till he reaches the eight class model; or like some south-eastern tribes, drops the whole cumbrous scheme in favour of one much like our own. The reflective savage, in short, acts exactly as the Church did when she extended to cousins the pre-existing Greek and Roman prohibitions against the marriages of very near kin; and, again, extended them still further, to exclude persons not consanguineous at all but called by the same title as real consanguines, " father," " mother " and " child " in " gossipred " — godfather, godmother, godchild. The savage and ecclesiastical processes are parallel and illustrate each other. Probably when a tribe with two main exogamous and intermarrying divisions came into existence in the way which we have indicated, the names used in families for father, mother, daughter, son, husband, wife, brother, sister, were simply extended so as to include, in each case, all persons in the tribe who were now of the same status, socially, with the same rights, restrictions and duties, as had been theirs in the fire-circle before the tribe was made a tribe by the union of two exogamous and previously hostile intermarrying local groups; or two sets of such groups. The process is natural; the wide extension now given to old names of relationships saved the trouble of making new names. Thus we have found a reasonable and probable way of accounting for classificatory terminology without adopting the hypothesis that it arose out of " group- marriage " and asking " But how did group-marriage arise?" There is no accident here, all is deliberate and reflective design, beginning with the purely selfish and peace-loving design of the jealous sire. Meanwhile the totemic prohibition, " no marriage in the same totem name," has been retained and expanded even beyond the tribe, and " however remote the hunting grounds " of two persons, they may not intermarry if their totem name be the same. Such are the two chief opposed theories of the origins of exogamy, and of the connexions of exogamy with totemism. The second does not enjoy the benefit of notice and criticism in Mr Frazer's Totemism. 1 The Secret of the Totem, pp. 128, 13,1. * For other arguments explaining the duality of the divisions see Van Gennep, ut supra, p. xxxiv. and note I. Relations of the Social and Religious Aspects of Totemism. — It is a curious fact (if it be accepted as a fact) that the social aspect of totemism — the prohibition to marry a person of the same hereditary totem name — is sometimes strongest where the " religious " prohibition against killing or eating the totem is weakest; while the highest regard is paid to the totem, or to the god which is supposed to inhabit the totem species, where there is no prohibition on marrying within the totem name. Thus in Australia, where (except in the centre, among the Arunta) almost all tribes prohibit marriages within the totem name, it is scarcely possible to find an instance in which irreligious treatment of the totem, killing or eating it, is (as among many other totemic peoples) thought to be automatically or " reli- giously " punished by illness, death or miscarriage. Religion, in these cases, does not hold that the injured majesty of the totem avenges itself on the malefactor. On the other hand the Samoans, who pay no regard to the sacred animal of each community in the matter of not marrying within his name, believe that he will inflict death if one of his species be eaten — and if no expiatory rite be performed.3 In Samoa, we saw, the so-called totem is the vehicle of a God; in Australia no such idea is found. Meanwhile the offence of marrying within the totem name is nowhere automatically punished in any way except among the American Navajos, where, to make certain, the totem kin also inflicts secular penalties;4 and it is part of the magic of the Intichiuma rites for the behoof of the totem that his kin should eat of him sparingly, as on all occasions they may do. In all other quarters, where marriage within the totem kin is forbidden, the penalty of a breach of law has been death or tribal excom- munication. The offence is secular. The Euahlayi, who never marry within the totem name, " may and do eat their hereditary totems with no ill effects to themselves." 6 This is very common in South Australia. As a rule, however, in Australia some respect is paid to the actual plant or animal, and some Northern tribes who inherit the paternal totem respect it almost as much as the maternal totem. As they also inherit property in the maternal line, it seems clear that they have passed from female to male descent, as regards the totem, but not as regards inheritance.6 Male and Female Descent of the Totem. — It was the almost universal opinion of anthropologists that, in the earliest totemic societies, the totem was inherited from the mother, and that inheritance from the father was a later development. But when the peculiar totemism of the Arunta was discovered, and it was desired to prove that this non-exogamous totemism was the most primitive extant, it was felt to be a difficulty that the Arunta reckon descent of everything hereditable in the male, not the female line. If then, the Arunta were not primitive but advanced, in this matter as well as in their eight sub-classes and ceremonies, how could their totemism be primitive? It would have been easy to reply that a people might be " primitive " in some details though advanced in others — the fact is notorious. But to escape from the dilemma the idea was proposed that neither male nor female descent was more primitive than the other. One tribe might begin with male, one with female descent. Nobody can prove that it was not so, but " whereas evidence of the passage from female to male reckoning may be observed, there is virtually none of a change in the opposite direction." 7 Thus the Worgaia and Northern neighbours of the Arunta, with male descent, have certainly passed through a system of female descent of the totem, and actually inherit property in the female line, while Strehlow's Aranda or Arunta inherit their mothers' totems. Moreover Howitt shows us at least one tribe 8 Turner, Samoa, p. 31, sqq. 4 Bourke, Snake Dance of the Moquis, p. 279. 6 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe, p. 279. 6 See for Worgaia and Warramunga reverence of the mother's totem, though they inherit the father's, Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes, p. 166. That these tribes, though reckoning descent in the paternal line, inherit property in the maternal is certain, see pp. 523, 524- 'Thomas, ut supra, p. 15. TOTEMISM with female descent, the Dieri, actually in the process of diverging from female to male descent of the totem. " A step further is when a man gives his totem name to his son, who then has those of both father and mother. This has been done even in the Dieri tribe," which appears to mean that it is also done in other tribes.1 A difficult case in marriage law is explained by saying that " possibly some man, as is sometimes the case, gave his Murdu (totem) to his son, who was then of two Murdus, and so could not marry a girl of one of his two totems." 2 We thus see how the change from female to male descent of the totem is " directly led to," as Mr Howitt says,3 by a man's mere fatherly desire to have his son made a member of his own totem kin. On the other hand, we never read that with male descent of the totem a mother gives hers to son or daughter. All these facts make it hard to doubt (though absolute proof is necessarily impossible) that female everywhere preceded male descent of the totem. Proof of transition from female to male descent of the totem appears to be positive in some tribes of the south of South Australia. Among them each person inherits his mother's totem, and may not marry a woman of the same. But he also inherits his father's totem, which " takes precedence," and gives its name to the local group. No person, as apparently among the Dieri when a father has " given his totem " to a son, may marry into either his father's or his mother's totem kin (Mrs Bates). Thus we have a consecutive series of evolutions: (a) All inherit the maternal totem only, and must not marry within it. This is the rule in tribes of south-east Australia with female descent, (b) Some fathers in this society give their totems to sons, who already inherit their maternal totems. Such sons can marry into neither the paternal nor maternal totems. This was a nascent rule among the Dieri. (c) All inherit both the paternal and the maternal totem, and may marry into neither (southern South Australia), (d) All inherit the religious regard for the maternal totem, but may marry within it, while they may not marry within the paternal totem (Worgaia and Warramunga of north central Australia), (e) The paternal totem alone is religiously regarded, and alone is exogamous (tribes of south- east Australia with male descent). (/) The totem is neither hereditary on either side nor exogamous (Spencer's Arunta). (g) The maternal totem is hereditary and sacred, but not exogamous (Strehlow's Arunta). In this scheme we give the degrees by which inheritance of the totem from the mother shades into inheritance of the totem from both parents (Dieri) , thence to inheritance of both the maternal and paternal totem while the paternal alone regulates marriage (Worgaia and Warramunga), thence to exclusive inheritance of the paternal, without any regard paid to the maternal totem (some tribes of South Australia) , and so on. Meanwhile we hear of no tribe with paternal descent of the totem in which mothers are giving their own totems also to their children. We cannot expect to find more powerful presumptions in favour of the opinion that tribes having originally only maternal have advanced by degrees to only paternal descent of the totem. Mr Frazer says, " So far as I am aware, there is no evidence that any Australian tribe has exchanged maternal for paternal descent, and until such evidence is forthcoming we are justified in assuming that those tribes which now trace descent from the father formerly traced it from the mother."4 We have now provided, however, the evidence for various transitional stages from maternal to paternal descent, but have found no traces of the contrary process, nor more than one way of interpreting the facts. It is admitted by Mr Frazer that in several North American tribes the change from female to male descent has to all appearance been made.6 Among the Delawares the initial process was much akin to that of the Dieri, who, in a tribe of female descent, " gives " his own totem to his sons. " The Delawares had a practice of sometimes naming a child into its father's clan," and a son thus became a member of his father's 1 N.T.S.E.A. p. 284. * Ibid. p. 167. ' Ibid. p. 284. ' Totemism, \. 317. ' Ibid. iii. 42, 58, 72, 80. clan. This " may very well have served to initiate a change of descent from the female to the male line."6 Howitt says pre- cisely the same thing about the paternal practice of the Dieri. Thus there is no reason for denying that the change from female to male descent can be made by Australian as readily as by American tribes. We have given evidence for every step in the transition. The opposite opinion arose merely in an attempt to save the primitiveness of the Arunta, some of whom actually still make the maternal totem hereditary. The change to male descent is socially very important. The totem kin of a man, for example, takes up his blood feud. Where the descent is female a " man may probably have some (totemic) kinsmen in the same group, but equally a considerable number of members of other totem kins." But it is clear that the rule of male descent gives far greater security to the members of a local group; for they are surrounded by kinsmen, local totem groups only occurring where male descent of the totem prevails, or is predominant.7 The change from female to male descent of the totem, or the adoption of male descent from the first (if if ever occurred) is thus a great social advantage. The Ways out of Totemism. — While Howitt believed (though later he wavered in his opinion) that female had always preceded male descent of the totem, he also observed that with male descent came in abnormal developments. One of these is that the people of a district with male descent are often known by the name of the region, or of some noted object therein (say wild cherries).8 They may even regard (or white observers suppose that they regard) some object as their " local totem," yet they marry within that so-called totem. But they take to marrying, not out of the hereditary totem kin, which becomes obsolescent, but out of their own region into some other given locality. Thus in the Kurnai tribe there were no inevitable hereditary totems, but thundung were given by the fathers to lads" when about ten years old or at initiation." 9 The animal thundung(tlder brother) was to protect the boy, or girl (the girl's thundung was 'called banung). The names of the creatures, in each case, appear to have been given to their human brothers and sisters; the thundung name descended to a man's sons. " The names are perpetuated " (under male descent) " from- generation to generation in the same locality."10 Thus it appears that when a Kurnai wishes to marry he goes to a locality where he finds girls of banung names into which he may lawfully wed. So far he seems, in fact, to practise totemic exogamy; that he has to travel to a particular locality is merely an accident. Though the thundung and banung names are not inherited at birth by the children, they are given by the father when the child is old enough to need them.11 On the whole, we seem to see, in tribes where male descent is of old standing, that the exogamous function of the totem becomes obsolete, but a shadow of him, as thundung, retains a sort of " religious " aspect and even an unappreciated influence in marriage law. In Fiji and Samoa, in Melanesia w and British New Guinea, many types of contaminated and variegated survivals of totem- ism may be studied. In the Torres Islands13 hero-worship blends with totemic survivals. As in parts of South Africa, where a tribe, not a kin, has a sacred animal, as in Fiji, he seems to be the one survivor of many totems, the totem of some dominant local • Totemism, iii. 42. 7 Except among the Arunta, where, though totems come by change, local groups are usual. See Spencer and Gillen, Central Tribes, p. g. How this occurs we can only guess. See Folk Lore, vol. xx., No. 2, pp. 229-231. Here it is conjectured that adults of the totem congregate for the purpose of convenience in performing Intich''.uma, or magical services for the propagation of the totem as an article of food. For the nature of these rites, common in the central and northern but unknown to the south-eastern tribes, see Central Tribes, pp. 167-212, and Northern Tribes, pp. 283-320. The Arunta totem aggregates are magical local societies. 8 Central Tribes, pp. 8, 9. ' N.T.S.E.A. p. 146. 10 Ibid. p. 146. u Cf. Howitt, ibid. pp. 270-279. 12 Rivers, " Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia," Journ. Anthrop. Inst. vol. xxxix. 13 Haddon, Cambridge Expedition, vol. v. TOTEMISM 89 totem group, before which the other totems have fled, or but dimly appear, or are vehicles of gods, or, in Africa, of ancestral spirits. (These African tribal sacred animals are called Siboko1.) Some tribes explain that the Siboko originated in an animal sobrique, as ape, crocodile, given from without.2 Sibokoism, the presence of a sacred animal in a local tribe, can hardly be called toteraism, though it is probable that the totem of the leading totem kin, among several such totem kins in a tribe, has become dominant, while the others have become obsolete. On the Gold Coast of Africa as long ago as 1819, Bowdich 3 found twelve " families," as he called them, of which most were called by the name of an animal, plant or other object, more or less sacred to them. They might not marry a person of the same kindred name, and there can be little doubt that totemism, with exogamy, had been the rule. But now the rules are broken down, especially in the peoples of the coast. The survivals and other informa- tion may be found in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute (1906) xxxvi. 178, 188. There are fainter traces of totemism in the Awemba between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Bangweolo. 4 A somewhat vague account of Bantu totems in British East Africa, by Mr C. W. Hobley, indicates that among exogamous " clans " a certain animal is forbidden as food to each " clan." 6 The largest collection of facts about African totemism, from fresh and original sources, is to be found in Mr Frazer's book. For totemism in British Columbia the writings of Mr Hill Tout may be consulted.6 The Thlinkit tribes have the institution in what appears to be its earliest known form, with two exogamous phratries and female descent. Among the Salish tribes " per- sonal " totems are much more prominent. Mr Hill Tout, with Professor F. Boas, considers the hereditary exogamous totem to have its origin in the non-exogamous personal totem, which is acquired in a variety of ways. The Salish are not exogamous, and have considerable property and marked distinctions of rank. It does not, therefore, appear probable that their system of badges or crests and personal totems is more primitive than the totemic rules of the less civilized Thlinkits, who follow the form of the south-east Australian tribes.7 Other very curious examples of what we take to be aberrant and decadant totemism in New Guinea are given by Mr Selig- mann (Man, 1908, No. 89), and by Dr Rivers for Fiji (Man, 1908, No. 75). Mr Seligmann (Man, 1908, No. 100) added to the information and elucidated his previous statements. The " clans " in British south-east New Guinea usually bear geo- graphical names, but some are named after one of the totems in the " clan." " Every individual in the clan has the same linked totems," of which a bird, in each case, and a fish seem to be predominant and may not be eaten. " The clans are exogamous . . . and descent is in the female line." It appears, then, that a man, having several totems, all the totems in his " clan," must marry a woman of another " clan " who has all the totems of her " clan." Similar multiplicity of totems, each individual having a number of totems, is described in Western Australia (Mrs Bates). In this case the word " totem " seems to be used rather vaguely and the facts require elucidation and verification. In this part of Australia, as in Fiji8 "pour la naissance . . . 1'apparition du totem-animal avait toujours lieu." In Fiji the mother sees the animal, which does not affect conception, and " is merely an omen for the child already conceived." But in Western Australia, as we have seen, the husband dreams of an animal, which is supposed to follow him home, and to be the next child borne by his wife If it is correctly stated that when the husband has dreamed of no animal, while nevertheless his wife has a baby, the husband spears the man whom he suspects of having dreamed of an animal, the marital jealousy 1 Frazer, " Totemism, South Africa," Man (1901), No. Hi. 2 See Secret of the Totem, pp. 25, 26. 3 Mission to Ashanti. 4 Journ. Anthrop. Inst. (1906), xxxvi. 154. 6 Ibid. (1903), xxxiii. 346-348. " Ibid. (1903-1904). 7 See discussion in Secret of the Totem for details and references. 8 Pere Schmidt, Man (1908), No. 84, quoting Pere de Marzan, Anthrapos, ii. 400-405. takes an unusual form and human life becomes precarious. But probably the husband has some reason for the direction of his suspicions. He never suspects a woman. " The Banks' Islanders," says Mr Frazer, " have retained the primitive system of conceptional totemism." 9 On the other hand Dr Rivers, who is here our authority, writes " totemism is absent " from " the northern New Hebrides, the Banks' and the Terres groups." 10 In a place where totemism is absent it does not prima facie seem likely that we shall discover " the primitive system of conceptional totemism." The Banks' Islanders have no totemism at all. But they have a certain superstition applying to certain cases, and that superstition resembles Arunta and Loritja beliefs, in which Mr Frazer finds the germs of totemism. The superstition, however, has not produced any kind of totemism in the Banks' group of isles, at least, no totemism is found. " There are," writes Dr Rivers, " beliefs which would seem to furnish the most natural starting-point for totemism, beliefs which Dr Frazer has been led by the Australian evidence " (by part of the Australian evidence, we must say) " to regard as the origin of the institution." Thus, in Banks' Islands we have the starting-point of the institution, without the institution itself, and in many Australian tribes we have the institution — without the facts which are " the most natural starting-point." As far as they go these circumstances look as if " the most natural " were not the actual starting-point. The facts are these: in the Isle of Mota, Banks' group, " many individuals " are under a tabu not to eat, in each case, a certain animal or fruit, or to touch certain trees, because, in each case, " the person is believed to be the animal or fruit in question." This tabu does not, as in totemism, apply to every individual; but only to those whose mothers, before the birth of the indivi- duals, " find an animal or fruit in their loin-cloths." This, at least, " is usually " the case. No other cases are given. The women, in each case, are informed that their child " will have the qualities of the animal " (or fruit) " or even, it appeared would be himself or herself the animal " (or fruit). A coco-nut or a crocodile, a flying fox or a brush turkey, could not get inside a loin-cloth; the animal and fruits must be of exiguous dimensions. When the animal (or fruit) disappears " it is believed that it is because the animal has at the time of its dis- appearance entered into the woman. It seemed quite clear that there was no belief in physical impregnation on the part of the animal nor of the entry of a material object in the form of the animal . . , but, so far as I could gather, an animal found in this way was regarded as more or less supernatural, a spirit animal and not one material, from the beginning." " There was no ignorance of the physical r61e of the human father, and the father played the same part in conception as in cases unaccompanied by an animal appearance." The part played by the animal or fruit is limited to producing a tabu against the child eating it, in each case, and some community of nature with the animal or fruit. Nothing here is hereditary. The superstition resembles some of those of the Arunta, Loritja and Euahlayi. Among the Euahlayi the superstition has no influence; normal totemism prevails; among the Arunta nation it is considered to be, and Dr Rivers seems to think that it is, likely to have been the origin of totemism. In Mota, however, it either did not produce totemism, or it did; and, where the germ has survived in certain cases, the institution has disappeared — while the germinal facts have vanished in the great majority of totemic societies. Dr Rivers does not explain how a brush turkey, a sea snake or a flying fox can get into a woman's loin-cloth, yet these animals, also crabs, are among those tabued in this way. Perhaps they have struck the woman's fancy without getting into her loin-cloth. It is scarcely correct to say that " the Banks' Islanders have retained the primitive system of conceptional totemism." They only present, in certain instances, features like those which are supposed to be the germs of a system of conceptional « Man, iv. 128. 10 " Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia," Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xxxix. 173, sqq. 9o TOTEMISM totemism. In the case of the Arunta we have demonstrated that hereditary and exogamous totemism of the normal type preceded the actual conceptional method of acquiring, by local accident, " personal totems." If the Banks' Islanders were ever totemists they have ceased to be so, and merely retain, in cases, a superstition analogous to that which, among the Arunta, with the aid of the stone churinga, has produced the present unique and abnormal state of affairs totemic. For totemism in India, see Dal ton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal; for the north of Asia, Strahlenberg's Description, &c. (1738); and in all instances Mr Frazer's book. Myths of Totem Origins. — The myths of savages about the origin of totemism are of no historical value. Not worshipping ancestral spirits, an Australian will not, like an ancestor- worshipping African, explain his totem as an ancestral spirit. But where, as in the north and centre, he has an elaborate philosophy of spirits, there the primal totems exude spirits which are incarnated in women. In their myths as to the origin of totemism, savages vary as much as the civilized makers of modern hypotheses. Some claim descent from the totem object; others believe that an original race of animals peopled the world; animals human in character, but bestial, vegetable, astral or what not, in form. These became men, while retaining the rapport with their original species; or their spirits are continually reincarnated in women and are born again (Arunta of Messrs Spencer and Gillen); or spirits emanating from the primal forms, or from objects in nature, as trees or rocks, connected with them, enter women and are reincarnated (Arunta of Mr Strehlow and some Australian north-western tribes, studied by Mrs Bates). Other Australians believe that the All-Father, Baiame, gave totems and totemic laws to men.1 There are many other explana- tory myths wherever totemism, or vestiges thereof, is found in Australia, Africa, America and Asia. All the myths of savages, except mere romantic Marchen, and most of the myths of peoples who, like the Greeks, later became civilized, are " aetiological," that is, are fanciful hypotheses made to account for everything, from the universe, the skies, the sun, the moon, the stars, fire, rites and ceremonies, to the habits and markings of animals. It is granted that almost all of these fables are historically valueless, but an exception has been made, by scholars who believe that society was deliberately reformed by an act bisecting a tribe into two exogamous divisions, for savage myths which hit on the same explanation. We might as well accept the savage myths which hit on other explanations, for example the theory that Sibokoism arose from animal sobriquets. Exceptions are also made for Arunta myths in which the primal ancestors are said to feed habitually if not exclusively on their own totems. But as many totems, fruit, flowers, grubs, and so on are only procurable for no longer than the season of the May-fly or the March-brown, these myths are manifestly fabulous. Again the Arunta primal ancestors are said to have cohabited habitually with women of their own totem, though without prejudice against women of other totems whom they encountered in their wanderings. These myths are determined by the belief in oknanikilla, or spots haunted by spirits all of one totem, which, again, determine the totem of every Arunta. The idea being that the fabled primal ancestors male and female in each wandering group of miracle-workers were always all of one totem, it follows that, if not celibate, which these savages never are, they must have cohabited with women of their own totem, and, by the existing Arunta system, there is no reason why they should not have done so. In no other field of research is historical value attributed to savage legends about the inscrutable past that lies behind existing institutions. We are thus confronted by an institution of great importance socially where it regulates marriages and the blood-feud, or where it is a bond of social union between kinsmen in the totem or members of a society which does magic for the behoof 1 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe. of its totem (central and north-western Australia), and is of some " religious " and mythical importance when, as in Samoa, the sacred animal is regarded as the vehicle of a god. Of the origin of these beliefs, which have practical effects in the evolution of society and religion, much, we saw, is conjectured, but as we know no race in the act of becoming totemic — as in all peoples which we can study totemism is an old institution, and in most is manifestly decaying or being transmuted — we can only form the guesses of which examples have been given. Others may be found in the works of Herbert Spencer and Lord Avebury, and criticisms of all of them may be read in A. Lang's Social Origins. Whether or not survivals of totems are to be found in the animal worship of ancient Egypt, in the animal attendants of Greek gods, in Greek post-Homeric legends of descent from gods in various bestial disguises, and in certain ancient Irish legends, it is impossible to be certain, especially as so many gods are now explained as spirits of vegetation, to which folk-lore assigns carnal forms of birds and beasts. ^ Other Things called Totems.— As has been said, the name " totem " is applied by scholars to many things in nature which are not hereditary and exogamous totems. The " local totem " (so called) has been mentioned, also " linked totems." Personal Totems. — This is the phrase for any animal or other object which has been " given " to a person as a protective familiar, whether by a sorcerer 2 or by a father, or by a congress of spaewives at birth; or whether the person selects it for him- self, by the monition of a dream or by caprice. The Euahlayi call the personal totem Yunbeai, the true totem they style Dhe. They may eat their real but not their personal totems, which answer to the hares and black cats of our witches. Three or four other examples of tribes in which " personal totems " are " given " to lads at initiation are recorded by Howitt.3 The custom appears to be less common in Australia than in America and Africa (except in South Australia, where people may have a number of " personal totems "). In one case the " personal totem " came, to a man in a dream, as in North America.4 Here it may be noted that the simplest and appar- ently the easiest theory of the origin of totemism is merely to suppose that a man, or with female descent a woman, made his or her personal totem hereditary for ever in his or her descendants. But nobody has explained how it happened that while all had evanescent personal totems those of a few individuals only become stereotyped and hereditary for ever. Sex-Totems. — The so-called " sex totem " is only reported in Australia. Each sex is supposed by some tribes to have its patron animal, usually a bird, and to injure the creature is to injure the sex. When lovers are backward the women occasion- ally kill the animal patron of the men, which produces horse- play, and " a sort of jolly fight," like sky-larking and flirtation.5 The old English " jolly kind of fight," between girls as partisans of ivy, and men as of the holly " sex-totem," is a near analogue. It need not be added that " sex-totems " are exogamous, in the nature of things. Sub-Totems. — This is the name of what are also styled " multi- plex totems," that is, numerous objects claimed for their own by totem kins in various Australian regions. The Emu totem kin, among the Euahlayi tribe, claims as its own twenty-three animals and the north-west wind.6 The whole universe, including mankind, was apparently .divided between the totem kins. Therefore the list of sub-totems might be extended indefinitely.7 These " sub-totems " are a savage effort at universal classification. Conclusion. — We have now covered the whole field of con- troversy as to the causes and origins of totemic institutions. Australia, with North America, provides the examples of those institutions which seem to be " nearest to the beginning," and in Australia the phenomena have been most carefully and 2 TJie Euahlayi Tribe, p. 21. * Ibid. p. 154. 6 The Euahlayi Tribe, p. I *.. 7 N.T.S.E.A. p. 454. 3 N.T.S.E.A. pp. 144-148. 6 Ibid. pp. 148-151. TOTILA— TOTNES 91 elaborately observed among peoples the least sophisticated. In, North America most that we know of many great tribes, Iroquois, Hurons, Delawares and others, was collected long ago, and when precision was less esteemed, while the tribes have been much contaminated by our civilization. It has been unavoidably necessary to criticize, at almost every stage, the conclusions and hypotheses of the one monumental collection of facts and theories, Mr Frazer's Totemism (1910). Persons who would pursue the subject further may consult the books mentioned in the text, and they will find a copious, perhaps an exhaustive bibliography in the references of Mr Frazer's most erudite volumes, with their minute descriptive account not only of the totemism, but of the environment and general culture of hundreds of human races, in Savagery and in the Lower and Higher Barbarism. (A. L.) TOTILA (d. 552), king of the Ostrogoths, was chosen king after the death of his uncle Ildibad in 541, his real name being, as is seen from the coinage issued by him, Baduila. The work of his life was the restoration of the Gothic kingdom in Italy and he entered upon the task at the very beginning of his reign, collecting together and inspiring the Goths and winning a victory over the troops of the emperor Justinian, near Faenza. Having gained another victory in 542, this time in the valley of Mugello, he left Tuscany for Naples, captured that city and then received the submission of the provinces of Lucania, Apulia and Calabria. Totila's conquest of Italy was marked not only by celerity but also by mercy, and Gibbon says " none were deceived, either friends or enemies, who depended on his faith or his clemency." Towards the end of 545 the Gothic king took up his station at Tivoli and prepared to starve Rome into surrender, making at the same time elaborate preparations for checking the progress of Beli- sarius who was advancing to its relief. The Imperial fleet, moving up the Tiber and led by the great general, only just failed to succour the city, which must then, perforce, open its gates to the Goths. It was plundered, although Totila did not carry out his threat to make it a pasture for cattle, and when the Gothic army withdrew into Apulia it was from a scene of desola- tion. But its walls and other fortifications were soon restored, and Totila again marching against it was defeated by Belisarius, who, however, did not follow up his advantage. Several cities were taken by the Goths, while Belisarius remained inactive and then left Italy, and in 549 Totila advanced a third time against Rome, which he captured through the treachery of some of its defenders. His next exploit was the conquest and plunder of Sicily, after which he subdued Corsica and Sar- dinia and sent a Gothic fleet against the coasts of Greece. By this time the emperor Justinian was taking energetic measures to check the Goths. The conduct of a new campaign was entrusted to the eunuch Narses; Totila marched against him and was defeated and killed at the battle of Tagina in July 552- See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, edited by J. B. Bury (1898), vol. iv; T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (1896), vol. iv. and Kampfner, Totila, Konig der Ostgoten (1889). TOTNES, GEORGE CAREW, or CAREY, EARL OF (1555-1629), English politician and writer, son of Dr George Carew, dean of Windsor, a member of a well-known Devonshire family, and Anne, daughter of Sir Nicholas Harvey, was born on the 29th of May I555,1 and was educated at Broadgates Hall, Oxford, where he took the degree of M.A. in 1588. He distinguished himself on the field on several occasions and filled important military commands in Ireland. In 1584 he was appointed gentleman- pensioner to Queen Elizabeth, whose favour he gained. In 1586 he was knighted -in Ireland. Refusing the embassy to France, Sir George Carew was made master of the ordnance in Ireland in 1588, in 1590 Irish privy councillor; and in 1592 lieutenant- general of the ordnance in England, in which capacity he accompanied Essex in the expedition to Cadiz in 1596 and to 'According to his own statement, Archaeologia, xii. 401. In the introduction, however, to the Calendar of Carew MSS. the date of his birth is given as 1558, and his admission into Broadgates Hall in 1572, aged 15. In the preface to Carew's Letters to Roe it is given as 1557- the Azores in 1597. In 1598 he attended Sir Robert Cecil, the ambassador, to France. He was appointed treasurer at war to Essex in Ireland in March 1599, and on the latter's sudden departure in September of the same year, leaving the island in disorder, Carew was appointed a lord justice, and in 1600 president of Munster, where his vigorous measures enabled the new lord deputy, Lord Mountjoy, to suppress the rebellion. He returned to England in 1603 and was well received by James I., who appointed him vice-chamberlain to the queen the same year, master of the ordnance in 1608, and privy councillor in 1616; and on the accession of Charles I. he became treasurer to Queen Henrietta Maria in 1626. He sat for Hastings in the parliament of 1604, and on the 4th of June 1605 was created Baron Carew of Clopton, being advanced to the earldom of Totnes on the 5th of February 1626. In 1610 he revisited Ireland to report on the state of the country; and in 1618 pleaded in vain for his friend Sir Walter Raleigh. He died on the 27th of March 1629, leaving no issue. He married Joyce, daughter of William Clopton, of Clopton in Warwickshire. Besides his fame as president of Munster, where his administration forms an important chapter in Irish history, Carew had a consider- able reputation as an antiquary. He was the friend of Camden, of Cotton and of Bodley. He made large collections of materials relating to Irish history and pedigrees, which he left to his secretary, Sir Thomas Stafford, reputed on scanty evidence to be his natural son; while some portion has disappeared, 39 volumes after coming into Laud's possession are now at Lambeth, and 4 volumes in the Bodleian Library. A calendar of the former is included in the State Papers series edited by J. S. Brewer and W. Bullen. His correspondence from Munster with Sir Robert Cecil was edited in 1864 by Sir John Maclean, for the Camden Society, and his letters to Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1617) in 1860. Other letters or papers are in the Record Office; among the MSS. at the British Museum and calendared in the Hist. MSS. Com, Series, Marquess of Salisbury's MSS. Stafford published after Carew's death Pacata Hibernia, or the History of the Late Wars in Ireland (1633), the authorship of which he ascribes in his preface to Carew, but which has been attributed to Stafford himself. This was reprinted in 1810 and re- edited in 1896. A Fragment of the History of Ireland, a translation from a French version of an Irish original, and King Richard II..., in Ireland from the French, both by Carew, are printed in Walter Harris's Hibernica (1757). According to Wood, Carew contributed to the history of the reign of Henry V. in Speed's Chronicle. His opinion on the alarm of the Spanish invasion in 1596 has also been printed. See also the Life of Sir P. Carew, ed. by Sir J. Maclean (1857). TOTNES, a market town and municipal borough in the Totnes parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the Dart, 29 m. S.S.W. of Exeter, by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4035. It stands on the west bank of the river, and is joined by a bridge to the suburb of Bridgetown. It was formerly a walled town, and two of the four gates remain. Many old houses are also preserved, and in High Street their overhanging upper stories, supported on pillars, form a covered way for foot-passengers. The castle, .founded by the Breton Juhel, lord of the manor after the Conquest, was already dismantled under Henry VIII.; but its ivy-clad keep and upper walls remain. The grounds form a public garden. Close by are the remains of St Mary's Priory, which comprise a large Perpen- dicular gatehouse, refectory, precinct wall, abbot's gate and still-house. A grammar school, founded 1554, occupied part of the Priory, but was removed in 1874 to new buildings. The Perpendicular church of St Mary contains a number of interest- ing tombs and effigies dating from the i5th century onwards, and much excellent carved work. The guildhall is formed from part of the Priory. Vessels of 200 tons can lie at the wharves near the bridge. The industries include brewing, flour mill- ing, and the export of agricultural produce, chiefly corn and cider. Trout and salmon are plentiful in the river. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 1423 acres. Totnes ( Toteneis, Tolton) was a place of considerable importance in Saxon times; it possessed a mint in the reign of /Ethelred, and was governed by a portreeve. In the Domesday Survey it appears as a mesne borough under Juhel of Totnes, founder of the castle and priory; it had 95 burgesses within and 15 without the borough, and rendered military service according TOTONICAPAM— TOUCAN to the custom of Exeter. In 1215 a charter from John instituted a gild merchant with freedom from toll throughout the land. A mayor is mentioned in the court roll of 1386-1387, and a charter from Henry VII. in 1505 ordered that the mayor should be elected on St Matthew's day, and should be clerk of the market. The present governing charter was granted by Elizabeth in 1596, and instituted a governing body of a mayor, fourteen masters or councillors, and an indefinite number of burgesses, including a select body called " the Twenty-men." A fresh charter of incorporation from James II. in 1689 made no altera- tions of importance. The borough was represented in parlia- ment by one member in 1295, and by two members from 1298 until disfranchised by the act of 1867. A market on Saturday existed at least as early as 1255, and in 1608 is described as well stocked with provisions. The charter of Elizabeth granted a three days' fair at the feast of SS Simon and Jude (Oct. 28), and in 1608 fairs were also held on May day and at the feast of St James (July 25). The market day has been transferred to Friday, but the May and October fairs are continued. The town was formerly noted for serges, and in 1641 the inhabitants represented their distress owing to the decline of the woollen trade. The industry is now extinct. During the Civil War General Goring quartered his troops at Totnes, and Fairfax also made it his temporary station. See Victoria County History; Devonshire; The History of Totnes, its neighbourhood and Berry Pomeroy Castle (Totnes, 1825); William Cotton, A Graphic and Historical Sketch of the Antiquities of Totnes (London, 1858). TOTONICAPAM, or TOTONICAPAN, the capital of the depart- ment of Totonicapam, Guatemala, on the same high plateau as Quezaltenango, the nearest railway station, from which it is 12 m. E.N.E. Pop. (1905) about 28,000. Totonicapam is inhabited mainly by Quiche Indians, employed in the making of cloth, furniture, pottery and wooden musical instruments. There are hot mineral springs in the neighbourhood. In 1838 Totonicapam was declared an independent republic, in which the adjoining departments of Solola and Quezaltenango were included. This state existed for two years, and was then again merged in the republic of Guatemala. Totonicapam suffered greatly in the earthquake of the i8th of April 1902. TOTTENHAM, an urban district in the Tottenham parlia- mentary division of Middlesex, England, forming a north suburb of London, 65 m. north of London Bridge, adjoining Edmonton on the south. Top. (1901), 102,541. Its full name, not now in use, was Tottenham High Cross, from the cross near the centre of the township. The origin and significance of this cross are doubtful. The present structure was erected c. 1600, and ornamented with stucco in 1809. In the time of Isaak Walton there stood by it a shady arbour to which the angler was wont to resort. Formerly Tottenham was noted for its " greens," in the centre of one of which stood the famous old elm trees called the " Seven Sisters "; these were removed in 1840, but the name is pre- served in the Seven Sisters Road. Bruce castle, on the site of the old mansion of the Bruces, but built probably by Sir William Compton in the beginning of the i6th century, was occupied by a boarding-school founded by Mr (afterwards Sir) Rowland Hill in 1827 on the system instituted by him at Hazle- wood, Birmingham. It became public property in 1892. The church of All Hallows, Tottenham, was given by David, king of Scotland (c.ii26), to the canons of the church of Holy Trinity, London. It retains Perpendicular portions, a south porch of brick of the i6th century and numerous ancient monu- ments and brasses. The grammar school was enlarged and endowed in 1686 by Sarah, dowager duchess of Somerset. The urban district formerly included Wood Green to the west, but this became a separate urban district in 1888 (pop. 34,233). In the reign of Edward the Confessor the manor of Tottenham was possessed by Earl Waltheof . It was inherited by his daughter Maud, who was married first to Simon de St Liz and after- wards to David, son of Malcolm III., king of Scotland, who was created by Henry I. earl of Huntingdon, and received possession of all the lands formerly held by Earl Waltheof. The manor thus descended to William the Lion, king of Scotland, and was granted by him in 1184 to his brother David, earl of Angus and Galloway, the grant being confirmed in 1199 by King John of England, who created him earl of Huntingdon. He married Maud, heiress of Hugh, earl of Chester, and his son John inherited both earldoms. The son married Helen, daughter of Llewelyn, prince of Wales, by whom he was poisoned in 1237, dying without issue. She retained possession till 1254, when the manor was divided between his coheirs Robert de Brus, John de Baliol and Henry de Hastings, each division forming a distinct manor bearing the name of its owner. In 1429 they were reunited in the possession of John Gedeney, alderman of London. William Bedwell, the Arabic scholar, was vicar of Tottenham, and published in 1632 a Briefe Description of the Towne of Tottenham, in which he printed for the first time the burlesque poem, the Turna- ment of Tottenham. TOTTENVILLE, a former village of Richmond county, New York, U.S.A., and since 1898 a part of New York City. It is on the southern shore of Staten Island in New York Bay and on Staten Island Sound, about 20 m. S.W. of the south extremity of Manhattan Island, and is the terminus of the Staten Island Rapid Transit railway. Marine engines, terra-cotta and boats are manufactured here, and there are oyster fisheries. The " Billopp House " here (still standing) was the scene of the con- ference, on the nth of September 1776, between Lord Howe, representing Lord North, and Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and Edward Rutledge, representing the Continental Congress, with regard to Lord North's offer of conciliation. This house, originally called the " Manor of Bentley," was built by Captain Christopher Billopp (1638-1726), who sailed from England in an armed vessel, the " Bentley," in 1667, and, by circumnavigating Staten Island in 24 hours, made it, under the ruling of the duke of York, a part of New York. From the duke of York he received 1163 acres of land, including the present site of Tottenville. The village was long known as Bentley, but in 1869 was incorporated (under a faulty charter, revised in 1894) as Tottenville, apparently in honour of Gilbert Totten, a soldier in the War of Independence. TOUCAN, the Brazilian name of a bird,1 long since adopted into nearly all European languages, and apparently first given currency in England (though not then used as an English word) in 1668 2 by W. Charleton (Onomasticon, p. 115); but the bird, with its enormous beak and feather-like tongue, was described by Oviedo in his Sumario de la historia natural de las Indias, first published at Toledo in 1527 (ch. 42)," and, to quote the translation of part of the passage in F. Willughby's Ornith- ology (p. 1 29) , " there is no bird secures her young ones better from the Monkeys, which are very noisom to the young of most Birds. For when she perceives the approach of those Enemies, she so settles her self in her Nest as to put her Bill out at the hole, and gives the Monkeys such a welcome therewith, that they presently pack away, and glad they scape so." Indeed, so remarkable a bird must have attracted the notice of the earliest European invaders of America, the more so since its gaudy plumage was used by the natives in the decoration of their per- sons and weapons. In 1555 P. Belon (Hist. nat. oyseaux, p. 184) gave a characteristic figure of its beak, and in 1558 Thevet (Singularitez de la France antarctique, pp. 88-90) a long descrip- tion, together with a woodcut (in some respects inaccurate, but quite unmistakable) of the whole bird, under the name of " Toucan," which he was the first to publish. In 1560 C. Gesner (Icones avium, p. 130) gave a far better figure (though 1 Commonly believed to be so called from its cry; but Skeat (Proc. Philolog. Society, May 15, 1885) adduces evidence to prove that the Guarani Tuca is from 11, nose, and cdng, bone, i.e. nose of bone. 2 In 1656 the beak of an " Aracari of Brazil," which was a toucan sf some sort, was contained in the Musaeum tradescantianum (p. 2), out the word toucan does not appear there. 3 The writer has only been able to consult the reprint of this rare work contained in the Biblioteca de autores espanoles (xxii. 473-515), published at Madrid in 1852. TOUCH 93 still incorrect) from a drawing received from Ferrerius, and suggested that from the size of its beak the bird should be called Burhynchus or Ramphestes. This figure, with a copy of Thevet's and a detailed description, was repeated in the posthumous edition (1585) of his larger work (pp. 800, 801). By 1579 Ambroise Pare ((Euvres, ed. Malgaigne, iii. 783) had dissected a toucan that belonged to Charles IX. of France, and about the same time Lery (Voyage fait en la terre du Brisil, ch. xi.), whose chief object seems to have been to confute Thevet, con- firmed that writer's account of this bird in most respects. In 1599 Aldrovandus (Ornithologia, i. 801-803), always ready to profit by Gesner's information, and generally without acknow- ledgment, again described and repeated the former figures of the bird; but he corrupted his predecessor's Ramphestes into Ramphastos, and in this incorrect form the name, which should certainly be Rhamphestes or Rhamphastas, was subsequently adopted by Linnaeus and has since been recognized by system- atists. Into the rest of the early history of the toucan's discovery it is needless to go.1 Additional particulars were supplied by many succeeding writers, until in 1834 J. Gould completed his Monograph of the family2 (with an anatomical appendix by R. Owen), to which, in 1835, he added some supplementary plates; and in 1854 he finished a second and much improved edition. The most complete compendium on toucans is J. Cassin's " Study of the Ramphastidae," in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy for 1867 (pp. 100-124). By recent systematists 5 genera and from 50 to 60 species of the family are recognized; but the characters of the former have never been satisfactorily denned, much less those of numerous subdivisions which it has pleased some writers to invent. There can be little doubt that the bird first figured and described by the earliest authors above named is the R. toco of nearly all ornithologists, and as such is properly regarded as the type of the genus and therefore of the family. It is one of the largest, measuring 2 ft. in length, and has a wide range throughout Guiana and a great part of Brazil. The huge beak, looking like the great claw of a lobster, more than 8 in. long and 3 high at the base, is of a deep orange colour, with a large black oval spot near the tip. The eye, with its double iris of green and yellow, has a broad blue orbit, and is surrounded by a bare space of deep orange skin. The plumage generally is black, but the throat is white, tinged with yellow and commonly edged beneath with red; the upper tail-coverts are white, and the lower scarlet. In other species of the genus, 14 to 17 in number, the bill is mostly particoloured — green, yellow, red, chestnut, blue and black variously combining so as often to form a ready diagnosis; but some of these tints are very fleeting and often leave little or no trace after death. Alternations of the brighter colours are also displayed in the feathers of the throat, breast and tail-coverts, so as to be in like manner characteristic of the species, and in several the bare space round the eye is yellow, green, blue or lilac. The sexes are alike in coloration, the males being largest. The tail is nearly square or moderately rounded. In the genus Pteroglossus, the " Aracaris " (pronounced Arassari), the sexes more or less differ in appearance, and the tail is graduated. The species are smaller in size, and nearly all are banded on the belly, which is generally yellow, with black and scarlet, while except in two the throat of the males at least is black. One of the most remarkable and beautiful is P. beauharnaisi, by some authors placed in a distinct genus and called Beauharnaisius ulocomus. In this the feathers of the top of the head are very singular, looking like glossy curled shavings of black horn or whalebone, the effect being due to the dilatation of the shaft and it? coalescence with the consolidated barbs. Some of the feathers of the straw-coloured throat and cheeks partake of the same structure, but in a less degree, while the subterminal part of the lamina is of a lustrous pearly- white.3 The beak is richly coloured, 1 One point of some interest may, however, be noticed. In 1705 Plot (N.H. Oxfordshire, p. 182) recorded a toucan found within two miles of Oxford in 1644, the body of which was given to the repository in the medical school of that university, where, he said, " it is still to be seen." Already in 1700 Leigh in his Lancashire (i. 195, Birds, tab. i, fig. 2) had figured another which had been found dead on the coast of that county about two years before. The bird is easily kept in captivity, and no doubt from early times many were brought alive to Europe. Besides the one dissected by Par£, as above mentioned, Joh. Faber, in his additions to Hernandez's work on the Natural History of Mexico (1651), figures (p. 697) one seen and described by Puteus (Dal Pozzo) at Fontainebleau. 2 Of this the brothers Sturm in 1841 published at Nuremberg a German version. * This curious peculiarity naturally attracted the notice of the first discoverer of the species, Poeppig, who briefly described it in a letter published in Froriep's Notizen (xxxii. 146) for December 1831. being green and crimson above and lemon below. The upper plumage generally is dark green, but the mantle and rump are crimson, as are a broad abdominal belt, the flanks and many crescentic markings on the otherwise yellow lower parts.4 The group or genus Selenodera, proposed by J. Gould in 1837 (Icones avium, pt. i), contains some 6 or 7 species, having the beak, which is mostly transversely striped, and tail shorter than in Pteroglossus. Here the sexes also differ in coloration, the males having the head and breast black, and the females the same parts chestnut; but all have a yellow nuchal crescent (whence the name of the group). The so-called hill-toucans have been separated as another genus, Andi- gena, and consist of some 5 or 6 species chiefly frequenting the slopes of the Andes and reaching an elevation of 10,000 ft., though one, often placed among them, but perhaps belonging rather to Ptero- glossus, the A. bailloni,_ remarkable for its yellow-orange head, neck and lower parts, inhabits the lowlands of southern Brazil. Another very singular form is A. laminirostris, which has affixed on either side of the maxilla, near the base, a quadrangular ivory-like plate, forming a feature unique in this or almost in any family of birds. The group Aulacorhamphus, or " groove-bills," with a considerable but rather uncertain number of species, contains the rest of the toucans. The monstrous serrated bill that so many toucans possess was by G. L. L. Buffon accounted a grave defect of nature, and it must be confessed that no one has given what seems to be a satisfactory explanation of its precise use, though on evolutionary principles none will now doubt its fitness to the bird's requirements. Solid as it looks, its weight is inconsiderable, and the perfect hinge by which the maxilla is articulated adds to its efficiency as an instrument of prehension. W. Swainson (Classif. Birds, ii. 138) imagined it merely " to contain an infinity of nerves, disposed like net-work, all of which lead immediately to the nostrils," and add to the olfactory faculty. This notion seems to be borrowed from J. W. H. Trail (Trans. Linn. Society, xi. 289), who admittedly had it from Waterton, and stated that it was " an admirable contrivance of nature to increase the delicacy of the organ of smell;" but R. Owen's descrip- tion showed this view to be groundless, and he attributed the extraordinary development of the toucan's beak to the need of com- pensating, by the additional power of mastication thus given, for the absence of any of the grinding structures that are so characteristic of the intestinal tract of vegetable-eating birds — its digestive organs possessing a general simplicity of formation. The nostrils are placed so as to be in most forms invisible until sought, being obscured by the frontal feathers or the backward prolongation of the horny sheath of the beak. The wings are somewhat feeble, and the legs have the toes placed in pairs, two before and two behind. The tail is capable of free vertical motion, and controlled by strong muscles, so that, at least in the true toucans, when the bird is preparing to sleep it is reverted and lies almost flat on the back, on which also the huge bill reposes, pointing in the opposite direction. The toucans are limited to the new world, and by far the greater number inhabit the north of South America, especially Guiana and the valley of the Amazons. Some three species occur in Mexico, and several in Central America. One, R. vitellinus, which has its head- quarters on the mainland, is said to be common in Trinidad, but none are found in the Antilles proper. They compose the family Rham- phastidae of Coraciiform birds, and are associated with the wood- peckers (Picidae) and puff-birds and jacamars (Galbulidae) ; their nearest allies perhaps exist among the Capitonidae, but none of these is believed to have the long feather-like tongue which is so charac- teristic of the toucans, and is, so far as known, possessed besides only by the Momotidae (see MOTMOT). But of these last there is no reason to deem the toucans close relatives, and according to W. Swainson, who had opportunities of observing both, the alleged resemblance in their habits has no existence. Toucans in confine- ment feed mainly on fruit, but little seems amiss to them, and they swallow grubs, reptiles and small birds with avidity. They nest in hollow trees, and lay white eggs. (A. N.) TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teu- tonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw), in physiology, a sense of pressure, referred usually to the surface of the body. It is often understood as a sensation of contact as distinguished from pressure, but it is evident that, however gentle be the contact, a certain amount of pressure always exists between the sensitive surface and the body touched. Mere contact in such circumstances is gentle pressure; a greater amount of force causes a feeling of resistance or of pressure referred to the skin; a still greater amount causes a feeling of muscular resistance, as when a weight is supported on the palm of the hand; whilst, finally, the pressure may be so great as to cause a feeling of pain. The force may not be exerted 4 Readers of F. Bates's Naturalist on the River Amazons will recollect the account (ii. 344) and illustration there given of his encounter with a flock of this species of toucan. His remarks on the other species with which he met are also excellent. 94 TOUCH vertically on the sensory surface, but in the opposite direction as when a hair on a sensory surface is pulled or twisted. Touch is therefore the sense by which mechanical force is appreciated and it presents a strong resemblance to hearing, in which the sensation is excited by intermittent pressures on the auditory organ. In addition to feelings of contact or pressure referred to the sensory surface, contact may give rise to a sensation oi temperature, according as the thing touched feels hot or cold These sensations of contact, pressure or temperature are usually referred to the skin or integument covering the body, but they are experienced to a greater or less extent when any serous or mucous surface is touched. The skin being the chief sensory surface of touch, it is there -that the sense is most highly developed both as to delicacy in detecting minute pressures and as to the character of the surface touched. Tactile impressions, properly so called, are absent from internal mucous surfaces, as has been proved in men having gastric, intestinal and urinary fistulae. In these cases, touching the mucous surface caused pain, and not a true sensation of touch. In the article NERVE (Spinal) the cutaneous distribution of the organs of touch is dealt with. The Amphibia and Reptilia do not show any special organs of touch. The lips of tadpoles have tactile papillae. Some snakes have a pair of tentacles on the snout, but the tongue is probably the chief organ of touch in most serpents and lizards. All reptiles possessing climbing powers have the sense of touch highly developed in the feet. Birds have epithelial papillae on the soles of the toes that are no doubt tactile. These are of great length in the capercailzie (Tetrax •urogallus) , " enabling it to grasp with more security the frosted branches of the Nor- wegian pine trees " (Owen). Around the root of the bill in many birds there are special tactile organs, assist- ing the bird to use it as a kind of sensitive probe for the de- tection in soft ground of the worms, grubs and slugs that constitute its food. Special bodies of this kind have been detected in the beak and tongue of the duck and goose, called the tactile corpuscles of F. S. Merkel, or the corpuscles of Grandry (fig. i). Similar bodies have been found in the epidermis of man and mammals, in the outer root-sheath of tactile hairs or feelers. They consist of small bodies composed of a capsule enclosing two or more flattened nucleated cells, piled in a row. Each corpuscle is separated from the others by a transparent protoplasmic disk. Nerve fibres terminate either in the cells (Merkel) or in the protoplasmic intercellular matter (Ranyier, Hesse, Izquierdo). Another form of end-organ has been described by Herbst as existing in the mucous membrane of the duck's tongue. These corpuscles of Herbst are like small Pacinian corpuscles ^5^==?^ with thin and very close lamellae. Develop- //^S^^O\ ments of integument devoid of feathers, / y^^y^*\\ such as the " wattles " of the cock, the I i J/i-^&ru " caruncles " of the vulture and turkey, \ <£TN»apillae of the tongue, glans penis and clitoris, mucous membrane the rectum of man, and they have also been found on the under surface of the " toes of the guinea-pig, ear and body of he mouse, and in the wing of the bat " (Landois and Stirling). n the genital organs aggregations of end-bulbs occur, known as the " genital corpuscles of Krause " (fig. 3). In the synovial membrane of the joints of the fingers there are larger end-bulbs, :ach connected with three four nerve-filaments. (2) The Touch Corpuscles of Wagner and Meissner. — These are oval bodies, about -j-J^ of an inch long by -gfa of an inch in jreadth. Each consists of a series of layers of connective tissue arranged transversely, and containing in the centre granular matter with nuclei (figs. 2, 3 and 6). One, two or three nerve fibres pass to the lower end of the corpuscle, wind ransversely around it, lose the white substance of Schwann, penetrate into the corpuscle, where the axis cylinders, dividing, :nd in some way unknown. The corpuscles do not contain any soft core, but are apparently built up of irregular septae f connective tissue, in the meshes of which the nerve fibrils end in expansions similar to Merkel's cells. Thin describes imple and compound corpuscles according to the number of nerve fibres entering them. These bodies are found abundantly TOUCH 95 in the palm of the hand and sole of the foot, where there may be as many as 21 to every square millimetre (i mm. = •5*5 inch). They are not so numerous on the back of the hand or foot, mamma, lips and tip of the tongue, and they are rare in the genital organs. 3. The Corpuscles of Vater or P acini. — These, first described by Vater so long ago as 1741, are small oval bodies, quite visible to the naked eye, from iV to iV of an inch long and i (From Landois and Stirling, after Biesiadecki.) FIG. 6. — Vertical Section of the Skin of the Palm of the Hand. a. Blood-vessel. b, Papilla of the cutis vera. c. Capillary. d, Nerve-fibre passing to a touch- corpuscle. «, Wagner's touch-corpuscle. /, Nerve-fibre, divided transversely, g, Cells of the Malpighian layer of the skin. FIG. 7. — Vater'sor Pacini's Corpuscle. a, Stalk. b, Nerve-fibre entering it. c, d, Connective-tissue en- velope. e, Axis cylinder, with its end divided at /. •fa to -jV°f an inch in breadth, attached to the nerves of the hands and feet. They can be readily demonstrated in the mesentery of the cat (fig. 7). Each corpuscle consists of 40 to 50 lamellae or coats, like the folds of an onion, thinner and closer together on approaching the centre. Each lamella is formed of an elastic material mixed with delicate connective- tissue fibres, .and the inner surface of each is lined by a single continuous layer of endothelial cells. A double-contoured nerve fibre passes to each. The white substance of Schwann becomes continuous with the lamellae, whilst the axis cylinder passes into the body, and ends in a small knob or in a plexus. Some- times a blood-vessel also penetrates the Pacinian body, entering along with the nerve. Such bodies are found in the sub- cutaneous tissue on the nerves of the fingers and toes, near joints, attached to the nerves of the abdominal plexuses of the sympathetic, on the coccygeal gland, on the dorsum of the penis and clitoris, in the meso-colon, in the course of the intercostal and periosteal nerves, and in the capsules of lymphatic glands. Physiology of Touch in Man. — Such are the special end-organs of touch. It has also been ascertained that many sensory nerves end in a plexus or network, the ultimate fibrils being connected with the cells of the particular tissue in which they are found. Thus they exist in the cornea of the eye, and at the junctions of tendons with muscles. In the latter situation '' flattened end-flakes or plates " and " elongated oval end- bulbs " have also been found. A consideration of these various types of structure show that they facilitate intermittent pressure being made on the nerve endings. They are all, as it were, elastic cushions into which the nerve endings penetrate, so that the slight variation of pressure will be transmitted to the nerve. Probably also they serve to break the force of a sudden shock on the nerve endings. Sensitiveness and Sense of Locality. — The degree of sensitiveness of the skin is determined by finding the smallest distance at which :he two points of a pair of compasses can be felt. This method first followed by Weber, is employed by physicians in the diagnosis Tip of tongue Third phalanx of finger, volar surface FIG. 8. — Aesthesiometer of Sieveking. of nervous affections involving the sensitiveness of the skin. The following table shows the sensitiveness in millimetres for an adult. Mm. I-I 2-2-3 4-5 4-4-5 5-5-5 6-8 6-8 5-6-8 6-5-7 5-5-6 8-9 Red part ol the lip Second phalanx of finger, volar surface First phalanx of finger, volar surface Third phalanx of finger, dorsal surface Tip of nose Head of metacarpal bone, volar Ball of thumb Ball of little finger Centre of palm Dorsum and side of tongue; white of the lips; metacarpal part of the thumb 9 Third phalanx of the great toe, plantar surface. . . . 11-3 Second phalanx of the fingers, dorsal surface . . . . 11-3 Back n-3 Eyelid 11-3 Centre of hard palate . 13-5 Lower third of the forearm, volar surface 15 In front of the zygoma 15-8 Plantar surface of the great toe 15-8 Inner surface of the lip . 20-3 Behind the zygoma .... 22-6 Forehead 22-6 Occiput 27-1 Back of the hand 31-6 Under the chin 33'8 Vertex 33'8 Knee 36-1 Sacrum (gluteal region) 44-6 Forearm and leg 45" I Neck 54-1 Back of the fifth dorsal vertebra; lower dorsal and lumbar region 54" r Middle of the neck 67-7 Upper arm ; thigh ; centre of the back 67-7 These investigations show not only that the skin is sensitive, but that one is able with great precision to distinguish the part touched. This latter power is usually called the sense of locality, and it is influenced by various conditions. The greater the number of sensory nerves in a given area of skin the greater is the degree of accuracy in distinguishing different points. Contrast in this way the tip of the finger and the back of the hand. Sensitiveness increases from the joints towards the extremities, and sensitiveness is great in parts of the body that are actively moved. The sensibility of the limbs is finer in the transverse axis than in the long axis of the limb, to the extent of J on the flexor surface of the upper limb and J on the extensor surface. It is doubtful if exercise improves sensitiveness, as Francis Galton found that the performances of blind boys were not superior to those of other boys, and he says that " the guidance of the blind depends mainly on the multitude of collateral indications, to which they give much heed, and not their superiority to any one of them. When the skin is moistened with indifferent fluids sensibility is increased. Suslowa made the curious discovery that, if the area between two points distinctly felt be tickled or be stimulated by a weak electric current, the impressions are fused. Stretching the skin, and baths in water containing carbonic acid or common salt, increase the power of localizing tactile impressions. In experimenting with the com- passes, it will be found that a smaller distance can be distinguished if one proceeds from greater to smaller distances than in the reverse direction. A smaller distance can also be detected when the points of the compasses are placed one after the other on the skin than when they are placed simultaneously. If the points of the com- passes are unequally heated, the sensation of two contacts becomes confused. An anaemic condition, or a state of venous congestion, or the application of cold, or violent stretching of the skin, or the use of. such substances as atropine, daturin, morphia, strychnine, alcohol, bromide of potassium, cannabin and hydrate of chloral blunt sensibility. The only active substance said to increase it is caffein. 96 TOUCH Absolute sensitiveness, as indicated by a sense of pressure, has been determined by various methods. Two different weights are placed on the part, and the smallest difference in weight that can be perceived is noted. Weber placed small weights directly on the skin; Aubert and Kammler loaded small plates; Dohrn made use of a balance, having a blunt point at one end of the beam, resting on the skin, whilst weights were placed on the other end of the beam to equalize the pressure; H. Eulenberg invented an instrument like a spiral spring paper-clip or balance (the baraesthesiometer), having an index showing the pressure in grammes; F. Goltz employed an India-rubber tube filled with water, and this, to ensure a constant surface of contact, bent at one spot over a piece of cork, is touched at that spot by the cutaneous part to be examined, and, by rhyth- mically exerted pressure, waves analogous to those of the arterial pulse are produced in the tube ; and L. Landois invented a mercurial balance, enabling him to make rapid variations in the weight without giving rise to any shock. These methods have given the following general results, (i) The greatest acuteness is on the forehead, temples and back of the hand and forearm, which detect a pressure of 0-002 gramme; fingers detect 0-005 to 0-015 gramme; the chin, abdomen and nose 0-04 to 0-05 gramme. (2) Goltz's method gives the same general results as Weber's experiment with the compasses, with the exception that the tip of the tongue has its sensation of pressure much lower in the scale than its sensation of touch. (3) Eulenberg found the following gradations in the fineness of the pressure sense : the forehead, lips, back of the cheeks, and temples appreciate differences of fa to ^ (200: 205 to 300: 310 grammes). The back of the last phalanx of the fingers, the forearm, hand, first and second phalanges, the palmar surface of the hand, forearm and upper arm distinguish differences of A to fa (200: 220 to 200: 210 grammes). The front of the leg and thigh is similar to the fore- arm. Then follow the back of the foot and toes, the sole of the foot, and the back of the leg and thigh. Dohrn placed a weight of I gramme on the skin, and then determined the least additional weight that could be detected, with this result: third phalanx of finger 0-499 gramme; back of the foot, 0-5 gramme; second phalanx, 0-771 gramme; first phalanx, 0-82 gramme; leg, I gramme; back of hand, 1-156 grammes; palm, 1-108 grammes; patella, 1-5 grammes; fore- arm, 1-99 grammes; umbilicus, 3-5 grammes; andback,3-8 grammes. (4) In passing from light to heavier weights, the acuteness increases at once, a maximum is reached, and then with heavy weights the power of distinguishing the differences diminishes. (5) A sensation of pressure after the weights have been removed may be noticed (after-pressure sensation), especially if the weight be considerable. (6) Valentine noticed that, if the finger were held against a blunt- toothed wheel, and the wheel were rotated with a certain rapidity, he felt a smooth margin. This was experienced when the intervals of time between the contacts of successive teeth were less than from lio to BJU of a second. The same experiment can be readily made by holding the finger over the holes in one of the outermost circles of a large syren rotating quickly: the sensations of individual holes become fused, so as to give rise to a feeling of touching a slit. (7) Vibrations of strings are detected even when _the number is about 1500 per second; above this the sensation of vibration ceases. By attaching bristles to the prongs of tuning-forks and bringing these into contact with the lip or tongue, sensations of a very acute character are experienced, which are most intense when the forks vibrate from 600 to 1500 per second. Information from Tactile Impressions. — These enable us to come to the following conclusions, (i) We note the existence_of some- thing touching the sensory surface. (2) From the intensity of the sensation we determine the weight, tension or intensity of the pressure. This sensation is in the first instance referred to the skin, but after the pressure has reached a certain amount muscular sensations are also experienced — the so-called muscular sense. (3) The locality of the part touched is at once determined, and from this the probable position of the touching body. Like the visual field, to which all retinal impressions are referred, point for point, there is a tactile field, to which all points on the skin surface may be referred. (4) By touching a body at various points, from the difference of pressure and from a comparison of the positions of various points in the tactile field we judge of the configuration of the body. A number of " tactile pictures are obtained by passing the skin over the touched body, and the shape of the body is further determined by a knowledge of the muscular movements necessary to bring the cutaneous surface into contact with_ different portions of it. If there is abnormal displacement of position, a false con- ception may arise as to the shape of the body. Thus, if a small marble or a pea be placed between the index and middle finger so as to touch (with the palm downwards) the outer side of the index finger and the inner side of the middle finger, a sensation of touching one round body is experienced ; but if the fingers be crossed, so that the marble touches the inner side of the index finger and the outer side of the middle finger, there will be a feeling of two round bodies, because in these circumstances there is added to the feelings of contact a feeling of distortion (or of muscular action) such as would take place if the fingers, for purposes of touch, were placed -in that abnormal position. Again, as snowing that our knowledge of the tactile field is precise, there is the well-known fact that when a piece of skin is transplanted from the forehead to the nose, in the operation for removing a deformity of the nose arising from lupus or other ulcerative disease, the patient feels the new nasal part as if it were his forehead, and he may have the curious sensation of a nasal instead of a frontal headache. (5) From the number of points touched we judge as to the smoothness or roughness of a body. A body having a uniformly level surface, like a billiard ball, is smooth ; a body having points irregular in size and number in a given area is rough ; and if the points are very close together it gives rise to a sensation, like that of the pile of velvet almost intolerable to some individuals. Again, if the pressure is so uniform as not to be felt, as when the body is immersed in water (paradoxical as this may seem, it is the case that the sensation of contact is felt only at the limit of the fluid), we experience the sensation of being in contact with a fluid. (6) Lastly, it would appear that touch is always the result of variation of pressure. No portion of the body when touching anything can be regarded as absolutely motionless, and the slight oscillations of the sensory surface, and in many cases of the body touched, produce those variations of pressure on which touch depends. To explain the phenomenon of the tactile field, and more specially the_ remarkable variations of tactile sensibility above described, various theories have been advanced, but none are satisfactory. (See article " Cutaneous Sensations " by C. S. Sherrington in Schafer's Physiology, ii. 920). Research shows that the sensation of touch may be referred to parts of the skin which do not contain the special end organs associated with this sense, and that filaments in the Malpighian layer (the layer immediately above the papillae ot the true skin) may form the anatomical basis of the sense. The skin may be regarded, also, as an extensive surface containing nervous arrangements by which we are brought into relation with the outer world. _ Accordingly, touch is not the only sensation referred to the skin, but we also refer sensations of temperature (heat and cold), and often those peculiar sensations which we call pain. Sensations of Temperature. — These depend on thermic irritation of the terminal organs, as proved by the following experiment of E. H. Weber: " If the elbow be dipped into a verv cold fluid, the cold is only felt at the immersed part of the body (where the fibres terminate) ; pain, however, is felt in the terminal organs of the ulnar nerve, namely, in the finger points; this pain, at the same time, deadens the local sensation of cold. " If the sensation of cold were due to the irritation of a specific-nerve fibre, the sensation of cold would be referred to the tips of the fingers. When any part of the skin is above its normal mean temperature, warmth is felt; in the opposite case, cold. The normal mean temperature of a given area varies according to the distribution of hot blood in it and to the activity of nutritive changes occurring in it. When the skin is brought into contact with a good conductor of heat there is a sensation of cold. A sensation of heat is experienced when heat is carried to the skin in any way. The following are the chief facts that have been ascertained regarding the temperature sense: (i) E. H. Weber found that, with a skin temperature of from i5-5°C.to350C., the tips of the fingers can distinguish a difference of 0-25° C. to 0-2° C. Temperatures just below that of the blood (33°-27° C.) are distinguished by the most sensitive parts, even to 0-05° C. (2) The thermal sense varies in different regions as follows: tip of tongue, eyelids, cheeks, lips, neck, belly. The " perceptible minimum " was found to be, in degrees C.: breast 0-4°; back, 0-9°; back of hand, 0-3°; palm, 0-4° ; arm, 0-2° ; back of foot, 0-4° ; thigh, 0-5° ; leg, 0-6° to 0-2°; cheek, 0-4°; temple, 0-3°. (3) If two different temperatures are applied side by side and simultaneously, the impressions of ten fuse, especially if the areas are close together. (4) Practice is said to improve the thermal sense. (5) Sensations of heat and cold may curiously alternate; thus when the skin is dipped first into water at 10° C. we feel cold, and if it be then dipped into water at 16° C. we have at first a feeling of warmth, but soon again of cold. (6) The same temperature applied to a large area is not appreciated in the same way as when applied to a small one; thus the whole hand when placed in water at 29-5° C. feels warmer than when a finger is dipped into water at 32 C. " There is every reason to hold that there are different nerve fibres and different central organs for the tactile and thermal sensations, but nothing definite is known. The one sensation undoubtedly affects the other. Thus the minimum distance at which two com- pass points are felt is diminished when one point is wanner than the other. Again, a colder weight is felt as heavier, " so that the apparent difference of pressure becomes greater when the heavier weight is at the same time colder, and less when the lighter weight is colder, and difference of pressure is felt with equal weights of unequal temperature " (E. H. Weber). Great sensibility to differ- ences of temperature is noticed after removal, alteration by vesicants, or destruction of the epidermis, and in the skin affection called herpes zoster. The same occurs in some cases of locomotor ataxy. Removal of the epidermis, as a rule, increases tactile sensibility and the sense of locality. Increased tactile sensibility is termed hyperpselaphesia, and is a rare phenomenon in nervous diseases. Paralysis of the tactile sense is called hypopselaphesia, whilst its entire loss is apselaphesia. Brown-Sequard mentions a case in TOUCH 97 which contact of two points gave rise to a sense of a third point of contact. Certain conditions of the nerve centres affect the senses both of touch and temperature. Under the influence of morphia the person may feel abnormally enlarged or diminished in size. As a rule the senses are affected simultaneously, but cases occur where one may be affected more than the other. Sensations of heat and cold are chiefly referred to the skin, and only partially to some mucous membranes, such as those of the alimentary canal. Direct irritation of a nerve does not give rise to these sensations. The exposed pulp of a diseased tooth, when irritated by hot or cold fluids, gives rise to pain, not to sensations of temperature. It has now been ascertained that there are minute areas on the skin in which sensations of heat and cold may be more acutely felt than in adjoining areas; and, further, that there are points stimulated by addition of heat, hot spots, while others are stimulated by withdrawal of heat, cold spots. A simple method of demonstrating this phenomenon is to use a solid cylinder of copper, 8 in. in length by £ in. in thick- ness, and sharpened at one end to a fine pencil-like point. Dip the pointed end into very hot water, close the eyes, and touch parts of the skin. When a hot spot is touched, there is an acute sensation of burning. Such a spot is often near a hair. Again, in another set of experiments, dip the copper pencil into ice-cold water and search for cold spots. When one of these is touched, a sensation of cold, as if concentrated on a point, is experienced. Thus it may be demonstrated that in a given area of skin there may be hot spots, cold spots and touch spots. Cold spots are more abundant than hot spots. The spots are arranged in curved lines, but the curve uniting a number of cold spots does not coincide with the curve forming a chain of hot spots. By Weber's method it will be found that we can discriminate cold spots at a shorter distance from each other than hot spots. Thus on the forehead cold spots have a minimum distance of 8 mm., and hot spots 4 mm.; on the skin of the breast, cold spots 2 mm., and hot spots 5 mm.; on the back, cold spots 1-5 mm., and hot spots 4 to 6 mm.; on the back of the hand, cold spots 3 mm., and hot spots 4 mm. ; on the palm, cold spots 8 mm., and hot spots 2 mm. ; and on the thigh and leg, cold spots 3 mm., and hot spots 3-5 mm. Electrical and mechanical stimulation of the hot or cold spots call forth the corresponding sensation. No terminal organ for dis- crimination of temperature has yet been found. It will be observed that the sensation of heat or cold is excited by change of temperature, and that it is more acute and definite the more sudden the change. Thus discrimination of temperature is similar to discrimination of touch, which depends on more or less sudden change of pressure. The term cold means, physiologically, the sensation we experience when heat is abstracted, and the term heat, the sensation felt when heat is added to the part. Thus we are led to consider that the skin contains at least two kinds of specific terminal organs for sensations of touch and temperature, and two sets of nerve fibres which carry the nervous impulses to the brain. In all probability, also, these fibres have different central endings, and in their course to the brain run in different tracts in the spinal cord. This will explain cases of disease of the central nervous system in which, over certain areas of skin, sensations of touch have been lost while sensations of tem- perature and pain remain, or vice versa. Tactile and thermal impressions may influence each other. Thus a leg sent to "sleep" by pressure on the sciatic nerve will be found to be less sensitive to heat, but distinctly sensitive to cold. In some cases of disease it has been noticed that the skin is sensitive to a temperature above that of the limb, but insensitive to cold. It is highly probable that just as we found in the case of touch (pressure), the terminal organs connected with the sense of temperature are the fine nerve filaments that have been detected in the deeper strata of the Malpighian region of the epidermis, immediately above the true skin, and it is also probable that certain epidermic (epithelial) cells in that region play their part in the mechanism. Sensations of a painful character may also, in certain circumstances, be referred to the viscera, and to mucous and serous surfaces. Pain is not a sensation excited by irritating the end organs either of touch or of temperature, nor even by irritating directly the filaments of a sensory nerve. Even if sensory nerves are cut or bruised, as in surgical operations, there may be no sensations of pain; and it has been found that muscles, vessels and even the viscera, such as the heart, stomach, liver or kidneys, may be freely handled without giving rise to any feeling of pain, or indeed to any kind of sensation. These parts, in ordinary circumstances appear to be insensitive, and yet they contain afferent nerves. If the sensibility of these nerves is heightened, or possibly if the sensitiveness of the central terminations of the nerves is raised, then we may have sensations to which we give the name of pain. In like manner the skin is endowed with afferent nerves, distinct from those ministering to touch and to temperature, along which nervous impulses are constantly flowing. When these nervous impulses reach the central nervous system in ordinary circumstances they do not give rise to changes that reach the level of consciousness, but they form, as it were, the warp and woof of our mental life, and they also affect metabolisms, that is to say, nutritive changes in many parts of the body. They may also, as is well known, affect unconsciously such mechanisms as those of the action of the heart, the calibre of the blood-vessels and the movements of respiration. XXVII. 4 If, however, this plane of activity is raised, as by intermittent pressure, or by inflammatory action, or by sudden changes of temperature, as in burning, scalding, &c., such nervous impulses give rise to pain. Sometimes pain is distinctly located, and in other cases it may be irradiated in the nerve centres, and referred to areas of skin or to regions of the body which are not really the seat of the irritation. Thus irritation of the liver may cause pain in the shoulder; disease of the hip-joint often gives rise to pain in the knee; and renal colic, due to_ the passage of a calculus down the ureter, to severe pain even in the abdominal walls. These are often termed reflex pains and their interpretation is of great importance to physicians in the diagnosis of disease. Their frequent occurrence has also directed attention to the distribution in the skin and termination in the brain of the sensory nerves. It is also notice- able that a sensation of pain gives us no information as to its cause; we simply have an agonizing sensation in a part to which, hitherto, we probably referred no sensations. The acuteness or intensity of pain depends partly on the intensity of the irritation, and partly on the degree of excitability of the sensory nerves at the time. Pain. — In addition to sensations of touch and of temperature referred to the skin, there is still a third kind of sensation, unlike either, namely, pain. This sensation cannot be supposed to be excited by irritations of the end organs of touch, or of specific thermal end organs (if there be such), but rather to irritation of ordinary sensory nerves, and there is every reason to believe that painful impressions make their way to the brain along special tracks in the spinal cord. If we consider our mental condition as regards sensation at any moment, we notice numerous sensations more or less definite, not referred directly to the surface, nor to external objects, such as a feeling of general comfort, free or impeded breath- ing, hunger, thirst, malaise, horror, fatigue and pain. These are all caused by the irritation of ordinary sensory nerves in different localities, and if the irritation of such nerves, by chemical, thermal, mechanical or nutritional stimuli, passes beyond a certain maximum point of intensity the result is pain. Irritation of a nerve, in accord- ance with the law of " peripheral reference of sensation," will cause pain. Sometimes the irritation applied to the trunk of a sensory nerve may be so intense as to destroy its normal function, and loss of sensation or anaesthesia results. If then the stimulus be increased further, pain is excited which is referred to the end of the nerve, with the result of producing what has been called anaesthesia dolorosa. Pains frequently cannot be distinctly located, probably owing to the fact of irradiation in the nerve centres and subsequent reference to areas of the body which are not really the seat of irritations. The intensity of pain depends on the degree of excitability of the sensory nerves, whilst its massiveness depends on the number of nerve fibres affected. The quality of the pain is probably produced by the kind of irritation of the nerve, as affected by the structure of the part and the greater or less continuance of severe pressure. Thus there are piercing, cutting, boring, burning, throbbing, pressing, gnawing, dull and acute varieties of pain. Sometimes the excitability of the cutaneous nerves is so great that a breath of air or a delicate touch may give rise to suffering. This hyperalgia is found in inflammatory affections of the skin. In neuralgia the pain is charac- terized by its character of shooting along the course of the nerve and by severe exacerbations. In many nervous diseases there are disordered sensations referred to the skin, such as alterna- tions of heat and cold, burning, creeping, itching and a feeling as if insects were crawling on the surface (formication). This con- dition is termed parafgia. The term hypalgia is applied to a diminution and analgia to paralysis of pain, as is produced by anaesthetics. Muscular Sense. — The sensory impressions considered in this article are closely related to the so-called muscular sense: or that sense or feeling by which we are aware of the state of the muscles of a limb as regards contraction or relaxation. Some have held that the muscular sense is really due to greater or less stretching of the skin and therefore to irritation of the nerves of that organ. That this is not the case is evident from the fact that disordered move- ments indicating perversion or loss of this sense are not affected by removal of the skin (Claude Bernard). Further, cases in the human being have been noticed where there was an entire loss of cutaneous sensibility whilst the muscular sense was unimpaired. It is also known that muscles possess sensory nerves, giving rise, in certain circumstances, to fatigue, and, when strongly irritated, to the pain of cramp. Muscular sensations are really excited by irritation of sensory nerves passing from the muscles themselves. There are specialized spindle-like bodies in many muscles, and there are organs connected with tendons which are regarded as sensory organs by which pressures are communicated to sensory nerve-filaments. We are thus made conscious of whether or not the muscles are contracted, and of the amount of contraction necessary to overcome resistance, and this knowledge enables us to judge of the amount of voluntary impulse. Loss or diminution of the muscular sense is seen in chorea and especially in locomotor ataxy. Increase of it is rare, but it is seen in the curious affection called anxietas tibiarum, a painful condition of unrest, which leads to a continual change in the position of the limbs (see EQUILIBRIUM). (J- G. M.) 98 TOUL— TOULON TOUL, a garrison town of north-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 21 m. W. of Nancy on the Eastern railway Pop. (1906), town 9523; commune, 13,663. Toul is situated in a plain on the left bank of the Moselle, which skirts the town on the S. and S. E., while on the N. it is bordered by the Marne-Rhine canal. It is princi- pally important as being the centre of a great entrenched camp close to the German frontier. Immediately after the Franco- German War the whole system of frontier defence was revised, and of all the new fortresses of the Meuse and Moselle Toul is perhaps the most formidable. The works were begun in 1874 by the construction of four outlying forts north, north-east and south of the town, but these soon became merely an inner line of defence. The principal defences now lie much farther out on all sides. The west front of the new line of forts occupies a long line of high ground (the watershed of the Meuse and the Moselle), the north front, about 4 m. from Toul, is in undulating country, while facing towards Nancy and forming the chord of the arc which the Moselle describes from Fontenay below to Villey-le-Sec above, is the strong east front, the outlying works of which extend far to the east (Fort Frouard and other works about Nancy) and to the south-east (Pont St Vincent). The south front extends from the Moselle at Villey-le- Sec south-westwards till it meets the southern end of the west front on the high ground overlooking the Meuse valley. The fort at Pagny on the Meuse to the south-west may be considered an outwork of this line of defence. The perimeter of the Toul defences proper is nearly 30 m., and their mean distance from the town about 6 m. Northward, along the Meuse, Toul is connected with the fortress of Verdun by the " Meuse line " of barrier forts, the best known of which are Gironville, Liouville and Troyon. South of Toul the country was purposely left unfortified as far as Epinal (q.v.) and this region is known as the Trouee d'Epinal. The town itself forms an oval within a bastioned enceinte pierced by three gateways. It has two important churches. That of St Etienne (formerly a cathedral) has a choir and transept of the I3th century; the nave and aisles are of the i4th, and the facade, the finest part of the building, of the last half of the isth. The two western towers, which have no spires, reach a height of 246 ft. The two large lateral chapels of the nave are in the Renaissance style. The chief features of the interior are its stained glass and organ loft. South of the church there is a fine cloister of the end of the I3th century which was much damaged at the Revolution. The church of St Gengoult, which dates chiefly from the late I3th or early i4th century, has a facade of the isth century and a cloister in the Flamboyant Gothic style of the i6th century. The h6tel- de-ville occupies a building of the i8th century, once the epis- copal palace, and contains the library and museum. Toul is the seat of a« sub-prefect and has a tribunal of commerce and a communal college among its public institutions. The industries include the manufacture of porcelain; trade is in wine and brandy. Toul (Tullum) is one of the oldest towns of France; originally capital of the Leuci, in the Belgic Confederation, it acquired great importance under the Romans. It was evangelized by St Mansuy in the latter half of the 4th century, and became one of the leading sees of north-east Gaul. After being sacked successively by Goths, Burgundians, Vandals and Huns, Toul was conquered by the Franks in 450. Under the Merovingians it was governed by counts, assisted by elective officers. The bishops became sovereign counts in the loth century, holding only of the emperor, and for a period of 300 years (isth to i6th centuries) the citizens maintained a long struggle against them. Together with Verdun and Metz the town and its domain formed the territory of the Trois-Eveches. Toul was forced to yield for a time to the count of Vaudemont in the I2th century, and twice to the duke of Lorraine in the I5th, and was thrice devastated by the plague in the i6th century. Charles V. made a solemn entry into the town in 1 544, but in the following year, at the instance of the cardinal of Lorraine, it placed itself under the perpetual protection of the kings of France. Henry II. took possession of the Trois-Eveches in 1552, but the territory was not officially incorporated with France till 1648. Henry IV. was received in state in 1603, and in 1637 the parlement of Metz was transferred to Toul. In 1700 Vauban reconstructed the fortifications of the town. In 1790 the bishopric was suppressed and the diocese united to that of Nancy. Toul, which had then no modern defences, capitulated in 1870 after a bombardment of twelve days. TOULON, a seaport and first-class fortress and naval station of France, department of Var, capital of the arrondissement of Toulon, on the Mediterranean, 42 m. E.S.E. of Marseilles. Pop. (1886), 53,941; (1901), 101,602. The bay, which opens to the east, has two divisions, the Grande Rade and the Petite Rade; it is sheltered on the north and west by high hills, closed on the south by the peninsula of capes Sicie and Cepet, and protected on the east by a huge breakwater, the entrance, 1300 ft. wide, being defensible by torpedoes. A ship coming from the open sea must first pass the forts of St Marguerite, of Cap Brun, of Lamalgue and of St Louis to the north, and the battery of the signal station to the south; before reaching the Petite Rade it must further pass under the guns of the battery of Le Salut to the east, and of the forts of Balaguier and L'Aiguillette to the west. The Bay of La Seyne lies west of the Petite Rade, and is defended by the forts of Six-Fours, Napoleon (formerly Fort Caire), and Malbousquet, and the batteries of Les Arenes and Les Gaus. To the north of Toulon rise the defensive works of Mont Faron and Fort Rouge, to the east the forts of Artigues and St Catherine, to the north-east the formidable fort of Coudon, and to the south-east that of Colle Noire, respectively dominating the highway into Italy and the valley of Hyeres with the Bay of Carqueiranne. The town, enlarged to the north under the Second Empire, has on that side a fine modern quarter; but in the old town the streets are for the most part narrow, crooked and dirty, and to their 'insanitary state the cholera epidemic of 1884 was attributed. The chief buildings are the former cathedral of St Marie Majeure (from the 5th century Toulon was a bishop's see till 1801, when it was annexed to that of Frejus), the church of St Louis, the naval and military hospital, with a natural history collection and an anatomical museum attached, a naval school of medicine, a school of hydrography, and large barracks. In 1883-1887 a handsome Renaissance building was erected to accommodate the picture gallery and the town library. The monument in com- memoration of the centenary of the French Revolution was erected in 1890 in the Place de la Liberte, the finest in the new town. The imports are wine, corn, wood, coal, hemp, iron, sugar, coffee and fresh fish; the exports are salt, copper ore, barks for tanning and oils. The principal industries, apart from the arsenal, are shipbuilding, fishing, lace-making and wine-growing. Toulon possesses an observatory and a botanical garden. The interesting buildings and gardens of the hospital of St Mandrier stand on the peninsula of Cape Cepet, and near them is the lazaretto. Toulon is the most important of the French dockyards, and is the headquarters of the Mediterranean fleet. The arsenal, which was created by Louis XIV. — Vauban being the engineer of the works — lies on the north side of the Petite Rade. This is ap- proached from the Grande Rade by passages at the north and south ends of a long breakwater which extends from the direction of Le Mourillon towards the C6pet Peninsula. The water space within the moles amounts to about 150 acres, while the quays approach 4 m. in length. Outside in the Petite Rade is a splendid protected anchorage for a great fleet, the whole being commanded by many forts and batteries. There are four great basins ap- proached from the Petite Rade — the Vielle Darse, to the east, on the side of Le Mourillon; the Darse Vauban, next to it; and the Darse de Castigneau and the Darse Missiessy, farther to the west. In the Darse Vauban are three dry docks, two of them 246 ft. long, with a depth of water on the sill of about 20 ft. ; while the third is 283 ft. long, with a depth of over 24 ft. Three other dry docks are in the Darse de Castigneau, of which one is in two sections. The largest of the docks is 385 ft. long, and the depth of water on the sill in all these docks averages 30 ft. In the Darse Missiessy are TOULOUSE, COUNT OF- -TOULOUSE 99 two dry docks, 426 ft. long, with a depth on the sill of over 32 ft. There are several building slips, and the yard is supplied with a gun foundry and wharf, fitting-shops, boiler works, victualling and other establishments, rolling mills and magazines. Le Mourillon is a subsidiary yard at Toulon, devoted chiefly to ship-building, and possessing large facilities, including five covered slips. The Roman Telo Martius is supposed to have stood near the lazaretto. The town was successively sacked by Goths, Burgundians, Franks and Saracens. During the early middle ages, and till conquered by Charles of Anjou in 1259, it was under lords of its own, and entered into alli- ance with the republics of Marseilles and Aries. St Louis, and especially Louis XII. and Francis I. strengthened its fortifications. It was seized by the emperor Charles V. in 1524 and 1536. Henry IV. founded a naval arsenal at Toulon, which was further strengthened by Richelieu, and Vauban made the new dock, a new enceinte, and several forts and batteries. In 1707 the town was unsuccessfully besieged by the duke of Savoy, Prince Eugene and an English fleet. In 1720 there was an outbreak of the plague. In 1792 after great and sanguinary disorder, the royalists of the town sought the support of the English and Spanish fleets cruising in the neighbourhood. The Convention having replied by putting the town " hors la loi," the inhabitants opened their harbour to the English. The army of the republic now (1793) laid siege to the town, and on this occasion Napoleon Bonaparte first made his name as a soldier. The forts commanding the town having been taken, the English ships retired after setting fire to the arsenal. The conflagration was extinguished by the prisoners, but not before 38 out of a total of 56 vessels had been destroyed. Under the Directory Toulon became the most important French military fort on the Mediterranean; here Napoleon organized the Egyptian campaign, and the expedition against Algiers set out from Toulon in 1830. The fortifications have been strengthened by Napoleon I., Louis Philippe, Napoleon III., and since 1870. Battle of Toulon. — This naval battle took place on the nth of February 1744, near the port of Toulon. A British fleet of thirty sail of the line under command of Thomas Mathews, who combined the offices of naval commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean and envoy to the courts of Sardinia and the Italian princes, engaged a combined force of Spaniards under Don Jos6 Navarrq and French under M. de Court. They were in all twenty-seven sail. The allies left Toulon on the 9th of February. Mathews was at anchor jn Hyeres Bay to watch them, for though France and Great Britain were already engaged as allies on opposite sides in the War of the Austrian Succession, there had been no declaration of war between them. It was known that the allies meant to transfer Spanish troops to Italy to serve against the Austrians, and Mathews had no hesitation in attacking them, Great Britain being at war with Spain. He left Hyeres in very light wind with a heavy westerly swell, and with his fleet in confusion. The British ships were stragT gling over a distance of ten miles, but he put himself between the enemy and Toulon. Mathews was on bad terms with his second in command, Lestock, who commanded the rear division and showed little disposition to support his superior. By the morning of the nth the interval between the van and centre of the British fleet and its rear had increased in the light breezes, and also ^hrough the voluntary or involuntary misapprehension of Mathews' s orders by Lestock. The allies were in a fairly well-formed line, heading to the south, and southward of the British. Mathews pursued, and at 1.30 p.m., when his leading ship was abreast of the centre ship of the allies, he attacked. Some hot fighting took place between Mathews and the Spaniards who formed the allied rear. The action was notable as the last occasion on which an attempt was made to use a fireship on the open sea. One was sent against the " Real " (114), the Spanish flagship, but she was reduced to a sinking state by the fire of the Spaniards, and blew up prematurely, with the loss of all on board. At about five o'clock, the French in the van turned back to support the Spaniards, and Mathews drew off. One Spanish ship, the " Poder " (60), which had surrendered was recaptured, and then set on fire by the allies. Mathews made only a feeble attempt to renew the battle on the following days, and on the 1 3th returned towards the coast of Italy, which he said he had to defend. The British rear division had not come into action at all. The battle, though a miserable affair in itself, is of great impor- tance in naval history because of the pronouncement of doctrine to which it led. Mathews, who was dissatisfied with his subordinate, Lestock, suspended him from command and sent him home for trial. Several of the captains had behaved ill, and the failure of a superior British fleet to gain a success over the allies caused extreme discontent at home. A parliamentary inquiry was opened on the I2th of March 1745, which on the l8th of April, after a confused investigation, ended in a petition to the king to order trials by court-martial of all the officers accused of misconduct. A long series of courts-martial began on the nth of September 1745, and did not end till the 22nd of October 1746. Several captains were sentenced to be dismissed the service. Lestock was acquitted, but Mathews was condemned and sentenced to dis- missal. The finding of the court, which blamed the officer who actually fought, and acquitted the other who did not, puzzled and angered public opinion. The technical points were not appreci- ated by laymen. The real evil done by the condemnation of Mathews was not understood even in the navy. Mathews was blamed on the ground that he had not waited to engage till his van ship was abreast of the van ship of the enemy. By this declara- tion of principle the court confirmed the formal system of naval tactics which rendered all sea-fighting between equal or nearly equal forces so ineffective for two generations. See Beatson, Naval and Military Memoirs, i. 197 seq. (London, 1804), a full and fair narrative. (D. H.) TOULOUSE, LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE BOURBON, COUNT OF (1678-1737), third son of Louis XIV. and Mme de Montespan was born on the 6th of June 1678. At the age of five he was created admiral of France. He distinguished himself during the War of the Spanish Succession, and inflicted a severe defeat on Admiral Rooke near Malaga in 1704. He kept aloof from the intrigues of his sister-in-law, the duchess of Maine, and died on the ist of December 1737. His son, Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, due de Penthievre (1725-1793), succeeded his father in his posts, among others in that of grand admiral. He served under Marshal de Noailles, and fought brilliantly at Dettingen (1743) and Fontenoy (1745). He then lived in retreat at Rambouillet and Sceaux, protecting men of letters, an'd particularly the poet Florian, and dispensing charity. He lost his son, the prince of Lamballe, in 1768, and survived his daughter-in-law, Louise Marie Therese of Savoy-Carignan, the friend of Marie Antoinette, who was killed by the populace on the 3rd of September 1792. He died on the 4th of March 1793; his daughter and heiress, Louise Marie Adelaide, married Philippe (Egalite), duke of Orleans. TOULOUSE, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Haute-Garonne, 443 m. S. by W. of Paris by the Orleans railway, and 159 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by the Southern railway. Pop. (1906), town, 125,856; commune, 149,438. Toulouse is situated on the right bank of the Garonne, which here changes a north-easterly for a north-westerly direction, describing a curve round which the city extends in the form of a crescent. On the left bank is the suburb of St Cyprien, which is exposed to the inundations of the river owing to its low situation. The river is spanned by three bridges — that of St Pierre to the north, that of St Michel to the south, and the Pont Neuf in the centre; the last, a fine structure of seven arches was begun in 1543 by Nicolas Bachelier, the sculptor, whose work is to be seen in many of the churches and mansions of the city. East and north of the city runs the Canal du Midi, which here joins the lateral canal of the Garonne. Between the Canal du Midi and the city proper extends a long line of boulevards leading southwards by the Allee St Etienne to the Grand Rond, a promenade whence a series of allees branch out in all directions. South-west the Allee St Michel leads towards the Garonne, and south the Grande Allee towards the Faubourg St Michel. These boulevards take the place of the old city walls. Between them and the canal lie the more modern faubourgs of St Pierre, Arnaud-Bernard, Matabiau, &c. The Place du Capitole, to which streets converge from every side, occupies the centre of the city. Two broad straight thorough- fares of modern construction, the Rue de Metz and the Rue d'Alsace-Lorraine, intersect one another to the south of this point, the first running east from the Pont Neuf, the other running north and south. The other streets are for the most part narrow and irregular. The most interesting building in Toulouse is the church of St Sernin or Saturnin, whom legend represents as the first preacher of the gospel in Toulouse, where he was perhaps martyred about the middle of the 3rd century. The choir, the oldest part of the IOO TOULOUSE present building, was consecrated by Urban II. in 1096. The church is the largest Romanesque basilica in existence, being 375 ft. from east to west and 210 ft. in extreme breadth. The nave (i2th and I3th centuries) has double aisles. Four pillars, support- ing the central tower, are surrounded by heavy masonry, which somewhat spoils the general harmony of the interior. In the southern transept is the " portail des comtes," so named because near it lie the tombs of William Taillefer, Ppns, and other early counts of Toulouse. The little chapel in which these tombs (as- cribed to the nth century) are found was restored by the capitols of Toulouse in 1648. Another chapel contains a Byzantine Christ of late nth-century workmanship. The choir (llth and I2th centuries) ends in an apse, or rather chevet, surrounded by a range of columns, marking off an aisle, which in its turn opens into five chapels. The stalls are of 16th-century work and grotesquely carved. Against the northern wall is an ancient table d'autel, which an nth-century inscription declares to have belonged to St Sernin. In the crypts are many relics, which, however, were robbed of their gold and silver shrines during the Revolution. On the south there is a fine outer porch in the Renaissance style; it is surmounted by a representation of the Ascension in Byzantine style. The central tower (l3th century) consists of five storeys, of which the two highest are of later date, but harmonize with the three lower ones. A restoration of St Sernin was carried out in the igth century by Viollet-le-Duc. The cathedral, dedicated to St Stephen, dates from three different epochs. The walls of the nave belong to a Romanesque cathedral of the nth century, but its roof dates from the first half of the J3th century. The choir was begun by Bishop Bertrand de 1'Ile (c. 1272), who wished to build another church in place of the old one. This wish was unfulfilled and the original nave, the axis of which is to the south of that of the choir, remains. The choir was burned in 1690 but restored soon after. It is surrounded by seven- teen chapels, finished by the cardinal d'Orleans, nephew of Louis XI., about the beginning of the l6th century, and adorned with glass dating from the 1 5th to the 1 7th century. The western gate, flanked by a huge square tower, was constructed by Peter du Moulin, archbishop of Toulouse, from 1439 to 1451. It has been greatly battered, and presents but a poor approximation to its ancient beauty. Over this gate, which was once ornamented with the statues of St Sernin, St Exuperius and the twelve apostles, as well as those of the two brother archbishops of Toulouse, Denis (1423-1439) and Peter du Moulin, there is a beautiful 13th-century rose-window, whose centre, however, is not in a perpendicular line with the point of the Gothic arch below. Among other remarkable churches may be noticed Notre-Dame de la Daurade, near the Pont Neuf, built on the site of a gth-century Benedictine abbey and reconstructed towards the end of the i8th century; and Notre-Dame de la Dalbade; perhaps existing in the nth, but in its present form dating from the l6th century, with a fine Renaissance portal. The church of the Jacobins, held by Viollet-le-Duc to be " one of the most beautiful brick churches constructed in the middle ages," was built towards the end of the 1 3th century, and consists of a nave divided into two aisles by a range of columns. The chief exterior feature is a beautiful octagonal belfry. The church belonged to a Dominican monastery, of which part of the cloister, the refectory, the chapter-hall and the chapel also remain and are utilized by the lycee. Of the other secular buildings the most noteworthy are the capitole and the museum. The capitole has a long Ionic fagade built from 1750 to 1760. The theatre is situated in the left wing. Running along almost the whole length of the first floor is the salle des illustres adorned with modern paintings and sculptures relating to the history of the town. The museum (opened in 1795) occupies, besides a large modern building, the church, cloisters and other buildings of an old Augustinian convent. It contains pictures and a splendid collection of antiquities, notably a series of statues and busts of Roman emperors and others and much Romanesque sculpture. There is an auxiliary museum in the old college of St Raymond. The natural history museum is in the Jardin des Plantes. The law courts stand on the site of the old Chateau Narbonais, once the residence of the counts of Toulouse and later the seat of the parlement of Toulouse. Near by is a statue of the jurist Jacques Cujas, born at Toulouse. Toulouse is singularly rich in mansions of the i6th and 1 7th centuries. Among these may be mentioned the Hotel Bernuy, a fine Renaissance building now used by the lycee and the H6tel d'Ass6zat of the same period, now the property of the Academic des Jeux Floraux (see below), and of the learned societies of the city. In the court of the latter there is a statue of C16mence Isaure, a lady of Toulouse, traditionally supposed to have enriched the Acade'mie by a bequest in the isth century. The Maison de Pierre has an elaborate stone fagade of 1612. Toulouse is the seat of an archbishopric, of a court of appeal, a court of assizes and of a prefect. It is also the headquarters of the XVII. army corps and centre of an educational circum- scription (academic). There are tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institutions include faculties of law, medicine and pharmacy, science and letters, a Catholic institute with faculties of theology and 'letters, higher and lower ecclesiastical seminaries, lycees and training colleges for both sexes, and schools of veterinary science, fine arts and industrial sciences and music. Toulouse, the principal commercial and industrial cenitre of Languedoc, has important markets for horses, wine, grain, flowers, leather, oil and farm produce. Its pastry and other delicacies are highly esteemed. Its industrial establishments include the national tobacco factory, flour-mills, saw-mills, engineering work- shops and factories for farming implements, bicycles, vehicles, artificial manures, paper, boots and shoes, and flour pastes. TOLOSA, chief town of the Volcae Tectosages, does not seem to have been a place of great importance during the early centuries of the Roman rule in Gaul, though in 106 B.C. the pillage of its temple by Q. S. Cepio, afterwards routed by the Cimbri, gave rise to the famous Latin proverb habet aurum Tolosanum, in allusion to ill-gotten gains. It possessed a circus and an amphitheatre, but its most remarkable remains are to be found on the heights of Old Toulouse (vetus Tolosa) some 6 or 7 m. to the east, where huge accumulations of broken pottery and fragments of an old earthen vail mark the site of an ancient settlement. The numerous coins that have been discovered on the same spot do not date back farther than the 2nd century B.C., and seem to indicate the position of a Roman manufacturing centre then beginning to occupy the Gallic hill-fortress that, in earlier days, had in times of peril been the stronghold of the native tribes dwelling on the river bank. Tolosa does not seem to have been a Roman colony; but its importance must have increased greatly towards the middle of the 4th century. It is to be found entered in more than one itinerary dating from about this time; and Ausonius, in his Ordo nobilium urbium, alludes to it in terms implying that it then had a large population. In 419 it was made the capital of his kingdom by Wallia, king of the Visigoths, under whom or whose successors it became the seat of the great Teutonic kingdom of the West-Goths — a kingdom that within fifty years had extended itself from the Loire to Gibraltar and from the Rhone to the Atlantic. On the defeat of Alaric II. (507) Toulouse fell into the hands of Clovis, who carried away the royal treasures to Angouleme. Under the Merovingian kings it seems to have remained the greatest city of southern Gaul, and is said to have been governed by dukes or counts dependent on one or other of the rival kings descended from the great founder of the Prankish monarchy. It figures pro- minently in the pages of Gregory of Tours and Sidonius Apollinaris. About 628 Dagobert erected South Aquitaine into a kingdom for his brother Charibert, who chose Toulouse as his capital. For the next eighty years its history is obscure, till we reach the days of Charles Martel, when it was besieged by Sema, the leader of the Saracens from Spain (c. 715-720), but delivered by Eudes, " princeps Aquitaniae," in whom later writers discovered the ancestor of all the later counts of Toulouse. Modern criticism, however, has discredited this genealogy; and the real history of Toulouse recommences in 780 or 781, when Charlemagne appointed his little son Louis king of Aquitaine, with Toulouse for his chief city. During the minority of the young king his tutor Chorson ruled at Toulouse with the title of duke or count. Being deposed at the Council of Worms (790), he was succeeded by William Courtnez, the traditional hero of southern France, who in 806 retired to his newly founded monastery at Gellone, where he died in 812. In the unhappy days of the emperor Louis the Pious and his children Toulouse suffered in common with the rest of western Europe. It was besieged by Charles the Bald in 844, and taken four years later by the Normans, who in 843 had sailed up the Garonne as far as its walls. About 852 Raymond I., count of Quercy, succeeded his brother Fridolo as count of Rouergue and Toulouse; it is from this noble that all the later counts of Toulouse trace their descent. Raymond I.'s grandchildren divided their parents' estates; of these Ray- mond II. (d. 924) became count of Toulouse, and Ermengaud, count of Rouergue, while the hereditary titles of Gothia, Quercy and Albi were shared between them. Raymond II. 's grandson, William Taillefer (d. c. 1037), married Emma of Provence, and TOUNGOO— TOUP, J. 101 handed down part of that lordship to his younger son Bertrand.1 William's elder son Pons left two children, of whom William IV. succeeded his father in Toulouse, Albi, Quercy, &c.; while the younger, Raymond IV. of St Gilles (c. 1066), made him- self master of the vast possessions of the counts of Rouergue, married his cousin the heiress of Provence, and about 1085 began to rule the immense estates of his elder brother, who was still living. From this time the counts of Toulouse were the greatest lords in southern France. Raymond IV., the hero of the first crusade, assumed the formal titles of marquis of Provence, duke of Narbonne and count of Toulouse. While Raymond was away in the Holy Land, Toulouse was seized by William IX., duke of Aquitaine, who claimed the city in right of his wife Philippa, the daughter of William IV., but was unable to hold it long (1098-1100). Raymond's son and successor Bertrand followed his father's example and set out for the Holy Land in 1109, leaving his great estates at his death to his brother Alphonse Jourdain. The rule of this prince was disturbed by the ambition of William IX. and his grand-daughter Eleanor, who urged her husband Louis VII. to support her claims to Toulouse by war. On her divorce from Louis and her marriage with Henry II., Eleanor's claims passed on to this monarch, who at last forced Raymond V. to do him homage for Toulouse in 1173. Raymond V., the patron of the troubadours, died in 1194, and was succeeded by his son Raymond VI., under whose rule Languedoc was desolated by the crusaders of Simon de Montfort, who occupied Toulouse in 1215, but lost his life in besieging it in 1218. Raymond VII., the son of Raymond VI. and Princess Joan of England, succeeded his father in 1222, and died in 1249, leaving an only daughter Joan, married to Alfonso the brother of Louis IX. On the death of Alfonso and Joan in 1271 the vast inheritance of the counts of Toulouse lapsed to the Crown.2 From the middle years of the izth century the people of Toulouse seem to have begun to free themselves from the most oppressive feudal dues. An act of Alphonse Jourdain (1141) exempts them from the tax on salt and wine; and in 1152 we have traces of a " commune consilium Tolosae " making police ordinances in its own name " with the advice of Lord Raymond, count of Toulouse, duke of Narbonne, and marquis of Provence." This act is witnessed by six " capitularii," four duly appointed judges (judices constiluti), and two advocates. Twenty-three years later there are twelve capitularii or consuls, six for the city and six for its suburbs, all of them elected and sworn to do justice in whatever municipal matters were brought before them. In 1222 their number was increased to twenty-four; but they were forbidden to touch the city property, which was to remain in the charge of certain " communarii " chosen by themselves. Early in the i4th century the consuls took the name of " domini de capitulo," or, a little later, that of " capitulum nobilium." From the I3th century the consuls met in their own house, the " palatium communitatis Tolosae " or h6tel-de-ville. In the i6th century a false derivation changed the ancient consuls (domini de capitulo) into the modern " capitouls " (domini cafritolii tolosani), a barbarous etymology which in its turn has, in the present century, transformed the old assembly house of Toulouse into the capitole. The 1 About 975 there was a partition of the estates which William Taillefer and his cousin Raymond II. of Auvergne held in common, — Albi, Quercy, &c., falling to William, and Gothia, &c., to Raymond. 1 List of the counts of Toulouse: Chorson. .... 778-790 Raymond III. . . 924-c. 950 William I. 700-806 William Taillefer c. 950-6. 1037 Raymond Rafinel c 1 7 812-818 Pons 1037-1060 Berenger 818-835 William IV. . . io6o-c. 1093 Bernard I. . 835-844 Raymond IV. 1093-1096 Warin. . . 844-845 Bertrand . 1096-1109 William II. . 845-850 Alphonse Jourdain 1109-1148 Fridolo . 850-852 Raymond V. . 1148-1194 Raymond I. . 852-864 Raymond VI. 1194-1222 Bernard . 864-875 Raymond VII. 1222-1249 Eudo 875-018 Alfonso and Joan 1249-1271 Raymond II. 9i8-c. 924 parlement of Toulouse was established as a permanent court in 1443. Louis XI. transferred it to Montpellier in 1467, but restored it to Toulouse before the close of the next year. This parlement was for Languedoc and southern France what the parlement of Paris was for the north. During the religious wars of the i6th century the Protestants of the town made two unsuccessful attempts to hand it over to the prince de Conde. After St Bartholomew's Day (1572) 30x3 of the party were massacred. Towards the end of the i6th century, during the wars of the League, the parlement was split up into three different sections, sitting respectively at Carcassonne or Beziers, at Castle Sarrasin, and at Toulouse. The three were reunited in 1 596. Under Francis I. it began to persecute heretics, and in 1619 rendered itself notorious by burning the philosopher Vanini. In 1762 Jean Calas, an old man falsely accused of murdering his eldest son to prevent him becoming a Reman Catholic, was broken on the wheel. By the exertions of Voltaire his character was afterwards rehabilitated. The university of Toulouse owes its origin to the action of Gregory IX., who in 1229 bound Raymond VII. to maintain four masters to teach theology and eight others for canon law, grammar, and the liberal arts. Civil law and medicine were taught only a few years later. The famous " Floral Games " of Toulouse, in which the poets of Languedoc contended (May 1-3) for the prize of the golden amaranth and other gold or silver flowers, given at the expense of the city, were instituted in 1323-1324. The Academic des Jeux Floraux still awards these prizes for compositions in poetry and prose. In 1814 the duke of Wellington defeated Marshal Soult to the north-east of the town. See L. Ariste and L. Brand, Histoire populaire de Toulouse depuis les origines jusqu'ti ce jour (Toulouse, 1898). This work contains an exhaustive bibliography. TOUNGOO, or TAUNG-NGU, a town and district in the Tenas- serim division of Lower Burma. The town is situated on the right bank of the river Sittang, 166 m. by rail N. from Rangoon. Pop. (1001), 15,837. From the I4th to the i6th century it was the capital of an independent kingdom. After the second Burmese War it was an important frontier station, but the troops were withdrawn in 1893. The district of Toungoo has an area of 6172 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 279,315, showing an increase of 32% in the preceding decade. Three mountain ranges traverse the district — the Pegu Yomas, the Karen, and the Nat-taung or " Great Watershed " — all of which have a north and south direction, and are covered for the most part with dense forest. The Pegu Yomas have a general elevation of from 800 to 1 200 ft., while the central range averages from 2000 to 3000 ft. The rest of Toungoo forms the upper portion of the valley of the Sittang, the only large river in the district, the chief tributaries of which are the Shwa, Hkabaung, Hpyu Thank-ye-Kat and Yank-thua-wa, all navigable for a great portion of their course. Limestone appears in various places, and in the north-east a light grey marble is quarried for lime. The rivers form the chief means of communication during the rainy season. The rainfall in 1905 was 80-30 in. There are 14 railway stations in the district. Rice is the staple crop; there are promising plantations of coffee and rubber. Forests cover more than 5000 sq. m., of which 1337 sq. m. have been reserved, yielding a large revenue. TOUP, JONATHAN [JOANNES TOTJPIUS] (1713-1785), English classical scholar and critic, was born at St Ives in Cornwall, and was educated at a private school and Exeter College, Oxford. Having taken orders, he became rector of St Martin's Exeter, where he died on the igth of January 1785. Toup established his reputation by his Emendationes in Suidam (1760-1766, followed in 1775 by a supplement) and his edition of Longinus (1778), including notes and emendations by Ruhnken. The excellence of Toup's scholarship was " known to the learned throughout Europe " (so epitaph on the tablet in the church of East Looe set up by the delegates of the Clarendon Press), but his overbearing manner and extreme self-confidence made him many enemies. IO2 TOURACOU— TOURAINE TOURACOU, the name, evidently already in use, under which in 1743 G. Edwards figured a pretty African bird,1 and presumably that applied to it in Guinea, whence it had been brought alive. It is the Cuculus persa of Linnaeus, and Turacus (After Schlegel.) White-Crested Tburacou (Turacus albicristatus). or Corythaix persa of later authors. Cuvier in 1799 or 1800 Latinized its native name (adopted in the meanwhile by both French and German writers) as above, for which barbarous term J. K. W. Illiger, in 1811, substituted a more classical word. In 1788 Isert described and figured (Beobacht. Gesellsch. naturf. Freunde, iii. 16-20, pi. i) a bird, also from Guinea, which he called Musophaga violated. Its affinity to the original Touracou was soon recognized, and both forms have been joined by modern systematists in the family Musophagidae, commonly Englished Plantain-eaters or Touracous. To take first the Plantain-eaters proper, or the genus Musophaga, of which only two species are known. One, about the size of a crow, is comparatively common in museums, and has the horny base of its yellow bill prolonged backwards over the forehead in a kind of shield. The top of the head and the primaries, except their outer edge and tip, are deep crimson ; a white streak extends behind the eye; and the rest of the plumage is glossy purple. The second species, M. rossae, which is rare, chiefly differs by wanting the white eye-streak. Then of the Touracous — the species origin- ally described is about the size of a jay, and has the head, crest (which is vertically compressed and tipped with red), neck and breast of grass-green, varied by two white streaks — one, from the gape to the upper part of the crimson orbit, separated by a black patch from the other, which runs beneath and behind the eye. The wing-coverts, lower part of the back, and tail are of steel-purple, the primaries deep crimson, edged and tipped with bluish black. Over a dozen other congeneric species, more or less resembling this, have been described, and all inhabit some district of Africa. One, found in the Cape Colony and Natal, where it is known as the " Lory " (cf. xy. 7, note i), though figured by Daubenton and others, was first differentiated in 1841 by Strickland (Ann. Nat. History, vii. 33) as Turacus albicristatus — its crest having a con- spicuous white border, while the steel-purple of T. persa is replaced by a rich and glossy bluish green of no less beauty. In nearly all the species of this genus the nostrils are almost completely hidden by the frontal feathers; but there are two others in which, though closely allied, this is not the case, and some systematists would place them in a separate genus Gallirex; while another species, the giant of the family, has been moved into a third genus as Cory- thaeola cristata. This differs from any of the foregoing by the absence of the crimson coloration of the primaries, and seems to lead to another group, Schizorrhis, in which the plumage is of a still plainer type, and, moreover, the nostrils here are not only exposed but in the form of a slit, instead of being oval as in all the 1 Apparently the first ornithologist to make the bird known was Albin, who figured it in 1738 from the life, yet badly, as " The Crown-bird of Mexico." He had doubtless been misinformed as to its proper country; but Touracous were called " Crown-birds " by the Europeans in West Africa, as witness Bosnian's Description of the Coast of Guinea (2nd ed., 1721), p. 251, and W. Smith's Voyage to Guinea (1745), p. 149, though the name was also given to the crowned cranes, Balearica. rest. This genus contains about half-a-dozen species, one of which, S. concolor, is the Grey Touracou of the colonists in Natal, and is of an almost uniform slaty brown. A good deal has been written about these birds, which form the subject of a beautiful monograph — De Toerako's afgebeld en beschreven — by Schlegel and Westerman, brought out at Amsterdam in 1860; while further information is contained in an elaborate essay by Schalow (Journ. f. ornilhologie, 1886, pp. 1-77). Still, much remains to be made known as to their distribution throughout Africa and their habits. They seem to be all fruit-eaters, and to frequent the highest trees, seldom coming to the ground. Very little can be confidently asserted as to their nidification, but at least one species of Schizorrhis is said to make a rough nest and therein lay tnree eggs of a pale blue colour. An extraordinary peculiarity attends the crimson coloration which adorns the primaries of so many of the Musophagidae. So long ago as 1818, Jules Verreaux observed (Proc. Zool. Society, 1871, p. 40) that in the case of T. albicristatus this beautiful hue vanishes on exposure to heavy rain and reappears only after some interval of time and when the feathers are dry.1 The Musophagidae form a distinct family, of which the Cuculidae are the nearest allies, the two being associated to torm the Cuculine as compared with the Psittacine division of Cuculiform birds (see BIRD and PARROT). T. C. Eyton pointed out (Ann. Nat. History, 3rd series, vol. ii. p. 458) a feature possessed in common by the latter and the Musophagidae, in the " process attached to the anterior edge of the ischium," which he likened to the so-called " marsupial " bones of Didelphian mammals. J. T. Reinhardt has also noticed (Vidensk. meddels. naturhist. forening, 1871, pp. 326-341) another Cuculine character offered by the os uncina- tum affixed to the lower side of the ethmoid in the Plantain-eaters and Touracous; but too much dependence must not be placed on that, since a similar structure is presented by the frigate-bird (q.v.) and the petrels (q.v.). A corresponding process seems also to be found in Trogon (q.v.). The bill of nearly all the species of Muso- phagidae is curiously serrated or denticulated along the margin and the feet have the outer toe reversible, but usually directed backwards. No member of the family is found outside of the continental portion of the Ethiopian region. (A. N.) TOURAINE, an old province in France, which stretched along both banks of the Loire in the neighbourhood of Tours, the river dividing it into Upper and Lower Touraine. It was bounded on the N. by Orleanais, W. by Anjou and Maine, S. by Poitou and E. by Berry, and it corresponded approximately to the modern department of Indre et Loire. Touraine took its name from the Turones, the tribe by which it was inhabited at the time of Caesar's conquest of Gaul. They were unwarlike, and offered practically no resistance to the invader, though they joined in the revolt of Vercingetorix in A.D. 52. The capital city, Caesarodunum, which was built on the site of the eastern part of the present city of Tours, was made by Valentinian the metropolis of the 3rd Lyon- naise, which included roughly the later provinces of Touraine, Brittany, Maine and Anjou. Christianity seems to have been introduced into Touraine not much earlier than the beginning of the 4th century, although tradition assigns St Gatien, the first bishop of Tours, to the 3rd. The most famous of its apostles was St Martin (fl. 375-400), who founded the abbey of Marmoutier, near Tours, and whose tomb in the city became a celebrated shrine. Tours was besieged by the Visigoths in 428, and though it offered a successful resistance on this occasion it was included fifty years later in the territory of the Visigoths. The Tourangeans refused to adopt the Arian heresy of their conquerors, and this difference in religion materially assisted in 507 the conquest of the province by Clovis, whose orthodoxy was guaranteed by the miraculous intervention of St Martin. St Clotilda, wife of Clovis, spent the last years of her life in retreat at Tours. The possession of Touraine was constantly the subject of dispute between the Merovingian princes, and the province enjoyed no settled peace until the reign of Charlemagne. He established Alcuin as abbot of St Martin of Tours, and under his auspices the school of Tours became one of the chief seats of learning in 2 The fact of this colouring matter being soluble in water was incidentally mentioned at a meeting of the Zoological Society of London by W. B. Tegetmeier, and brought to the notice of Professor A. H. Church, who, after experiment, published in 1868 (Student and Intellectual Observer, i. 161-168) an account of it as " Turacin, a new animal pigment containing copper." Further information on the subject was given by Monteiro (Ghent. News, xxviii. 201; Quart. Journ. Science, 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 132). The property is possessed by the crimson feathers of all the birds of the family. TOURCOING— TOURMALINE 103 the middle ages. In the gth century Tours also became the ecclesiastical metropolis of Brittany, Maine and Anjou, and when the empire was divided by Louis the Pious into various districts or missatica, Tours was the centre of one of these, the boundaries of which corresponded roughly with those of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the city. Touraine suffered from the invasions of the Northmen, who massacred the monks of Marmoutier in 853, but never pillaged Tours. The administration of Touraine was entrusted, from Merovingian times onward, to counts appointed by the crown. The office became hereditary in 940 or 941 with Thibault the Old or the " Tricheur." His son Odo I. was attacked by Fulk the Black, count of Anjou, and despoiled of part of his territory. His grandson Thibault III., who refused homage to Henry I., king of France, in 1044, was entirely dispossessed by Geoffrey of Anjou, called the Hammer (d. 1060). The 7th count, Fulk (d. 1109), ruled both Anjou and Touraine, and the county of Touraine remained under the domination of the counts of Anjou (q.v.) until Henry II. of England deprived his brother Geoffrey of Touraine by force of arms. Henry II. carried out many improvements, but peace was destroyed by the revolt of his sons. Richard Coeur de Lion, in league with Philip Augustus, had seized Touraine, and after his death Arthur of Brittany was recognized as count. In 1204 it was united to the French crown, and its cession was formally acknowledged by King John at Chinon in 1214. Philip appointed Guillaume des Roches hereditary seneschal in 1204, but the dignity was ceded to the crown in 1312. Touraine was granted from time to time to princes of the blood as an appanage of the crown of France. In 1328 it was held by Jeanne of Burgundy, queen of France; by Philip, duke of Orleans, in 1344; and in 1360 it was made a peerage duchy on behalf of Philip the Bold, afterwards duke of Burgundy. It was the scene of dispute between Charles, afterwards Charles VII., and his mother, Isabel of Bavaria, who was helped by the Burgundians. After his expulsion from Paris by the English Charles spent much of his time in the chateaux of Touraine, although his seat of government was at Bourges. He bestowed the duchy successively on his wife Mary of Anjou, on Archibald Douglas and on Louis III. of Anjou. It was the dower of Mary Stuart as the widow of Francis II. The last duke of Touraine was Francis, duke of Alencon, who died in 1584. Plessis-les-Tours had been the favourite residence of Louis XL, who granted many privileges to the town of Tours, and increased its prosperity by the establishment of the silk-weaving industry. The reformed religion numbered many adherents in Touraine, who suffered in the massacres following on the conspiracy of Amboise; and, though in 1562 the army of Conde pillaged the city of Tours, the marshal of St Andre reconquered Touraine for the Catholic party. Many Huguenots emigrated after the massacre of St Bartholomew, and after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes the silk industry, which had been mainly in the hands of the Huguenots, was almost destroyed. This migration was one of the prime causes of the extreme poverty of the province in the next century. At the Revolution the nobles of Touraine made a declaration expressing their sympathy with the ideas of liberty and fraternity. Among the many famous men who were born within its boundaries are Jean le Meingre Boucicaut, marshal of France, Beroalde de Verville, author of the Moyen de parvenir, Rabelais, Cardinal Richelieu, C. J. Avisseau, the potter (1796-1861), the novelist Balzac and the poet Alfred de Vigny. See the quarterly publication of the Memoires of the Societe archeologique de Touraine (1842, &c.) which include a Dictionnaire geographique, historique et biographique (6 vols., 1878-1884), by J. X. Carr6 de Busserolle. There are histories of Touraine and its monuments by Chalmel (4 vols. Paris, 1828), by S. Bellanger (Paris, 1845), by Bourrasse1 (1858). See also Dupin de Saint Andre1, Hist, du protestantisme en Touraine (Paris, 1885); T. A. Cook, Old Touraine (2 vols. London, 1892). TOURCOING, a manufacturing town of northern France in the department of Nord, less than a mile from the Belgian frontier, and 8 m. N.N.E. of Lille on the railway to Ghent. Pop. (1906), 62,694 (commune, 81,671), of whom about one-third are natives of Belgium. Tourcoing is prac- tically one with Roubaix to the south, being united thereto by a tramway and a branch of the Canal de Roubaix. The public institutions comprise a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an exchange and a condi- tioning house for textiles. Together with Roubaix, Tourcoing ranks as one of the chief textile centres of France. Its chief industry is the combing, spinning and twisting of wool carried on in some eighty factories employing between 10,000 and 12,000 workpeople. The spinning and twisting of cotton is also important. The weaving establishments produce woollen and mixed woollen and cotton fabrics together with silk and satin drapery, swanskins, jerseys and other fancy goods. The making of velvet pile carpets and upholstering materials is a speciality of the town. To these industries must be added those of dyeing, the manufacture of hosiery, of the machinery and other apparatus used in the textile factories and of soap. Famed since the i2th century for its woollen manufactures, Tourcoing was fortified by the Flemings in 1477, when LouisXI. of France disputed the inheritance of Charles the Bold with Mary of Burgundy, but in the same year was taken and pillaged by the French. In 1794 the Republican army, under Generals Moreau and Souham, gained a decisive victory over the Austrians, the event being commemorated by a monument in the public garden. The inhabitants, 18,000 in 1789, were reduced by the French Revolution to 10,000. TOURMALINE, a mineral of much interest to the physicist on account of its optical and electrical properties; it is also of some geological importance as a rock-constituent (see SCHORL), whilst certain transparent varieties have economic value as gem-stones. The name is probably a corruption of turmali, or toramalli, the native name applied to tourmaline and zircon in Ceylon, whence specimens of the former mineral were brought to Europe by the Dutch in 1703. The green tourmaline of Brazil had, however, been known here much earlier; and coarse varieties of the mineral had passed for cen- turies under the German name of Schorl, an old mining word of uncertain origin, possibly connected with the old German Schor (refuse), in allusion to the occurrence of the mineral with the waste of the tin-mines. The German village of Schorlau may have taken its name from the mineral. It has been suggested that the Swedish form skorl has possible connexion with the word sko'r, brittle. Tourmaline crystallizes in the rhombohedral division of the hexagonal system. The crystals have generally a prismatic habit, the prisms being longitudinally striated or even channelled. Trigonal prisms are characteristic, so that a transverse section becomes triangular or often nine-sided. By combination of several prisms the crystals may become sub-cylindrical. The crystals when doubly terminated are often hemimorphic or present dissimilar forms at the opposite ends; thus the hexagonal prisms in fig. I are terminated at one end by rhombohedral faces, o, P, and at the other by the basal plane k'. Doubly- terminated crystals, however, are com- paratively rare ; the crystals being usually attached at one end to the matrix. It is notable that prismatic crystals of tour- maline have in some cases been curved and fractured transversely; the displaced fragments having been cemented together by deposition of fresh mineral matter. Tourmaline is not infre- quently columnar, acicular or fibrous; and the fibres may radiate from a centre so as to form the so-called " tourmaline suns." Crystals of tourmaline present no distinct cleavage, but break with a sub-conchpidal fracture; and whilst the general lustre of the mineral is vitreous, that of the fractured surface is rather pitchy. The hardness is slightly above that of quartz (7). The specific gravity varies according to chemical composition, that of the colourless varieties being about 3, whilst in schorl it may rise to 3^2. Tourmaline has a great range of colour, and in many cases the crystals are curiously parti-coloured. Occasionally, though rarely, the mineral is colourless, and is then known as achroite, a name proposed by R. Hermann in 1845, and derived from the Greek SXPOOS (uncoloured). Red tourmaline, which when of fine colour is the most valued of all varieties, is known as rubellite (?.».). Green tourmaline is by no means uncommon, but the blue is rather rare FIG. i. 104 TOURNAI and is distinguished by the name indigolite, generally written indi- colite. Brown is a common colour, and black still more common, this being the usual colour of schorl, or common coarse tourmaline. Thin splinters of schorl may, however, be blue or brown by transmitted light. The double refraction of tourmaline is strong. The mineral is optically negative, the ordinary index being about 1-64, and the extraordinary 1-62. Coloured tourmalines are intensely pleochroic, the ordinary ray, which vibrates perpendicular to the principal axis, being much more strongly absorbed than the extraordinary; hence a slice cut in the direction of the principal or optic axis trans- mits sensibly only the extraordinary ray, and may consequently be used as a polarizing medium. The brown tourmaline of Ceylon and Brazil is best adapted for this purpose, but the green is also used. Two plates properly mounted form the instrument used by opticians for testing spectacle-lenses, and are known as the " tourmaline tongs." In order to secure the best colour-effect when used as a gem-stone, the tourmaline should be cut with the table parallel to the optic axis. It was in tourmaline that the phenomenon of pyroelectricity was first observed. On being heated in peat ashes its attractive power was observed by the Dutch, in the early part of the l8th century; and this curious character obtained for it the name of aschtrekker, or ash-drawer. J. R. Hatty first pointed out the relation of pyroelec- tricity with hemimorphism. Tourmaline is also piezoelectric, that is, it becomes electric by pressure. If a crystal be subjected to pressure along the optic axis, it behaves as though it were contracting by reduction of temperature. The mineral may also be rendered electric by friction, and retains the charge for a long time. Tourmaline is a boro-silicate of singularly complex composition. Indeed the word tourmaline is sometimes regarded as the name of a group of isomorphous minerals rather than that of a definite species. Numerous analyses have been made, and the results discussed by a large number of authorities. In the view of S. L. Penfield and H. W. Foote all tourmaline may be derived from a boro-silicic acid of the formula HnB^iiOu. It is believed that the hydrogen is present as hydroxyl, and that this may be partially replaced by fluorine. The tourmaline acid has probably the con- stitution Hi8(B-OH)jSi4Oi9. Nine atoms of hydrogen are replaced by three of aluminium, and the remaining nine in part by other metals. Lithium is present in red tourmaline; magnesium dominates in brown; iron, manganese and sometimes chromium are found in green ; and much iron occurs in the black varieties. Four groups are sometimes recognized, characterized by the presence of (l) lithium, (2) ferrous iron, (3) ferric iron and (4) magnesium. Tourmaline occurs commonly in granite, greisen, gneiss and crystalline schists. In many cases it appears to have been formed by pneumatolysis, or the action on the rocks of heated vapours containing boron and fluorine, as in many tin-bearing districts, where tourmaline is a characteristic mineral. Near the margin of a mass of granite the rock often becomes schorlaceous or tourma- liniferous, and may pass into " tourmaline-rock," which is usually an aggregate of tourmaline and quartz. Tourmaline is an essential constituent of the west of England rocks called luxullianite (luxuly- anite) and trowlesworthite. It occurs embedded in certain meta- morphic limestones, where it is possibly due to fumarolic action. Microscopic crystals are common in clay-slate. By resistance to decomposition, tourmaline often survives the disintegration of the matrix, and thus passes into sands, clays, marls and other sedimentary deposits. Many of the finest crystals of tourmaline occur in druses in granitic rocks, such as those of San Piero in Elba, where some of the pale pink and green prisms are tipped with black, and have consequently been called nigger-heads. Lepidolite is a common associate of tourmaline, as at Rozena in Moravia. Tourmaline occurs, with corundum, in the dolomite of Campolongo, in canton Ticino, Switzerland. Fine black crystals, associated with apatite and quartz, were formerly found in granite at Chudleigh, near Bovey Tracey in Devonshire. The Russian localities for tourmaline are mentioned under RUBELLITE. Most of the tourmaline cut for jewelry comes from the gem-gravels of Ceylon. The green tour- maline has generally a yellowish or olive-green colour, and is known as " Ceylon chrysolite." Fine green crystals are found in Brazil, notably in the topaz-locality of Minas Novas; and when of vivid colour they have been called " Brazilian emeralds." Green tour- maline is a favourite ecclesiastical stone in South America Blue tourmaline occurs with the green ; this variety is found also at Ut6 in Sweden (its original locality) and notably near Hazaribagh in Bengal. Certain kinds of mica occasionally contain flat crystals of tourmaline between the cleavage-planes. Many localities in the United States are famous for tourmaline. Magnificent specimens have been obtained from Mt Mica, near Pans, Maine, where the mineral was accidentally discovered in 1820 by two students, E. L. Hamlin and E. Holmes. It occurs in granite, with lepidolite, smoky quartz, spodumene, &c. ; and some of the prismatic crystals are notable for being red at one end and green at the other. Mt Rubellite at Hebron, and Mt Apatite at Auburn, are other localities in Maine which have yielded fine tour- maline. At Chesterfield, Massachusetts, remarkable crystals occur, some of which show on transverse section a triangular nucleus of red tourmaline surrounded by a shell of green. Red and green tourmalines, with lepidolite and kunzite, are found in San Diego county, California. Fine coloured tourmalines occur at Haddam Neck, Connecticut; and excellent crystals of black tourmaline are well known from Pierrepont, New York, whilst remarkable brown crystals occur in limestone at Gouverneur in the same state. Canada is rich in tourmaline, notably at Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, and at Grand Calumet Island in the Ottawa river. Heemskirk Mountain, Tasmania, and Kangaroo Island, South Australia, have yielded fine coloured tourmaline fit for jewelry. Madagascar is a well-known locality for black tourmaline in large crystals. Many varieties of tourmaline have received distinctive names, some of which are noticed above. Dravite is G. Tschermak's name for a brown tourmaline, rich in magnesia but with little iron, occur- ring near Unter Drauburg in the Drave district in Carinthia. Taltalite was a name given by I. Domeyko to a mixture of tourmaline and copper ore from Taltal in Chile. The colourless Elba tourmaline was called apyrite by J. F. L. Hausmann, in allusion to its refractory behaviour before the blow-pipe; whilst a black iron-tourmaline from Norway was termed aphrazite by J. B. d'Andrada, in consequence of its intumescence when heated. (F. W. R.*) TOURKAI '(Flemish Doornik), a city of Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, situated on the Scheldt. Pop. (1904), 36,744. Although in the course of its long history it has undergone many sieges and was sacked at various epochs by the Vandals, Normans, French and Spaniards, it preserves many monuments of its ancient days. Among these is the cathedral of Notre-Dame, one of the finest and best preserved Romanesque and Gothic examples in Belgium (for plan, &c., see ARCHITECTURE: Romanesque and Gothic in Belgium). Its foundation dates from the year 1030, while the nave is Roman- esque of the middle of the i2th century, with much pointed work. The transept was added in the i3th century. The first choir was burned down in 1213, but was rebuilt in 1242 at the same time as the transept, and is a superb specimen of pointed Gothic. There are five towers with spires, which give the outside an impressive appearance, and much has been done towards removing the squalid buildings that formerly con- cealed the cathedral. There are several old pictures of merit, and the shrine of St Eleuthere, the first bishop of Tournai in the 6th century, is a remarkable product of the silversmith's art. The belfry on the Grand Place was built in 1187, partly reconstructed in 1391 and finally restored and endowed with a steeple in 1852. The best view of the cathedral can be obtained from its gallery. The church of St Quentin in the same square as the belfry is almost as ancient as Notre- Dame, and the people of Tournai call it the " little cathedral." In the church of St Brice is the tomb of Childeric discovered in 1655. Among the relics were three hundred small golden models of bees. These were removed to Paris, and when Napoleon was crowned emperor a century and a half later he chose Childeric's bees for the decoration of his coronation mantle. In this manner the bee became associated with the Napoleonic legend just as the lilies were with the Bourbons. The Pont des Trous over the Scheldt, with towers at each end, was built in 1290, and among many other interesting buildings there are some old houses still in occupation which date back to the I3th century. On the Grand Place is the fine statue of Christine de Lalaing, princess d'Epinoy, who defended Tournai against Parma in 1581. Tournai carries on a large trade in carpets (called Brussels), bonnet shapes, corsets and fancy goods generally. With regard to the carpet manufactory, it is said locally to date from the time of the Crusades, and it is presumed that the Crusaders learnt the art from the Saracens. The history of Tournai dates from the time of Julius Caesar, when it was called civitas Nerviorum or castrum Turnacum. In the reign of Augustus, Agrippa fixed the newly mixed colony of Suevi and Menapii at Tournai, which continued throughout the period of Roman occupation to be of importance. In the sth century the Franks seized Tournai, and Merovaeus made it the capital of his dynasty. This it remained until the subdivision of the Frank monarchy among the sons of Clovis. When feudal possessions, instead of being purely personal, were vested in the families of the holder after the death of Charlemagne, Tournai was specially assigned to Baldwin of the Iron Arm by Charles TOURNAMENT PLATE. KNIGHTS JOUSTING WITH CRONELLS ON THEIR LANCES. French MS. early XIV Century. (Royal MS. 14 E. Hi.) KNIGHTS JOUSTING. From a French MS. of the latter half of the XV Century. (Cotton MS. Nero D. ix.) ENGLISH KNIGHTS RIDING INTO THE LISTS. From the Great Tournament Roll of 1511; by permission of the College of Arms. XXVII. 104. TOURNAMENT the Bald, whose daughter Judith he had abducted, on receiving the hereditary title of count of Flanders. During the Bur- gundian period it was the residence of Margaret of York, widow of Charles the Bold; and the pretender Perkin Warbeck, whom she championed, if not born there, was the reputed son of a Jew of Tournai. In the early i6th century Tournai was an English possession for a few years and Henry VIII. sold it to Francis I. It did not long remain French, for in 1521 the count of Nassau, Charles V.'s general, took it and added it to the Spanish provinces. During the whole of the middle ages Tournai was styled the " seigneurie de Tournaisis," and pos- sessed a charter and special privileges of its own. Near Tournai was fought, jon the nth of May 1745, the famous battle of Fontenoy. (D. C. B.) TOURNAMENT, or TOURNEY (Fr. tournement, tournoi, Med. Lat. torneamentum, from tourner, to turn), the name popularly given in the middle ages to a species of mock fight, so called owing to the rapid turning of the horses (Skeat). Of the several medieval definitions of the tournament given by Du Cange (Glossarium, s.v. " Tourneamentum "), the best is that of Roger of Hoveden, who described tournaments as " military exercises carried out, not in the spirit of hostility (nullo inlerveniente odio), but solely for practice and the display of prowess (pro solo exercitio, atque ostentations virium)." Men who carry weapons have in all ages played at the game of war in time of peace. But the tournament, properly so called, does not appear in Europe before the nth century, in spite of those elaborate fictions of Ruexner's Thurnierbuch which detail the tournament laws of Henry the Fowler. More than one chronicler records the violent death, in 1066, of a French baron named Geoffroi de Preulli, who, according to the testimony of his contemporaries, " invented tournaments." In England, at least, the tourna- ment was counted a French fashion, Matthew Paris calling it confliclus gallicus. By the i2th century the tournament had grown so popular in England that Henry II. found it necessary to forbid the sport which gathered in one place so many barons and knights in arms. In that age we have the famous description by William FitzStephen of the martial games of the Londoners in Smith- field. He tells how on Sundays in Lent a noble train of young men would take the field well mounted, rushing out of the city with spear and shield to ape the feats of war. Divided into parties, one body would retreat, while another pursued striving to un- horse them. The younger lads, he says, bore javelins disarmed of their steel, by which we may know that the weapon of the elders was the headed lance. William of Newbury tells us how the young knights, balked of their favourite sport by the royal mandate, would pass over sea to win glory in foreign lists. Richard I. relaxed his father's order, granting licences for tournaments, and Jocelin of Brakelond has a long story of the great company of cavaliers who held a tournament between Thetford and Bury St Edmunds in defiance of the abbot. From that time onward unlicensed tourneying was treated as an offence against the Crown, which exacted heavy fees from all taking part in them even when a licence had been obtained. Often the licence was withheld, as in 1255, when the king's son's grave peril in Gascony is alleged as a reason for forbidding a meeting. In 1299 life and limb were declared to be forfeit in the case of those who should arrange a tourney without the royal licence, and offenders were to be seized with horse and harness. As the tournament became an occasion for pageantry and feasting, new reason was given for restraint: a simple knight might beggar himself over a sport which risked costly horses and carried him far afield. Jousters travelled from land to land, like modern cricketers on their tours, offering and accepting challenges. Thus Edward I., before coming to the throne, led eighty knights to a tournament on the Continent. Before the jousts at Windsor on St George's Day in 1344 heralds published in France, Scotland, Burgundy, Hainault, Flanders, Brabant and the domains of the emperor the king's offer of safe conduct for competitors. At the weddings of princes and magnates and at the crowning of kings the knights gathered to the joustings, which had become as much a part of such high ceremonies as the banquet and the minstrelsy. The fabled glories of the Round Table were revived by princely hosts, who would assemble a gallant company to keep open house and hold the field against all comers, as did Mortimer, the queen's lover, when, on the eve of his fall, he brought all the chivalry of the land to the place where he held his Round Table. About 1292 the " Statute of Arms for Tournaments " laid down, " at the request of the earls and barons and of the knighthood of England," new laws for the game. Swords with points were not to be used, nor pointed daggers, nor club nor mace. None was to raise up a fallen knight but his own appointed squires, clad in his device. The squire who offended was to lose horse and arms and lie three years in gaol. A northern football crowd would understand the rule that forbade those coming to see the tournament to wear harness or arm themselves with weapons. Disputes were to be settled by a court of honour of princes and earls. That such rules were needful had been shown at Rochester in 1251, where the foreign knights were beaten by the English and so roughly handled that they fled to the city for refuge. On their way the strangers were faced by another company of knights who handled them roughly and spoiled them, thrashing them with staves in revenge for the doings at a Brackley tournament. Even as early as the I3th century some of these tournaments were mere pageants of horsemen. For the Jousts of Peace held at Windsor Park in 1278 the sword-blades are of whalebone and parchment, silvered; the helms are of boiled leather and the shields of light timber. But the game could make rough sport. Many a tournament had its tale of killed and wounded in the chronicle books. We read how Roger of Lemburn struck Arnold de Montigny dead with a lance thrust under the helm. The first of the Montagu earls of Salisbury died of hurts taken at a Windsor jousting, and in those same lists at Windsor the earl's grandson Sir William Montagu was killed by his own father. William Longespee in 1256 was so bruised that he never recovered his strength, and he is among many of whom the like is written. Blunted or " rebated " lance-points came early into use, and by the i4th century the coronall or cronell head was often fitted in place of the point. After 1400 the armourers began to devise harness with defences specially wrought for ser- vice in the lists. But the joust lost its chief perils with the invention of the tilt, which, as its name imports, was at first a cloth stretched along the length of the lists. The cloth became a stout barrier of timber, and in the early i6th century the knight ran his course at little risk. Locked up in steel harness, reinforced with the grand-guard and the other jousting pieces, he charged along one side of this barrier, seeing little more through the pierced sight-holes of the helm than the head and shoulders of his adversary. His bridle arm was on the tilt-side, and thus the blunted lance struck at an angle upon the polished plates. Mishaps might befall. Henry II. of France died from the stroke of Gabriel de Montgomeri, who failed to cast up in time the truncheon of his splintered lance. But the 16th-century tourna- ment was, in the main, a bloodless meeting. The i sth century had seen the mingling of the tournament and the pageant. Adventurous knights would travel far afield in time of peace to gain worship in conflicts that perilled life and limb, as when the Bastard of Burgundy met the Lord Scales in 1466 in West Smithfield under the fair and costly galleries crowded with English dames. On the first day the two ran courses with sharp spears; on the second day they tourneyed on horseback, sword in hand; on the third day they met on foot with heavy pole-axes. But the great tournament held in the market-place of Bruges, when the jousting of the Knights of the Fleece was part of the pageant of the Golden Tree, the Giant and the Dwarf, may stand as a magnificent example of many such gay gatherings. When Henry VIII. was scattering his father's treasure the pageant had become an elaborate masque. For two days after the crowning of the king at Westminster, Henry and his queen viewed from the galleries of a fantastic palace set up beside the tilt-yard a play in which deer were pulled down by greyhounds in a paled park, in which the Lady Diana io6 TOURNEFORT— TOURNEUR and the Lady Pallas came forward, embowered in moving castles, to present the champions. Such costly shows fell out of fashion after the death of Henry VIII.; and in England the tournament remained, until the end, a martial sport. Sir Henry Lee rode as Queen Elizabeth's champion in the tilt-yard of Whitehall until his years forced him to surrender the gallant office to that earl of Cumberland who wore the Queen's glove pinned to the flap of his hat. But in France the tournament lingered on until it degenerated to the carrousel, which, originally a horseman's game in which cavaliers pelted each other with balls, became an unmartial display when the French king and his courtiers pranced in such array as the wardrobe-master of the court ballets would devise for the lords of Ind and Africk. The tournament was, from the first, held to be a sport for men of noble birth, and on the Continent, where nobility was more exactly defined than in England, the lists were jealously closed to all combatants but those of the privileged class. In the German lands, questions as to the purity of the strain of a candi- date for admission to a noble chapter are often settled by appeal to the fact that this or that ancestor had taken part in a tourna- ment. Konrad Griinenberg's famous heraldic manuscript shows us the Helmschau that came before the German tournament of the 1 5th century — the squires carrying each his master's crested helm, and a little scutcheon of arms hanging from it, to the hall where the king of arms stands among the ladies and, wand in hand, judges each blazon. In England several of those few rolls of arms which have come down to us from the middle ages record the shields displayed at certain tournaments. Among the illustrations of the article HERALDRY will be seen a leaf of a roll of arms of French and English jousters at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and this leaf is remarkable as illustrating also the system of " checques " for noting the points scored by the champions. (O. BA.) TOURNEFORT. JOSEPH PITTON DE (1656-1708), French botanist, was born at Aix, in Provence, on the sth of June 1656. He studied in the convent of the Jesuits at Aix, and was destined for the Church, but the death of his father left him free to follow his botanical inclinations. After two years' collecting, he studied medicine at Montpellier, but was appointed pro- fessor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes in 1683. By the king's order he travelled through western Europe, where he made extensive collections, and subsequently spent three years in Greece and Asia Minor (1700-1702). Of this journey a de- scription in a series of letters was posthumously published in 3 vols. (Relation d'un voyage du Levant, Lyons, 1717). His principal work is entitled Institutiones rei herbariae (3 vols. Paris, 1700), and upon this rests chiefly his claims to remem- brance as one of the most eminent of the systematic botanists who prepared the way for Linnaeus. He died on the 28th of December 1708. TOURNEUR, CYRIL (c. 1575-1626), English dramatist, was perhaps the son of Captain Richard Turner, water-bailiff and subsequently lieutenant-governor of Brill in the Netherlands. Cyril Tourneur also served in the Low Countries, for in 1613 there is a record made of payment to him for carrying letters to Brussels. He enjoyed a pension from the government of the United Provinces, possibly by way of compensation for a post held before Brill was handed over to the Dutch in 1616. In 1625 he was appointed by Sir Edward Cecil, whose father had been a former governor of Brill, to be secretary to the council of war. This appointment was cancelled by Buckingham, but Tourneur sailed in Cecil's company to Cadiz. On the return voyage from the disastrous expedition he was put ashore at Kinsale with other sick men, and died in Ireland on the 28th of February 1626. (M.BR.) An allegorical poem, worthless as art and incomprehensible as allegory, is his earliest extant work; an elegy on the death of Prince Henry, son of James I., is the latest. The two plays on which his fame rests, and on which it will rest for ever, were published respectively in 1607 and 1611, but all students have agreed to accept the internal evidence which assures us that the later in date of publication must be the earlier in date of composition. His only other known work is an epicede on Sir Francis Vere, of no great merit as poetry, but of some value as conveying in a straightforward and mascu- line style the poet's ideal conception of a perfect knight or " happy warrior," comparable by those who may think fit to compare it with the more nobly realized ideals of Chaucer and of Wordsworth. But if Tourneur had left on record no more memorable evidence of his powers than might be fupplied by the survival of his elegies, he could certainly have claimed no higher place among English writers than is now occupied by the Rev. Charles Fitzgeoffrey, whose voluminous and fer- vent elegy on Sir Francis Drake is indeed of more actual value, historic or poetic, than either or than both of Tourneur's elegiac rhapsodies. The singular power, the singular originality and the singular limitation of his genius are all equally obvious in The Atheist's Tragedy, a dramatic poem no less crude and puerile and violent in action and evolution than simple and noble and natural in expression and in style. The executive faculty of the author is in the metrical parts of his first play so imperfect as to suggest either incompetence or perversity in the workman; in The Revenger's Tragedy it is so magnificent, so simple, im- peccable and sublime that the finest passages of this play can be compared only with the noblest examples of tragic dialogue or monologue now extant in English or in Greek. There is no trace of imitation or derivation from an alien source in the genius of this poet. The first editor of Webster has observed how often he imitates Shakespeare; and, in fact, essentially and radically independent as is Webster's genius also, the sovereign influence of his master may be traced not only in the general tone of his style, the general scheme of his composition, but now and then in a direct and never an unworthy or imper- fect echo of Shakespeare's very phrase and accent. But the resemblance between the tragic verse of Tourneur and the tragic verse of Shakespeare is simply such as proves the natural affinity between two great dramatic poets, whose inspiration partakes now and then of the quality more proper to epic or to lyric poetry. The fiery impulse, the rolling music, the vivid illustration of thought by jets of insuppressible passion, the perpetual sustenance of passion by the implacable persist- ency of thought, which we recognise as the dominant and distinctive qualities of such poetry as finds vent in the utter- ances of Hamlet or of Timon, we recognise also in the scarcely less magnificent poetry, the scarcely less fiery sarcasm, with which Tourneur has informed the part of Vindice — a harder- headed Hamlet, a saner and more practically savage and serious Timon. He was a satirist as passionate as Juvenal or Swift, but with a finer faith in goodness, a purer hope in its ultimate security of triumph. This fervent constancy of spirit relieves the lurid gloom and widens the h'mited range of a tragic imagina- tion which otherwise might be felt as oppressive rather than inspiriting. His grim and trenchant humour is as peculiar in its sardonic passion as his eloquence is original in the strenuous music of its cadences, in the roll of its rhythmic thunder. As a playwright, his method was almost crude and rude in the headlong straightforwardness of its energetic simplicity; as an artist in character, his interest was intense but narrow, his power magnificent but confined; as a dramatic poet, the force of his genius is great enough to ensure him an enduring place among the foremost of the followers of Shakespeare. (A. C. S.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The complete list of his extant works runs: The Atheists Tragedie; or, The Honest Man's Revenge (1611); A Funerall Poeme Upon the Death of the Most Worthie and True Soldier, Sir Francis Vere, Knight . . . (1609) ; "A Griefe on the Death of Prince Henrie, Expressed in a Broken Elegie . . .," printed with two other poems by John Webster and Thomas Haywood as Three Elegies on the most lamented Death of Prince Henry (1613) ; The Revengers Tragaedie (1607 and 1608); and an obscure satire, The Transformed Metamorphosis (1600). The only other play of Tourneur's of which we have any record -is The Nobleman, the MS. of which was destroyed by John Warburton's cook. This was entered on the Stationers' Register (Feb. 15, 1612) as a " Tragecomedye called The Nobleman written by Cyrill Tourneur." In 1613 a letter from Robert Daborne to Henslowe states that he has commissioned Cyril Tourneur to write one act of the promised Arraignment of TOURNEUX— TOURS London. " The Character of Robert, earl of Salisburye, Lore High Treasurer of England . . . written by Mr Sevill Turneur . . .,' in a MS in possession of Lord Mostyn (Hist. MSS. Commission. 4th Report, appendix, p. 361) may reasonably be assigned to Tourneur. Although no external evidence is forthcoming, Mr R. Boyle names Tourneur as the collaborator of Massinger in The Secona Maid's Tragedy (licensed 1611). The Revenger's Tragedy was printed in Dodsley's Old Plays (vol. iv., 1744, 1780 and 1825), and in Ancient British Drama (1810, vol. ii.). The best edition of Tourneur's works is The Plays and Poems Cyril Tourneur, edited with Critical Introduction and Notes, by Churton Collins (1878). See also the two plays printed with the masterpieces of Webster, with an introduction by J A. Symonds, in the" Mermaid Series " (l888and 1903). No particulars of Tourneur's life were available until the facts given above were abstracted by Mr Gordon Goodwin from the Calendar of State Papers (" Domestic Series," 1628-1629, 1629-1631, 1631-1633) and printed in the Academy (May 9, 1891). A critical study of the relation of The Atheist's Tragedy to Hamlet and other revenge-plays is given in Professor A. H. Thorndike's " Hamlet and Contemporary Revenge Plays " (Publ. of the Mod. Lang. Assoc., Baltimore, 1902). For the influence of Marston on Tourneur see E. E. Stoll, John Webster . . . (1905, Boston, Massachusetts); pp. 105-116. (M. BR.) TOURNEUX, JEAN MAURICE (1840- ), French man of letters and bibliographer, son of the artist and author J. F E. Tourneux, was born in Paris on the i2th of July 1849. He began his career as a bibliographer by collaborating in new editions of the Supercheries litteraires of Joseph Querard and the Dictionnaire des anonymes of Antoine Barbier. His most important bibliographical work was the Bibliographic de I'histoire de Paris pendant la revolution francflise (3 vols. 1890- 1901), which was crowned by the Academy of Inscriptions. This valuable work serves as a guide for the history of the city beyond the limits of the Revolution. His other works include bibliographies of Prosper MeVimee (1876), of Thebphile Gautier (1876), of the brothers deGoncourt (1897) and others; also editions of F. M. Grimm's Correspondance litteraire, of Diderot's Neveu de Rameau (1884), of Montesquieu's Lettres persanes (1886), &c. TOURNON, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Ardeche, on the right bank of the Rhone, 58 m. S. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 3642; commune, 5003. Tournon preserves a gateway of the 15th century and other remains of fortifications and an old castle used as town hall, court-house and prison and con- taining a Gothic chapel. The church of St Julian dates chiefly from the I4th century. The lycee occupies an old college founded in the i6th century by Cardinal Francois de Tournon. Of the two suspension bridges which unite the town with Tain on the left bank of the river, one was built in 1825 and is the oldest in France. A statue to General Rampon (d. 1843} stands in the Place Carnot. Wood-sawing, silk-spinning, and the manufacture of chemical manures, silk goods and hosiery are carried on in the town, which has trade in the wine of the Rhone hills. Tournon had its own counts as early as the reign of Louis I. In the middle of the i7th century the title passed from them to the dukes of Ventadour. TOURNUS, a town of east-central France, in the depart- ment of Saone-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Sa6ne, 20 m. N. by E. of Macon on the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906), 3787. The church of St Philibert (early nth century) once belonging to the Benedictine abbey of Tournus, suppressed in 1785, is in the Burgundian Romanesque style. The facade lacks one of the two flanking towers originally designed for it. The nave is roofed with barrel vaulting, supported on tall cylin- drical columns. The choir beneath which is a crypt of the nth century has a deambulatory and square chapels. In the Place de l'H6tel de Ville stands a statue of J. B. Greuze, born in the town in 1725. There are vineyards in the surrounding dis- trict and the town and its port have considerable commerce in wine and in stone from the neighbouring quarries. Chair- making i? an important industry. TOURS, a town of central France, capital of the department of Indre-et-Loire, 145 m. S.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906), town 61,507; commune, 67,601. Tours lies on the left bank of the Loire on a flat tongue of land between that river and the Cher a little above their junction. The right bank of the IO7 Loire is bordered by hills at the foot of which lie the suburbs of St Cyr and St Symphorien. The river is crossed by two suspension bridges, partly built on islands in the river, and by a stone bridge of the second half of the i8th century, the Pont de Tours. Many foreigners, especially English, live at or visit Tours, attracted by the town itself, its mild climate and situa- tion in " the garden of France," and the historic chateaux in the vicinity. The Boulevard Beranger, with its continuation, the Boulevard Heurteloup, traverses Tours from west to east dividing it into two parts; the old town to the north, with its narrow streets and ancient houses, contains the principal buildings, the shops and the business houses, while the new town to the south, centring round a fine public garden, is almost entirely residential. The Rue Nationale, the widest and hand- somest street in Tours, is a prolongation of the Pont de Tours and runs at right angles to the boulevards, continuing under the name of the Avenue de Grammont until it reaches the Cher. St Gatien, the cathedral of Tours, though hardly among the greatest churches of France, is nevertheless of considerable interest. A cathedral of the first half of the i2th century was burnt in 1 1 66 during the quarrel between Louis VII. of France and Henry II. of England. A new cathedral was begun about 1170 but not finished till 1547. The lower portions of the west towers belong to the iath century, the choir to the i3th century; the transept and east bays of the nave to the i4th; the remaining bays, a cloister on the north, and the facade, profusely decorated in the Flamboyant style, to the isth and i6th centuries, the upper part of the towers being in the Renaissance style of the i6th century. In the interior there is fine stained glass, that of the choir (i3th century) being espe- cially remarkable. The tomb of the children of Charles VIII., constructed in the first years of the i6th century and attributed to the brothers Juste is also of artistic interest. An example of Romanesque architecture survives in the great square tower of the church of St Julien, the rest of which is in the early Gothic style of the I3th century, with the exception of two apses added in the 1 6th century. Two towers and a Renaissance cloister are the chief remains of the celebrated basilica of St Martin built mainly during the 1 2th and I3th centuries and demolished in 1802. It stood on the site of an earlier and very famous church built from 466 to 472 by bishop St Perpetuus and destroyed together with many other churches in a fire in 998. Two other churches worthy of mention are Nptre-Dame la Riche, originally built in the I3th century, rebuilt in the l6th, and magnificently restored in the igth century; and St Saturnin of the isth century. The new basilica of St Martin and the church of St Etienne are modern. Of the old houses of Tours the h6tel Gouin and that wrongly known as the house of Tristan 1'Hermite (both of the isth century) are the best known. Tours has several learned societies and a valuable library, including among its MSS. a gospel of the 8th century on which the kings of France took oath as honorary canons of the church of St Martin. The museum contains a collection of pictures, and the museum of the Archaeological Society of Touraine has valuable antiquities; there is also a natural history museum. The chief public monuments are the fountain of the Renaissance built by Jacques de Beaune (d. 1527), financial minister, the statues of Descartes, Rabelais and Balzac, the latter born at Tours, and a monument to the three doctors Bretonneau, Trousseau and Velpeau. Tours is the seat of an archbishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes, and headquarters of the IX. Army Corps and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Among its educational institutions are a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, lycees for both sexes, a training college for girls: and schools }f fine art and music. The industrial establishments of the town nclude silk factories and numerous important printing-works, steel works, irort. foundries and factories for automobiles, machinery, oil, lime and cement, biscuits, portable buildings, stained glass, 5Oots and shoes and porcelain. A considerable trade is carried on n the wine of the district and in brandy and in dried fruits, sausages and confectionery, for which the town is well known. Three-quarters )f a mile to the south-west of Tours lie unimportant remains of 3lessis-les-Tours, the chateau built by Louis XL, whither he retired Before his death in 1483. On the right bank of the Loire 2 m. above the town are the ruins of the ancient and powerful abbey of Vlarmoutier. Five miles to the north-west is the large agricultural reformatory of Mettray founded in 1839. Tours (see TOURAINE), under the Gauls the capital of the Turones or Turons, originally stood on the right bank of the Loire, a little above the present village of St Symphorien. At io8 TOURVILLE, COMTE DE first called Altionos, the town was afterwards known as Caesaro- dunum. The Romans removed the town from the hill where it originally stood to the plain on the left bank of the river. Behind the present cathedral, remains of the amphitheatre (443 ft. in length by 394 in breadth) built towards the end of the 2nd century might formerly be seen. Tours became Christian about 250 through the preaching of Gatien, who founded the bishopric. The first cathedral was built a hundred years later by StLitorius. The bishopricbecameanarchbishopricwhenGratian made Tours the capital of Lugdunensis Tertia though the bishops did not adopt the title of archbishop till the pth century. About the beginning of the 5th century the official name of Caesarodunurn was changed for that' of Civitas Turo- norum. St Martin, the great apostle of the Gauls, was bishop of Tours in the 4th century, and he was buried in a suburb which soon became as important as the town itself from the number of pilgrims who flocked to his tomb. Towards the end of the 4th century, apprehensive of barbarian invasion, the inhabitants pulled down some of their earlier buildings in order to raise a fortified wall, the course of which can still be traced in places. Their advanced fort of Larcay still overlooks the valley of the Cher. Affiliated to the Armorican confederation in 435, the town did not fall to the Visigoths till 473, and the new masters were always hated. It became part of the Prankish dominions under Clovis, who, in consideration of the help afforded by St Martin, presented the church with rich gifts out of the spoils taken from Alaric, confirmed and extended its right of sanc- tuary, and accepted for himself and his successors the title of canon of St Martin. At the end of the 6th century the bishopric was held by St Gregory of Tours. Tours grew rapidly in prosperity under the Merovingians, but abuse of the right of sanctuary led to great disorder, and the church itself became a hotbed of crime. Charlemagne re-established discipline in the disorganized monastery and set over it the learned Alcuin, who established at Tours one of the oldest public schools of Christian philosophy and theology. The arts flourished at Tours in the middle ages and the town was the centre of the Poitevin Romanesque school of architecture. The abbey was made into a collegiate church in the nth century, and was for a time affiliated to Cluny, but soon came under the direct rule of Rome, and for long had bishops of its own. The suburb in which the monastery was situated became as important as Tours itself under the name of Martinopolis. The Normans, attracted by its riches, pillaged it in 853 and 903. Strong walls were erected from 906 to 910, and the name was changed to that of Chateauneuf. Philip Augustus sanctioned the communal privileges which the inhabitants forced from the canons of St Martin and the innumerable offerings of princes, lords and pilgrims maintained the prosperity of the town all through the middle ages. A 13th-century writer speaks with enthusiasm of the wealth and luxury of the inhabitants of Chateauneuf, of the beauty and chastity of the women and of the rich shrine of the saint. In the I4tb century Tours was united to Chateau- neuf within a common wall, of which a round tower, the Tour de Guise, remains, and both towns were put under the same administration. The numerous and long-continued visits of Charles VII., Louis XI., who established the silk-industry, and Charles VIII. during the isth century favoured the commerce and industry of the town, then peopled by 75,000 inhabitants. In the isth and i6th centuries the presence of Jean Fouquet the painter of Michel Colomb and the brothers Juste the sculp- tors, enhanced the fame of the town in the sphere of art. In 1562 Tours suffered from the violence of both Protestants and Catholics, and enjoyed no real security till after the pact entered into at Plessis-les-Tours between Henry III. and Henry of Navarre in 1589. In the I7th and i8th centuries Tours was the capital of the government of Touraine. Its manufactures, of which silk weaving was the chief, suffered from the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). In 1772 its mint, whence were issued the " livres " of Tours (librae Turonenses) was suppressed. During the Revolution the town formed a base of operations of the Republicans against the Vendeans. In 1870 it was for a time the seat of the delegation of the government of national defence. In 1871 it was occupied by the Germans from the toth of January to the 8th of March. See P. Vitry, Tours et les chdteaux de Touraine (Paris, 1905); E. Giraudet, Histoire de la ville de Tours (Tours, 1873) I L& Artistes tourangeaux (Tours, 1885). TOURVILLE, ANNE-HILARION DE COTENTIN (or Cos- TANTIN), COMTE DE (1642-1701), French admiral and marshal of France, was the son of Cesar de Cotentin, or Costantin, who held offices in the household of the king and of the prince of Conde. He is said to have been born at Tourville in Normandy, but was baptized in Paris on the 24th of November 1642, was commonly known as M. de Tourville, and was destined by his family to enter the Order of Malta. From the age of fourteen to the age of twenty-five, he served with the galleys of the Order. At that time the knights were still fighting the Barbary pirates of Algiers and Tunis. The young Anne-Hilarion is said to have been distinguished for courage. His life during these years, however, is little known. The supposed Memoirs bearing his name were published by the Abbe de Magron in the i8th century and belong to the large class of historical romances which pro- fessed to be biographies or autobiographies. In 1667 he was back in France, and was incorporated in the corps of officers of the French Royal navy which Louis XIV. was then raising from the prostration into which it had fallen during his minority. The positions of French naval officer and knight of Malta were not incompatible. Many men held both. The usual practice was that they did not take the full vows till they were in middle life, and had reached the age when they were entitled to hold one of the great offices. Until then they were free to marry, on condition of renouncing all claim to the chief places. As Anne-Hilarion de Cotentin married a wealthy widow, the marquise de Popeliniere, in 1689 at which time he was made count of Tourville, he severed his connexion with the Order. Nor does he appear to have served with it at all after his return to France in 1667. He was at first employed in cruising against the Barbary pirates and the Turks. In the expedition sent against Crete in 1668-69 under command of the Due de Beau- fort he had command of the " Croissant " (44). The Due de Beaufort was killed, and the expedition was a failure. When the war with Holland in which France and England acted as allies began in 1670, Tourville commanded the " Page " (50), in the squadron of the comte d'Estrees (1624-1707) sent to co-operate with the duke of York. He was present at the battle of Solebay (June 7, 1672), and in the action on the coast of Holland in the following year, when Prince Rupert commanded the English fleet. When England withdrew from the alliance, the scene of the naval war was transferred to the Mediterranean, where Holland was co-operating with the Spaniards. Tourvillle served under Abraham Duquesne in his battles with De Ruyter. He particularly distinguished himself at the battle of Palermo on the 2nd of June 1676. By this time he was known as one of the best officers in the service of King Louis XIV. Unlike many employed by the king to command his ships in the earlier part of his reign, Tourville was a seaman. He had the reputation of being able to do all the work required in a ship, and he had made a study of naval warfare. The great treatise on naval tactics afterwards published under the name of his secretary, the Jesuit Hoste or 1'Hoste, was understood to have been inspired by him. In 1683 he was chef d'escadre — rear admiral — with Duquesne in operations against the Barbary pirates, and he continued on that service with D'Estrees. By 1689 he bad been promoted lieutenant-general des armees navales, and was named vice-admiral du Levant or of the East. In June of that year he took up the commandership-in-chief of the French naval forces in the war against England and her continental allies which had begun in the previous year. From this time till the failure of his resources compelled King Louis XIV. to withdraw his fleets from the sea, Tourville continued to com- mand the naval war in the Channel and the Atlantic. His conduct and example during this period were the source of the system of manoeuvring to gain an advantage by some method TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE— TOWEL 109 other than plain fighting. The personal character of Tourville must be held to account largely for the timidity of the principles he established. Tourville's personal valour was of the finest quality, but like many other brave men, he was nervous under the weight of responsibility. It is no less clear that anxiety to avoid risking a disaster to his reputation was of more weight with him than the wish to win a signal success. He belonged to the type of men in whose minds the evil which may happen is always more visible than the good. In 1690 he had an oppor- tunity which might well have tempted the most cautious, and he missed it out of sheer care to keep his fleet safe against all conceivable chances, aided perhaps by a pedantic taste for formal, orderly movement. He was opposed in the channel by the allies, who had only fifty-six ships, while his own force, though it included some vessels of no serious value, was from seventy to eighty sail strong. He was feebly attacked by Admiral Arthur Herbert, the newly created earl of Torrington, off Beachy Head on the loth of July. The Dutch ships in the van were surrounded. The allies had to retreat in disorder, and Tourville followed in " line of battle " which limited his speed to that of his slowest ship. So his enemy escaped with comparatively little loss. In the following year he performed his famous " off shore cruise," in the Bay of Biscay. He moved to and fro in fine order avoiding being brought to battle, but also failing to inflict any harm on his opponent. In the mean- time the cause of King James II. was ruined in Ireland. In 1692 the Mediterranean fleet having failed to join him, he was faced by a vastly superior force of the allies. The French king had prepared a military force to invade England, and Tourville was expected to prepare the way. Having at least a clear indication that he was expected to act with vigour, if not piecise orders to fight against any odds, he made a resolute attack on the centre of the allies on the 2gth of May off Cape Barfleur, and drew off before he was surrounded. This action which with the pursuit of the following days made up what is called the battle of La Hogue, from the Bay where some of the fugitive French ships were destroyed, or Barfleur, proved his readiness to face danger. But his inability to take and act on a painful decision was no less proved in the retreat. He hesitated to sacrifice his crippled flagship, and thereby detained his whole fleet. The result was that the " Soleil Royale " herself and fifteen other ships were cut off and destroyed at La Hogue. In 1693 he was again at sea with a great fleet, and had a chance to inflict extreme injury on the allies by the capture of the Smyrna convoy which included their whole Mediterranean trade for the year. He did it a great deal of harm outside the Straits of Gibraltar, but again he kept his fleet in battle order, and a large part of the convoy escaped. King Louis XIV. who had a strong personal regard for him, continued to treat him with favour. Tourville was made Marshal of France in 1693, but the growing exhaustion of the French treasury no longer allowed the maintenance of great fleets at sea. Tour- ville remained generally at Toulon, and had no more fighting. He died in Paris in 1701. His only son, a colonel in the army, was killed at Denain in 1712. The English account of the battles of Beachy Head and La Hogue will be found in Ledyard's Naval History. Troude's Batailles navales de la France gives the French version of these and the other actions in which Tourville was concerned. Tourville is frequently mentioned in the Life of Duquesne by M. Jal. (D. H.) TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE (or LOUVERTURE), PIERRE- DOMINIQUE (c. 1746-1803), one of the liberators of Haiti, claimed to be descended from an African chief, his father, a slave in Haiti, being the chief's second son. He was at first surnamed Breda, but this was afterwards changed to L'Ouverture in token of the results of his valour in causing a gap in the ranks of the enemy. From childhood he manifested unusual abilities and succeeded, by making the utmost use of every opportunity, in obtaining a remarkably good education. He obtained the special confidence of his master, and was made superintendent of the other negroes on the plantation. After the insurrection of 1791 he joined the. insurgents, and, having acquired some knowledge of surgery and medicine, acted as physician to the forces. His rapid rise in influence aroused, however, the jealousy of Jean Francois, who caused his arrest on the ground of his partiality to the whites. He was liberated by the rival insurgent chief Baisson, and a partisan war ensued, but after the death of Baisson he placed himself under the orders of Jean Francois. Subsequently he joined the Spaniards, but, when the French government ratified the act declaring the freedom of the slaves, he came to the aid of the French. In 1796 he was named commander-in-chief of the armies of St Domingo, but, having raised and disciplined a powerful army of blacks, he made himself master of the wh'ole country, renounced the authority of France, and announced himself " the Buonaparte of St Domingo." He was taken prisoner by treachery on the part of France, and died in the prison of Joux, near Besanfon, on the 27th of April 1803. See Toussaint 1'Ouverture's own Memoires, with a life by Saint Remy; (Paris, 1850); Gragnon-Laconte, Toussaint Louverture (Paris, 1887); Scholcher, Vie de Toussaint Louverture (Paris, 1 889)1 and J. R. Beard, Life of Toussaint Louverture (1853). TOW, the term given in textile manufacture to the short fibres formed during the processes of scutching and hackling, and also to the yarns which are made from these fibres. A special machine termed a carding engine or a tow card is used to form these fibres into a sliver, this sliver then passes to the drawing frames, and thereafter follows the same process as line yarns in flax spinning. TOWANDA, a borough and the county-seat of Bradford county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the west bank of the Susque- hanna river, about 50 m. N.W. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1890), 4169; (1900), 4663 (322 foreign-born); (1910) 4281. Towanda is served by the Lehigh Valley and the Susquehanna & New York railways. It is situated about 730 ft. above the sea, and is surrounded by high hills. Towanda contains the museum of the Bradford County Historical Society. The borough is in a farming, dairying and stock-raising region, and has various manufactures. The first settlement was made by William Means in 1786, the village was laid out in 1812, became the county- seat in the same year, was variously known for some years as Meansville, Overton, Williamson, Monmouth and Towanda, and in 1828 was incorporated as the Borough of Towanda. Its name is an Indian word said to mean " where we bury the dead." TOWCESTER, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 8 m. S.S.W. of North- ampton, on the East & West Junction and the Northampton & Banbury Junction railways. Pop. (1901), 2371. It is pleasantly situated on the small river Tove, a left-bank affluent of the Ouse. The church of St Lawrence is a good Early English, Decorated and Perpendicular building, with a fine western Perpendicular tower. There are a considerable agricultural trade and a manufacture of boots and shoes. Here was a Roman town or village situated on Watling Street. The site has yielded a considerable number of relics. In the roth century a fortress was maintained here against the invading Danes. The site of both this and the Roman station is marked by an artificial mound known as Burg Hill, not far from the church, above the river. Towcester, with the whole of this district, witnessed a large part of the operations during the Civil War of the I7th century. TOWEL, a cloth used for the purpose of drying the hands, face or body after bathing or washing. These cloths are made of different materials, known as " towellings," the two principal kinds are " huckaback," a slightly roughened material for chamber towels for face and hands, and Turkish towelling, with a much rougher surface, for bath towels; finer towellings are made of linen or damask. The term has a particular eccle- siastical usage as applied to a linen altar cloth or to a rich cloth of embroidered silk, velvet, &c., covering the altar at all " such periods when Mass is not being celebrated." The Mid. Eng. towaille comes through the O. Fr. touaille from the Low Lat. toacula, represented in other Romanic languages by Sp. toalla, Ital. tovaglia; this is to be referred to the Teutonic verb meaning " to wash," O. H. G. twahan, M. H. G. dwahen, O. Eng. ]miedn, and cf. Ger. Zwehle, provincial Eng. dwile, a dish-cloth. no TOWER— TOWER OF LONDON TOWER (Lat. turns; Fr. lour, docker; Ital. tone; Ger. Thurm), the term given to a lofty building originally designed for defence, and, as such, attached to and forming part of the fortifications of a city or castle. Towers do not seem to have existed in Egypt, but in Mesopotamia from the earliest times they form the most important feature in the city walls, and are shown in the bas-reliefs of the Assyrian palaces at Nimroud and elsewhere. The earliest representation is perhaps that engraved on the tablet in the lap of Gudea the priest king of Lagash (270x3 B.C.), whose statue, found at Tello, is now in the Louvre; the drawing is that of a large fortified enclosure, with gates, bastions and towers, corresponding with remains of similar structures of the same and later periods. In the dis- coveries made here, at Susa and at Dom Sargoukin, the towers were about 40 ft. square, projecting from 16 to 20 ft. in front of the curtain walls which connected them, and standing about 80 ft. apart. In Roman and Byzantine times this distance was increased, owing probably to the greater speed of pro- jectiles, and in the wall built by Theodosius at Constantinople the towers were 150 ft. apart (see also CASTLE and FORTIFI- CATION). From the architectural point of view, the towers which are of chief interest are those of ecclesiastical and secular buildings, those in Italy being nearly always isolated and known as cam- panili (see CAMPANILE). In England the earliest known are the Anglo-Saxon towers, the best examples of which are those at Earl's Barton,Monkwearmouth, Barnack, Barton-on-Humberand Sompting; they were nearly always square on plan and situated at the west end, in an axial line with the nave, their chief characteristics being the long-and-short work of the masonry at the quoins, the decoration of the wall with thin pilaster strips, and the slight setting back of the storeys as they rose. There are a few examples of central Anglo-Saxon towers, as at St Mary's, Dover; Breamore, Hants; and Dunham Major, Nor- folk; and, combined with western towers, at Ramsay and Ely; twin western towers existed at Exeter. Contemporary with these Saxon towers are many examples in France, but they are invariably central towers, as at Germigny-des-Pres and at Querqueville in Normandy; in Germany the twin towers of Aix-la-Chapelle are the best known. As a rule the single western tower is almost confined to England, prior to the end of the nth century, when there are many examples throughout Germany. In Norman times in England, central towers are more common, and the same obtains in France, where, however, they are sometimes carried to a great height, as at Perigueux, where the wall decoration consists of pilasters in the lower storeys, and semi-detached columns above, probably based on that of the Roman amphitheatre there: otherwise the design of the Romanesque church towers is extremely simple, de- pending for its effect on the good masonry and the enrichment of the belfry windows. In later periods flat buttresses are introduced, and these gradually assume more importance and present many varieties of design; greater apparent height is given to the tower by the string courses dividing the second storeys, and by rich blank arcading on them, the upper storey with the belfry windows forming always the most important feature of the tower. In those towers which are surmounted by spires (q.v.) the design of the latter possesses sometimes a greater interest both in England and France. A very large number of the towers of English cathedrals and churches have flat roofs enclosed with lofty battlemented parapets and numerous pinnacles and finials; in France such terminations are not found, and in Germany the high pitched roof is prevalent every where, so that the numerous examples in England have a special interest; sometimes the angle buttresses are grouped to carry octagonal pinnacles, and sometimes, as at Lincoln and Salis- bury, octagonal turrets rise from the base of the tower. Among the finest examples are those of Canterbury, Ely, York, Gloucester, Lincoln and Worcester cathedrals; among churches, those of the minster at Beverley ; St Mary's, St Neots (Huntingdon- shire) ; St Stephen's, Bristol, St Giles, Wrexham (Denbighshire — in many respects the most beautiful in England) ; St Mary Magdalene, Taunton; Magdalen College, Oxford, St Botolph, Boston, crowned with an octagonal tower; St Mary's, Ilminster (Somersetshire) and Malvern (Worcestershire) ; and the isolated towers at Chichcster, Evesham and Bury St Edmund's. So far reference has been made only to central and western towers, the latter not always placed, like the Anglo-Saxon towers, in the axial line of the nave, but sometimes on the north or south side of the west end; and as a rule these are only found in Eng- land. In France and Germany, however, they are greatly increased in number; thus in Reims seven towers with spires were contemplated, according to Viollet-le-Duc, but never completed; at Chartres eight towers, and at Laon seven, of which six are completed; in Germany the cathedrals of Mayence and Spires and two of the churches in Cologne have from four to seven towers; and at Tournai cathedral, in Belgium, are seven towers. In many of the churches in Norfolk and Suffolk the western tower is circular, owing probably to the fact that, being built with stone of small dimensions, the angles of the quoins would have been difficult to construct. In some of the French towns, isolated towers were built to contain bells, and were looked upon as 'municipal constructions; of these there are a few left, as at Bethune, Evreux, Amiens and Bordeaux, the latter being a double tower, with the bells placed in a roof between them. The towers of secular buildings are chiefly of the town halls, of which there are numerous examples throughout France and Belgium, such as those of the h6tel de ville at St Antonin (i3th century) and Compiegne, both in France; at Lubeck, Danzig and Miinster in Germany; and Brussels, Bruges and Oudenarde in Belgium. (R. P. S.) TOWER OF LONDON, THE, an ancient fortress on the east side of the City of London, England, on the north bank of the river Thames. On a slight elevation now called the Tower Hill, well protected by the river and its marshes, and by woods to the north, there was a British stronghold. Tradition, however, pointed to Julius Caesar as the founder of the Tower (Shakespeare, Richard III., in., i; and elsewhere), and remains of Roman fortifications have been found beneath the present site. The Tower contains barracks, and is the repository of the regalia. It covers an irregular hexagonal area, and is surrounded by a ditch, formerly fed by the Thames, but now dry. Gardens surround it on the north and west, and an embankment borders the river on the south. Two lines of fortifications enclose the inner bail, in which is the magnificent White Tower or Keep, flanked by four turrets. This was built by Gundulf, bishop of Rochester, c. 1078. Its exterior was restored by Sir Christopher Wren, but within the Norman work is little altered. Here may be seen a collection of old armour and instruments of torture, the rooms said to have been Sir Walter Raleigh's prison, and the magnificent Norman chapel of St John. Among the surrounding buildings are the barracks, and the chapel of St Peter ad Vincula, dating from the early part of the i4th century, but much altered in Tudor times. The Ballium Wall, the inner of the two lines of fortification, is coeval with the keep. Twelve towers rise from it at intervals, in one of which, the Wakefield Tower, the Regalia or crown jewels are kept. The chief entry to the fortress is through the Middle Tower on the west, across the bridge over the moat, and through the By ward Tower. The Lion Gate under the Middle Tower took name from a menagerie kept here from Norman times until 1834. On the south, giving entry from the river through St Thomas Tower and the Bloody Tower, is the famous Traitor's Gate, by which prisoners of high rank were admitted. The chief historical interest of the Tower lies in its association with such prisoners. The Beauchamp Tower was for long the place of confinement, but dungeons and other chambers in various parts of the building are also associated with prisoners of fame. Executions took place both within the Tower and on Tower Hill. Many of those executed were buried in the chapel of St Peter ad Vincula, such as Sir Thomas More, Henry VIII. 's queens, Anne Boleyn and Katharine Howard, Lady Jane Grey and her husband Dudley, Sir Walter Raleigh, and the duke of Monmouth. The Tower was not only a prison from Norman times until the igth century, but was a royal residence at TOWN— TOWNSHEND, C. in intervals from the reign of Stephen, if not before. The royal palace was demolished by order of Cromwell. The tower is under the governorship of a constable. The attendant staff, called Yeomen of the Guard or familiarly " Beefeaters," still wear their picturesque Tudor costume. AUTHORITIES. — W. Hepworth Dixon, Her Majesty's Tower (London, 1869); Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower, The Tower of London (London, 1901). TOWN, in its most general sense, a collection or aggregation of inhabited houses larger than a village. The O. Eng. tun (M. Eng. loun) meant originally a fence or enclosure, cf. Ger. zaun, hedge, hence an enclosed place. The Scottish and Northern English use of the word for a farmhouse and its buildings, a farmstead, preserves this original meaning, and is paralleled by the Icel. tun, homestead, dwelling-house. A cognate Celtic form meaning a fastness, a strong place, appears in Gael, and Irish dun, Welsh, din, fortress, hill-fort (cf. Welsh dinas, town). This is familiar from the many Latinized names of places, e.g. Lugdunum, A ugustodunum, &c. In English law " town " is not a word defined by statute. For purposes of local government there are boroughs, urban districts and rural districts, but many urban districts are rural in character and the distinction is purely an administrative one (see BOROUGH; CITY; COMMUNE (MEDIEVAL); MUNICIPIUM; ENGLAND: Local Government, and the sections on local adminis- tration under various country headings) . The meaning attached to the term " township " in the local administration of the United States is treated under UNITED STATES: Local Government. TOWNELEY (or TOWNLEY), CHARLES (1737-1805), English archaeologist and collector of marbles, was born at Towneley, the family seat, near Burnley in Lancashire, on the ist of October 1737. He was educated at the college of Douai, and subsequently under John Turberville Needham, the physiologist and divine. In 1758 he took up his residence at Towneley, where he lived the ordinary life of a country gentleman until about 1765, when he left England to study ancient art, chiefly at Rome. He also made several excursions to the south of Italy and Sicily. In conjunction with Gavin Hamilton, the artist, and Thomas Jenkins, a banker in Rome, he got together a splendid collection of antiquities, which was deposited in two houses bought by him for the purpose in Park Street, Westminster, where he died on the 3rd of January 1805. His solitary publication was an account of an ancient helmet found at Ribchester. His marbles, bronzes, coins, and gems were purchased by the British Museum for about £28,000, and form part of the Graeco-Roman collection. For an account of the antiquities see Sir Henry Ellis's The Townley Gallery (1836), and A. T. F. Michaelis's Ancient Marbles in Great Britain (1882). TOWNLEY, JAMES (1714-1778), English dramatist, second son of Charles Townley, merchant, was born in London on the 6th of May 1714. Educated at Merchant Taylors' School and at St John's College, Oxford, he took holy orders, being ordained priest on the z8th of May 1738. He was lecturer at St Dunstan's in the East, chaplain to the lord mayor, then under-master at Merchant Taylors' School until 1753, when he became grammar master at Christ's Hospital. In 1760 he became head master of Merchant Taylors' School, where in 1762 and 1763 he revived the custom of dramatic performances. He retained his head- mastership until his death on the sth of July 1778. He took a keen interest in the theatre, and it has been asserted that many of David Garrick's best productions and revivals owed much to his assistance. He was the author, although the fact was long concealed, of High Life below Stairs, a two-act farce pre- sented at Drury Lane on the 3ist of October 1759; also of False Concord (Covent Garden, March 20, 1764) and The Tutor (Drury Lane, Feb. 4, 1765). TOWNSHEND, CHARLES (1725-1767), English politician, was the second son of Charles, 3rd Viscount Townshend, who married Audrey (d. 1788), daughter and heiress of Edward Harrison of Ball's Park, near Hertford, a lady who rivalled her son in brilliancy of wit and frankness of expression. Charles was born on the zgth of August 1725, and was sent for his education to Leiden and Oxford. At the Dutch university, where he matriculated on the 27th of October 1745, he associated with a small knot of English youths, afterwards well known in various circles of life, among whom were Dowdeswell, his subsequent rival in politics, Wilkes, the witty and unprincipled reformer, and Alexander Carlyle, the genial Scotchman, who devotes some of the pages of his Autobiography to chronicling their sayings and their doings. He represented Great Yarmouth in parliament from 1747 to 1761, when he found a seat for the treasury borough of Harwich. Public attention was first drawn to his abilities m 1-753, when he delivered a lively attack, as a younger son who might hope to promote his advancement by allying himself in marriage to a wealthy heiress, against Lord Hardwicke's marriage bill. Although this measure passed into law, he attained this object in August 1755 by marrying Caroline (d. 1794), the eldest daughter of the 2nd duke of Argyll and the widow of Francis, Lord Dalkeith, the eldest son of the 2nd duke of Buccleuch. In April 1754 Townshend was transformed from the position of a member of the board of trade, which he had held from 1 749, to that of a lord of the admiralty, but at the close of 1755 his passionate attack against the policy of the ministry, an attack which shared in popular estimation with the scathing denunciations of Pitt, the supreme success of Single-Speech Hamilton, and the hopeless failure of Lord Chesterfield's illegiti- mate son, caused his resignation. In the administration which was formed in November 1756, and which was ruled by Pitt, the lucrative office of treasurer of the chamber was given to Townshend, and in the following spring he was summoned to the privy council. With the accession of the new monarch in 1760 this volatile politician transferred his attentions from Pitt to the young king's favourite, Bute, and when in 1761, at the latter's instance, several changes were made in the ministry, Townshend was promoted to the post of secretary-at-war. In this place he remained after the great commoner had withdrawn from the cabinet, but in December 1762 he threw it up. Bute, alarmed at the growth in numbers and in influence of his enemies, tried to buy back Townshend's co-operation by sundry tempting promises, and at last secured his object in March 1763 with the presidency of the board of trade. When Bute retired and George Grenville accepted the cares of official life, the higher post of first lord of the admiralty fell to Townshend's lot, but with his usual impetuosity he presumed to designate one of his satellites, Sir William Burrell (1732-1796), to a place under him at the board, and the refusal to accept the nomination led to his exclusion from the new administration. While in opposition his mind was swayed to and fro with conflicting emotions of dislike to the head of the ministry and of desire to share in the spoils of office. The latter feeling ultimately triumphed; he condescended to accept in the dying days of Grenville's cabinet, and to retain through the " lutestring " administration of Lord Rockingham — " pretty summer wear," as Townshend styled it, " but it will never stand the winter " — the highly paid position of paymaster-general, refusing to identify himself more closely with its fortunes as chancellor of the exchequer. The position which he refused from the hands of Lord Rockingham he accepted from Pitt in August 1 766, and a few weeks later his urgent appeals to the great minister for increased power were favourably answered, and he was admitted to the inner circle of the cabinet. The new chancellor proposed the continuance of the land tax at four shillings in the pound, while he held out hopes that it might be reduced next year to three shillings, whereupon his predecessor, William Dowdeswell, by the aid of the landed gentlemen, carried a motion that the reduction should take effect at once. This defeat proved a great mortification to Lord Chatham, and in his irritation against Townshend for this blow, as well as for some acts of in- subordination, he meditated the removal of his showy colleague. Before this could be accomplished Chatham's mind became impaired, and Townshend, who was the most determined and influential of his colleagues, swayed the ministry as he liked, pledging himself to find a revenue in America with which to meet ii2 TOWNSHEND, 2ND VISCOUNT— TO WNSHEND, IST MARQUESS the deficiency caused by the reduction in the land tax. His wife was created (August 1767) baroness of Greenwich, and his elder brother George, the 4th viscount, was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland. He himself delivered in the House of Commons many speeches unrivalled in parliamentary history for wit and reckless- ness; and one of them still lives in history as the " champagne speech." His last official act was to carry out his intention by passing through parliament resolutions, which even his colleagues deprecated in the cabinet, for taxing several articles, such as glass, paper and tea, on their importation into America, which he estimated would produce the insignificant sum of £40,000 for the English treasury, and which shrewder observers prophesied would lead to the loss of the American colonies. Soon after this event he died somewhat suddenly on the 4th of September 1767. The universal tribute of Townshend's colleagues allows him the possession of boundless wit and ready eloquence, set off by perfect melody of intonation, but marred by an unexampled lack of judgment and discretion. He shifted his ground in politics with every new moon, and the world fastened on him the nick- name, which he himself adopted in his " champagne " speech, of the weathercock. His official knowledge was considerable; and it would be unjust to his memory to ignore the praises of his contemporaries or his knowledge of his country's commercial interests. The House of Commons recognized in him its spoilt child, and Burke happily said that " he never thought, did or said anything " without judging its effect on his fellow members. A Memoir by Percy Fitzgerald was published in 1866. See also W. E. H. Lecky, History of England (1892); and Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George III., edited by G. F. R. Barker (1894). TOWNSHEND, CHARLES TOWNSHEND, 2ND VISCOUNT (1674-1738), English statesman, was the eldest son of Sir Horatio Townshend, Bart. (c. 1630-1687), a zealous supporter of Charles II., who was created Baron Townshend in 1661 and Viscount Townshend of Raynham in 1682. The old Norfolk family of Townshend, to which ho belonged, is descended from Sir Roger Townshend (d. 1493) of Raynham, who acted as legal adviser to the Paston family, and was made a justice of the common pleas in 1484. His descendant, another Sir Roger Townshend (c. 1543-1590), had a son Sir John Townshend (1564-1603), a soldier, whose son, Sir Roger Townshend (1588- 1637), was created a baronet in 1617. He was the father of Sir Horatio Townshend. Charles Townshend succeeded to trie peerage in December 1687, and was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge. He had Tory sympathies when he took his seat in the House of Lords, but his views changed, and he began to take an active part in politics as a Whig. For a few years after the accession of Queen Anne he remained without office, but in November 1708 he was appointed captain of the yeomen of the guard, having in the previous year been summoned to the privy council. He was ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary to the states-general from 1709 to 1711, taking part during these years in the negotiations which preceded the conclusion of the treaty of Utrecht. After his recall to England he was busily occupied in attacking the proceedings of the new Tory ministry. Towns- hend quickly won the favour of George I., and in September 1714, the new king selected him as secretary of state for the northern department. The policy of Townshend and his colleagues, after they had crushed the Jacobite rising of 1715, both at home and abroad, was one of peace. The secretary disliked the interference of England in the war between Sweden and Denmark, and he promoted the conclusion of defensive alliances between England and the emperor and England and France. In spite of these successes the influence of the Whigs was gradually undermined by the intrigues of Charles Spencer, earl of Sunderland, and by the discontent of the Hanoverian favourites. In October 1716, Townshend's colleague, James Stanhope, afterwards ist Earl Stanhope, accompanied the king on his visit to Hanover, and while there he was seduced from his allegiance to his fellow ministers by Sunderland, George being led to believe that Townshend and his brother-in-law, Sir Robert Walpole, were caballing with the prince of Wales, their intention being that the prince should supplant his father on the throne. Consequently in December 1716 the secretary was dismissed and was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland, but he only retained this post until the following April. Early in 1720 a partial reconciliation took place between the parties of Stanhope and Townshend, and in June of this year the latter became president of the council, a post which he held until February 1721, when, after the death of Stanhope and the forced retirement of Sunderland, a result of the South Sea bubble, he was again appointed secretary of state for the northern department, with Walpole as first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. The two remained in power during the remainder of the reign of George I., the chief domestic events of the time being the impeachment of Bishop Atterbury, the pardon and partial restoration of Lord Bolingbroke, and ths troubles in Ireland caused by the patent permitting Wood to coin halfpence. Townshend secured the dismissal of his rival, John Carteret, afterwards Earl Granville, but soon differences arose between himself and Walpole, and he had some difficulty in steering a course through the troubled sea of European politics. Although disliking him, George II. retained him in office, but the predominance in the ministry passed gradually but surely from him to Walpole. Townshend could not brook this. So long, to use Walpole's witty remark, as the firm was Townshend and Walpole all went well with it, but when the positions were reversed jealousies arose between the partners. Serious differ- ences of opinion concerning the policy to be adopted towards Prussia and in foreign politics generally led to a final rupture in 1730. Failing, owing to Walpole's interference, in his efforts to procure the dismissal of a colleague and his replacement by a personal friend, Townshend retired on the isth of May 1730. His remaining years were passed at Raynham, where he inte- rested himself in agriculture and was responsible for introducing into England the cultivation of turnips on a large scale and for other improvements of the kind. He died at Raynham on the 2ist of June 1738. Townshend was twice married — first to Elizabeth (d. 1711), daughter of Thomas Pelham, ist Baron Pelham of Laughton, and secondly to Dorothy (d. 1726), sister of Sir Robert Walpole. He had eight sons. The eldest son, Charles, the 3rd viscount (1700-1764), was called to the House of Lords in 1723. The second son, Thomas Townshend (1701-1780), was member of parliament for the university of Cambridge from 1727 to 1774; his only son, Thomas Townshend (1733-1800), who was created Baron Sydney in 1783 and Viscount Sydney in 1789, was a secretary of state and leader of the House of Commons from July 1782 to April 1783, and from December 1783 to June 1789 again a secretary of state, Sydney in New South Wales being named after him; his grandson, John Robert Townshend (1805- 1890), the 3rd viscount, was created Earl Sydney in 1874, the titles becoming extinct at his death. Charles Townshend's eldest son by his second wife was George Townshend (1715-1769), who after serving for many years in the navy, became an admiral in 1765. The third viscount had two sons, George, ist Marquess Townshend, and Charles Townshend, who are separately noticed. For the 2nd viscount see W. Coxe, Memoirs of Sir Robert Wal- pole (1816) ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the l8th Century (1892); and Earl Stanhope, History of England. TOWNSHEND, GEORGE TOWNSHEND, IST MARQUESS (1724- 1807), eldest son of Charles, 3rd Viscount Townshend (1700- 1764), and brother of the politician Charles Townshend (?.».), was born on the 28th of February 1724, his godfather being George I. Joining Cope's dragoons as a captain, he saw some service in the Netherlands in 1745, and as a member of the duke of Cumberland's staff was present at Culloden. Afterwards he accompanied the duke to the Netherlands, and was present at Lauffeld. By 1750 he had become lieutenant-colonel in the ist Foot Guards, but differences with the duke of Cumberland led to his retirement in that year. This difference soon became hostility, and, coupled with his dread of permanent armies, caused him to give vehement support to the Militia Bill. In TOWNSVILLE— TOXODONTIA this matter his views and his methods of expressing them raised up a host of enemies. The retirement of the duke after the disastrous campaign in North Germany in 1757 brought Towns- hend back to active service as a colonel, and in 1758 he sailed for North America as one of Wolfe's three brigadiers. In the long and painful operations against Quebec he showed himself a capable officer, but his almost open dissatisfaction with Wolfe's methods sensibly added to the difficulty of the enterprise. At the battle of the Heights of Abraham the command, on the death of Wolfe and the wounding of Monckton, devolved upon Towns- hend, whose over-caution for a time imperilled the success of the British arms. The loss of Montcalm, however, had similarly paralyzed the French, and the crisis passed. Townshend sent home a despatch, announcing the fall of Quebec, which at once became the butt of the wits and the object of criticism of a more serious kind; and when, Monckton having taken over the com- mand in Canada, Townshend returned to England to enjoy, as he hoped, the hero-worship of the public, he was soon involved in bitter controversies. He succeeded to the title in 1764 on his father's death, and in 1767, through his brother's influence, was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland. The story of his vice- royalty may be read in the article on him in the Diet. Nat. Biog., and in Lecky's History of England in the i8th Century (vol. iv.). With the best will in the world, and in spite of excellent capacity, he came into continual conflict with the Irish House of Commons in his attempt to form an English party in Ireland, and he excited unmeasured abuse. In 1772 he was recalled. In 1787 he was created Marquess Townshend of Rainham. He died on the i4th of September 1807. Townshend was twice married — first to Charlotte, Baroness de Ferrars (d. 1770) and secondly to Anne Montgomery (d. 1819). His eldest son George (1755-1811), who became the second marquess, had succeeded to the barony of de Ferrars in 1770 and had been created earl of Leicester in 1784. Although he was in turn master of the mint, joint postmaster-general and lord steward of the royal household, he did not take much part in politics, but showed a great taste for antiquarian studies. His elder son, George Ferrars Townshend, the 3rd marquess (1778-1855), was disinherited by his father for conduct which also compelled him to reside outside England. When he died at Genoa in December 1855 the earldom of Leicester became extinct. The marquessate, however, passed to a cousin, John Townshend (1798-1863), who became the 4th marquess. John James Dudley Stuart Townshend (b. 1866), who became the 6th marquess in 1899, came prominently before the public in 1906 in consequence of a judicial inquiry into his sanity, the decision being that he was not capable of managing his own affairs. TOWNSVILLE, a town of Elphinstone county, Queensland, Australia, 870 m. direct N.W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901), 12,717. It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of North Queensland and has a cathedral and several handsome buildings, including the supreme court and the custom-house. It is picturesquely situated partly on the slopes of Castle Hill and Melton Hill, and partly on the banks of Ross Creek, which is spanned by the Victoria Bridge, a swing bridge 550 ft. in length, worked by hydraulic power. The tidal harbour is enclosed by stone breakwaters, and large vessels enter and load frozen meat direct from the refrigerator cars. The port is an outlet for a wide area of pastoral country and for several goldfields, and has regular communication with all ports north and south by lines of steamers. The immigration barracks on Ross Island have accommodation for five hundred persons. The railway station is the terminus of the Northern line, which extends 236 m. to Hughenden. Townsville was founded in 1864 by John Medwin Black and named after his partner Captain Towns. A municipal charter was granted in 1866. TOWTON, a village of Yorkshire, England, 2^ m. S. of Tad- caster, the scene of a battle fought on Palm Sunday, the 2gth of March 1461, between the armies of York and Lancaster. The party of Lancaster had lately won the battle of St Albans, but, unable to gain admission into London, and threatened by the approach of Edward the young duke of York from the west of England, was compelled to fall back northward. York, having been proclaimed as Edward IV. on the 2nd, 3rd and 4th of March 1460/1461, followed them up into Yorkshire, and on the 27th his leading troops surprised the passage of the Aire at Ferrybridge. The Lancastrians were encamped at Towton, some miles away, covering Tadcaster and York; but a force under Lord Clifford was promptly sent out, recaptured Ferrybridge by surprise, and cut to pieces the Yorkist garrison. About the same time, how- ever, Edward's van, under Lord Fauconberg, an experienced soldier, crossed the Aire higher up, and Clifford was compelled to retire. He was closely pressed, and at Dintingdale, within a few furlongs of his own camps, was cut off and killed with nearly all his men. Edward's main body was now close at hand, and the Lancastrians drew up on their chosen battlefield early on the agth. This field was an elevated plateau, with steep slopes, between the present Great North Road and the river Cock, cut in two by a depression called Towton Dale. On opposite sides of this depression stood the two armies, that of York facing north, their opponents southward. Both lines of battle were very dense. On a front of little more than a thousand yards the Lancastrian party had nearly 60,000 men. Edward's force (less than 50,000) was not all present, the rear " battle " under Norfolk being still distant. Snow and sleet blew in the faces of the Lancastrians and covered the field of battle. The skilful Fauconberg used this advantage to the utmost. Aided by the wind, his archers discharged flights of arrows against the enemy, who replied blindly and feebly, hampered by snow and wind. The Yorkists withdrew until the enemy had exhausted their quivers, and then advanced afresh. Their arrows soon stung the Lancastrians into a wild and disorderly charge. Suffering severe losses the latter closed with Edward's line of battle. No quarter was given by either party, and on the narrow front the numerical superiority of the Lancastrians counted for little. The long, doubtful and sanguinary struggle was only decided by the arrival of Norfolk's corps, which charged the enemy in flank. Driven backwards and inwards, the Lancastrians were in a desperate position, for their only way of escape to Tadcaster crossed the swollen waters of the Cock by a single narrow and difficult ford, and when, after a stubborn struggle, they finally broke and fled, they were slaughtered in thousands as they tried to cross. At the close of the day the defeated army had. ceased to exist. Twenty- five thousand Lancastrian and eight thousand Yorkist dead were buried in and about Towton. The neighbourhood of the battle- field contains many relics and memorials of this, the greatest battle hitherto fought on English soil. Particularly well pre- served is the tomb of Lord Dacre, a prominent Lancastrian, in Saxton churchyard. See R. Brooke, Visits to English Battlefields (London, 1857); C. R. B. Barrett, Battles and Battlefields of England (London, 1896) ; H. B. George, Battles of English History (London, 1895). TOXICOLOGY, the name of that branch of science which deals with poisons, their effects and antidotes, &c. For the general treatment of the subject and for the law relating to the sale thereof see POISONS, and for the criminal- law see MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. The term " toxic," meaning poisonous, is derived from Gr. rb^ov, bow, owing to the custom of smearing arrows with poison. TOXODONTIA, a sub-order of extinct South American Tertiary ungulate mammals typified by the genus Toxodon, so named from the bow-like curvature of the molar teeth. They all show signs of distant kinship to the Perissodactyla, as regards both limb-structure and dentition; while some exhibit resemblance to the Rodents and Hyraxes — resemblances which, however, are probably to be attributed to parallelism in development. Under the sub-order Toxodontia may be included not only the typical Toxodon, but the more aberrant Typotherium (fig. l) of the Pleistocene of Buenos Aires and the smaller Pachyrucus and Hegeto- therium of the Patagonian Santa Cruz -beds. All the members of the sub-order have tall-crowned and curved cheek-teeth, some or all of which generally have persistent pulps, while at least one pair of incisors in each jaw is rootless. The bodies of the cervical vertebrae have flat articular surfaces, the bones of the two rows of the carpus alternate, and in the tarsus the navicular articulates with the calcaneum, which, as in the Artiodactyla, is articulated to the fibula, while the astragalus, which is slightly grooved above, TOY, C. H.— TOYNBEE is formed on the Perissodactyle plan. The number of toes varies between three and five, of which the middle one is the largest, and the femur may or may not have a third trochanter. The Typo- theriidae and Pachyrucidae are remarkable among the Ungulates for (After Gervais.) FIG. I. — Skull of Typotherium cristatum, from the Pampas Formation of Buenos Aires. (\ nat. size.) the retention of clavicles, and for their curious approximation in dentition and certain characters of the skeleton to the Rodentia. The dental formula of Typotherium is i. $, c. $, p. f , m. | ; that of the smaller Patagonian forms differs by the larger number (f) of pre- molars. The toes were unguiculate rather than ungulate in character, except the hind ones (four in number) of Typotherium. Certain allied Patagonian forms, such as A rgyrohyrax, have been supposed to be related to the Hyraxes. The Toxodontidae differ from the preceding families by the loss of the clavicles and the reduction of the digits to three in each foot. The typical genus Toxodon is represented by animals the size of a (From British Museum [Nat. His.] Guide to the Fossil Mammalia.) FIG. 2. — Skeleton of the Toxodon (Toxodon platensis). From (About J$ nat. size.) rhinoceros, of which the entire skeleton is now known (fig. 2). The teeth, of which the formula is i. J, c. } p. |r|, m. f , all grow from per- sistent pulps; those of the cheek-series are very tall, highly curved, and with a simplified crown-structure. In the older Nesodon, on the other hand, the cheek-teeth are shorter-crowned, and depart less widely from a generalized Perissodactyle type, the total number of teeth being forty-four, and there being scarcely any gap in the series. Very remarkable changes occur in the dentition as age advances, most of the teeth eventually developing roots, although the second pair of incisors in each jaw was rootless. The complete skeleton is not yet known, but it is ascertained that the femur differs from that of Toxodon in the retention of a third trochanter. Toxodon is typified by T. platensis from the Pampean formation of Buenos Aires. Toxodontotherium and Xotodon are allied but rather older types. Nesodon is from the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia, the typical N. imbricatus having a skull about a foot in length, but N. ovinus was a smaller animal, about the size of a sheep. (R. L.») TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL (1836- ), American Hebrew scholar, was born in Norfolk, Virginia, on the 23rd of March 1836. He graduated at the university of Virginia in 1856, and studied at the university of Berlin in 1866-1868. In 1869-1879 he was professor of Hebrew in the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (first in Greenville, South Carolina, and after 1877 in Louisville, Kentucky), and in 1880 he became professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages in Harvard University, where until 1903 he was also Dexter lecturer on biblical literature. He wrote The Religion of Israel (1882); Quotations from the Old Testament in the New Testament (1884); Judaism and Christianity (1890); and the Book of Proverbs (1899) in the "International Critical Commentary " ; and edited a translation of Erdmann's commentary on Samuel (1877) in Lange's commentaries; Murray's Origin of the Psalms (1880); and, in Haupt's Sacred Books of the Old Testament, the Book of Ezekiel (Hebrew text and English version, 1899). TOY (an adaptation of Du. tuig, tools, implements, stuff, speltuig, playthings, i.e. stuff to play with, spelen, to play), a child's plaything, also a trifle, a worthless, petty ornament, a gew-gaw, a bauble. Children's toys and playthings survive from the most remote periods of man's life on the earth, though many so-called diminutive objects made and used by primitive man, sometimes classified as playthings, may have been work- men's models, votive offerings or sepulchral objects. A large number of wooden, earthenware, stone or metal dolls remain with which the children of ancient Egypt once played; thus in the British Museum collection there is a flat painted wooden doll with strings of mud-beads representing the hair, a bronze woman doll bearing a pot on her head, an earthenware doll carrying and nursing a child; some have movable jointed arms. There are also many toy animals, such as a painted wooden calf, a porcelain elephant with a rider; this once had movable legs,which have disappeared. Balls are found made of leather stuffed with hair, chopped straw and other material, and also of blue porce- lain or papyrus. Jointed dolls, moved by strings, were evidently favourite play- things of the Greek and Roman chil- dren, and small modelsof furniture, chairs, tables, sets of jugs painted with scenes of children's life survive from both Greek and Roman times. Balls, tops, rattles and the implements of numerous games, still favourites in all countries and every age, remain to show how little the amuse- ments of children have changed. See also DOLL; TOP; PLAY; and for the history of toys, with their varying yet unchanging fashions, see H. R. d'Allemagne, Hisloire des Jouets, and F. N. Jackson, Toys of other Days (1908). TOYNBEE, ARNOLD (1852-1883), English social reformer and economist, second son of Joseph Toynbee (1815-1866), the Pampean Formation of Argentina. TRABEATED— TRACERY a distinguished surgeon, was born in London on the 23rd of August 1852. He had originally intended to enter the army, but ill health and a growing love of books changed his plans, and he settled down to read for the bar. Here again the same causes produced a change of purpose, and he entered as a student at Pembroke College, Oxford. Finding himself by no means at ease in that college he migrated after two years to Balliol College. Continued ill health prevented his reading for honours, but he made so deep an impression on the authori- ties of his college that on taking his degree he was appointed lecturer and tutor to students preparing for the Indian civil service. He devoted himself to the study of economics and economic history. He was active also as a practical social reformer, taking part in much public work and delivering lectures in the large industrial centres on economic problems. He overtaxed his strength, and after lecturing in London in January 1883 he had a complete break-down, and died of inflammation of the brain at Wimbledon on the gth of March. Toynbee had a striking influence on his contemporaries, not merely through his intellectual powers, but by his strength of character. He left behind him a beautiful memory, filled as he was with the love of truth and an ardent and active zeal for the public good. He was the author of some fragmentary pieces, published after his death by his widow, under the title of The Industrial Revolution. This volume deserves attention both for its intrinsic merit and as indicating the first drift of a changing method in the treatment of economic problems. He, however, fluctuated considerably in his opinion of the Ricardian political economy, in one place declaring it to be a detected " intellectual imposture," whilst elsewhere, apparently under the influence of Bagehot, he speaks of it as having been in recent times " only corrected, re-stated, and put into the proper relation to the science of life," meaning apparently, by this last, general sociology. He saw that the great help in the future for the science of economics must come from the historical method, to which in his own researches he gave preponderant weight. Toyn- bee's interest in the poor and his anxiety to be personally acquainted with them led to his close association with the district of White- chapel in London, where the Rev. Canon S. A. Barnett (g.fi.) was at that time vicar — an association which was commemorated after his death by the social settlement of Toynbee Hall, the first of many similar institutions erected in the East End of London for the purpose of uplifting and brightening the lives of the poorer classes. See F. C. Montague's Arnold Toynbee (Johns Hopkins University Studies, 1889); Lord Milner's Arnold Toynbee: a Reminiscence (1901); and L. L. Price's Short History of Political Economy in England for a criticism of Toynbee as an economist. TRABEATED, the architectural term given to those styles in which the architrave or beam (Lat. Irabs) is employed instead of the arch, in the latter case the term " arcuated " being used. The principal trabeated styles are the Egyptian, Persian, Greek, Lycian, nearly all the Indian styles, the Chinese, Japanese and South American styles, in all cases owing their origin to the timber construction, for which reason the term post-and-lintel architecture is sometimes applied to it. TRACERY, a late coined word from " trace," track, Lat. trahere, to draw; the term given in architecture (French equivalents are rtseau, remplissage) to the intersecting rib- work in the upper part of a Gothic window; applied also to the interlaced work of a vault, or on walls, in panels and in tabernacle work or screens. The tracery in windows is usually divided into two sections, plate tracery and rib or bar tracery, the latter rising out of the former, and entirely superseding it in the geometrical, flowing and rectilineal designs. The windows of the Early English period were comparatively narrow slits, and were sometimes grouped together under a single enclosing arch; the piercing of the tympanum of this arch with a circular light produced what is known as plate tracery, which is found in windows of the late i2th century, as in St Maurice, York, but became more common in the first half of the i3th century. In England the opening pierced in the head was comparatively small, its diameter never exceeding the width of one of the windows below, but in France it occupied the full width of the enclosing arch and was filled with cusping, and sometimes, as in Chartres, with cusping in the centre and a series of small quatrefoils round, all pierced on one plane face. In order further to enrich the mullions and arches of the window, they were moulded, as in Stowe church, Kent; the other portions were pierced; and finally, to give more importance to the principal lights, additional depth was given to their mouldings, so that they gradually developed into bar or rib tracery, of which the earliest examples in England are those in Westminster Abbey (c. 1250) and Netley Abbey near Southampton. Henceforth that which is described in architecture as the " element " ruled the design of the window, and led to the development of geometrical tracery, in which the bars or ribs are all about equidistant from one another. In windows of three lights the heads of the windows consisted of three circular openings, but with four lights they were grouped in two pairs, with a single circle over each and a larger one at the top in the centre. This led to increased dimensions being given to the moulding of the enclosing arches and the upper circle, forming virtually two planes in the tracery. In the great east window at Lincoln, with eight lights, there was a double subdivision and three planes, and here the upper circle was filled with semicircles, so that the openings were all about the same width. In France the upper circle always maintained its predominance, its subdivisions only retaining the scale. The next development, which would seem to have taken place in Gloucester Cathedral, was the omission of portions of the enclosing circle, so as to allow the ribs to run one into the other, forming therefore lines of double curvature, and giving rise to what is known as flowing or flamboyant tracery, of which the great window in Carlisle Cathedral is the most important example. In this window there are nine lights, the four outer ones in each rib being grouped together; these were not sub- divided again,* and consequently there are only two planes of tracery. The Perpendicular style which followed might per- haps be considered as a reaction against the abuse of the flowing lines in masonry, were it not that in the earlier examples it appears timidly. At Edington church in Wiltshire (1361), in a five-light window, the centre light is wider than the others and its mullions run straight up into the arch mould. In New College chapel, Oxford (1386), the head of the window is sub- divided into narrow vertical lights, each half the width of those below, and this is followed in some counties, but not in all, in the east of England the flamboyant tracery being retained a century later. In St Mary's church, Oxford, with seven lights, all the mullions run straight up into the arch mould, and another feature is introduced, already found in New College chapel, and at a much earlier date in domestic work and in spire-lights, viz. the transom. In the later Perpendicular work another change takes place; the pointed arch struck from two centres is replaced by one struck from four centres, and this eventually in domestic work is superseded by the flat arch. So far reference has been made only to that which may be called the " element " of the window. The enrichment of the lights with cusping gave additional beauty to them, took away the hard wire- drawn effect of the mouldings, and formed openings of great variety ; in some of the windows of the Decorated period the ball flower and other foliage is introduced into the mouldings. In French work the geometrical style lasted till the I4th century, and then there was a lapse in building, so that the flamboyant style which followed, and from which at one time it was assumed that the English mason had derived the style, was apparently taken up by the French after its abandonment in England in favour of Perpendicular work. Germany and Spain have always followed in the wake of the French ; and in Italy, where architects preferred to decorate their walls with frescoes, the light from stained glass interfered with their effect, so that there was no demand for huge windows or their subdivision with mullions. At the same time there are many beautiful examples of tracery in Italy, generally in marble, such as those of Giotto's Campanile and the cathedral at Florence, in the Ducal and other palaces at Venice, and in the triforium arcades of Pisa and Siena cathedrals; but they destroyed its effect by the insertion of small capitals to the mullions, which gave horizontal lines where they were not wanted, virtually dividing the window into two parts instead of emphasizing, as was done in the Perpendicular period, the vertically of the mullions. Among the most glorious features in the Gothic architecture of France, England and Spain are the immense rose windows which were introduced, generally speaking, in the transepts of the cathedrals; the tracery of these follows on the lines of those of the windows, changing from geometrical to Decorated and afterwards to flam- boyant. In some respects perhaps the finest examples of plate- tracery were produced in the rose windows of the I3th century. n6 TRACHELIUM— TRACHYTE Thus in France in the rose window of Chartrcs in the west front (1225), and in England in those of Barfreston in Kent (1180) and Beverley Minster in Yorkshire (1220), plate-tracery of such great beauty is found that it is unfortunate it should have been entirely superseded by rib-tracery. The rose window of Lincoln Cathedral in the north transept is a compromise between the two, as all the lights are cut out independently and in one plane, but there are mouldings round each connected with flowers; in its design and effect this window is far superior to the flamboyant circular window in the south transept. Sometimes a rose window is arranged in the upper portion of an ordinary window, as in the west front of Lichfield Cathedral, and this is constantly found in those of the transepts of the French cathedrals. In the south of Italy, at Bari, Bitonto and Troja, and atOrvietoandAssisi.farthernorth, there are examples of rose windows, but inferior in design to French and English work, though elaborated with carving. The revival of the i6th century was fatal so far as tracery was concerned; in the place of the flam- boyant work of the last phase of Gothic in France semicircular and elliptical curves with poor mouldings were introduced, and the elaborate cusping which gave such interest to the light was omitted altogether, as in St Eustache, Paris. There is, however, one remark- able example in the church of Le Grand Andely, in Normandy, dating from the Henri II. period, in which a return was made to the tracery of the I3th century; but the introduction of Renaissance details in the place of the cusping is not altogether satisfactory, though the general design is fine. The tracery decorating the vault of Gothic work began on the introduction of the fan vault at Gloucester (see VAULT) ; it was only a surface decoration, both rib and web being cut out of the same block of stone, and it received further development in the various phases which followed. In the later Perpendicular work the walls and buttresses were all panelled with blank tracery, the most com- plete example of which is found in Henry VII. 's chapel, Westminster Abbey. In tabernacle work the tracery is purely of a decorative character, copied in miniature from the mullions, arch-moulds and crockets of Gothic work. Some of the most beautiful examples of tracery are those on the rood screens of churches, either in stone as in the Jub6 of the Made- leine at Troyes, or in wood as in the rood screens of the churches in East Anglia and in Somersetshire; and with this must be included that which was introduced into the panelling of church doors, choir stalls and other church fittings; this was continued, first in the early Renaissance of the l6th century, the finest examples being those of the stalls of King's College, Cambridge, and afterwards in the Jacobean style, in the church at Croxcombe near Shepton Mallet, and the church of St John at Leeds, the two latter ranking as the best work of that late period. (R. P. S. ) TRACHELIUM (Gr. T/oax'jXos, neck), the term in architecture given to the neck of the capital of the Doric and Ionic orders. In the Greek Doric capital it is the space between the annulets of the echinus and the grooves which marked the junction of the shaft and capital; in some early examples, as in the basilica and temple of Ceres at Paestum and the temple at Metapontum, it forms a sunk concave moulding, which by the French is called the gorge. In the Roman Doric and the Ionic orders the term is given by modern writers to the interval between the lowest moulding of the capital and the top of the astragal and fillet, which were termed the " hypotrachelium " (q.v.). TRACHEOTOMY, the operation of opening the trachea or windpipe (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM) and inserting a tube (canula) to provide a means of breathing when the natural air-passage is obstructed. The operation is by no means easy when performed on a small child, for the wind-pipe is deeply placed amongst important structures. The chief anxiety is in connexion with haemorrhage, for the vessels are large and generally overfull on account of the impairment of the respira- tion. The higher the opening is made in the trachea the easier and safer is the operation. TRACHIS, a city of ancient Greece, situated at the head of the Malian Gulf in a small plain between the rivers Asopus and Melas, and enclosed by the mountain jvall of Oeta which here extended close to the sea and by means of the Trachinian Cliffs completely commanded the main road from Thessaly. The position was well adapted as an advanced post against invaders from the north, and furthermore guarded the road up the Asopus gorge into the Cephissus valley. Strangely enough, it is not recorded what part Trachis played in the defence of Thermopylae against Xerxes. Its military impor- tance was recognized in 427 B.C. by the Spartans, who sent a garrison to guard the Trachinian plain against the marauding highland tribes of Oeta and built a citadel close by the Asopus gorge with the new name of Heraclea. The Spartans failed to safeguard Heraclea against the Oetaeans and Thessalians, and for a short time were displaced by the Thebans (420). After a bloody defeat at the hands of the neighbouring mountaineers (409) the Spartan governor quar- relled with the native settlers, whom he expelled in 399. Four years later Thebes used her new predominance in central Greece to restore the Trachinians, who retained Heraclea until 371, when Jason of Pherae seized and dismantled it. The fortress was rebuilt, and after 280 served the Aetolians as a bulwark against Celts and Macedonians. It was captured in 191 by the Romans, but restored to the Aetolian League until 146. Henceforth the place lost its importance; in Strabo's time the original site was apparently deserted, and the citadel alone remained inhabited. Strabo p. 428; Herodotus vii. 198-203; Thucydides iii. 92, v. 51-52; Diodorus xiv. 38, 82; Livy xxxvi. 22-24. W. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, iii. 24—31 (London, 1835) ; G. B. Grundy, Great Persian War, pp. 261-264 (London, 1901). (M. O. B. C.) TRACHOMA, the name given to a chronic destructive form of inflammation of the conjunctiva of the eye (see EYE: Diseases) , or " granular conjunctivitis " (Egyptian ophthalmia). It is a contagious disease, associated with dirty conditions, and common in Egypt, Arabia and parts of Europe, especially among the lower class of Jews. Hence it has become important, in connexion with the alien immigration into the United King- dom and America, and the rejection of those who are afflicted with it. It is important that all cases should be isolated, and that the spread of the infection should be prevented. TRACHYTE (Gr. rpo.-x.rn, rough), in petrology, a group of volcanic rocks which consist mainly of sanidine (or glassy orthoclase) felspar. Very often they have minute irregular steam cavities which make the broken surfaces of specimens of these rocks rough and irregular, and from this character they have derived their name. It was first given by Haiiy to certain rocks of this class from Auvergne, and was long used in a much wider sense than that defined above, in fact it included quartz-trachytes (now known as liparites and rhyolites) and oligoclase-trachytes, which are now more properly assigned to andesites. The trachytes are often described as being the volcanic equivalents of the plutonic syenites. Their dominant mineral, sanidine felspar, very commonly occurs in two generations, i.e. both as large well-shaped porphyritic crystals and in smaller imperfect rods or laths forming a finely crystalline groundmass. With this there is practically always a smaller amount of plagioclase, usually oligoclase; but the potash felspar (sanidine) often contains a considerable pro- portion of the soda felspar, and has rather the characteristics of anorthoclase or cryptoperthite than of pure sanidine. Quartz is typically absent from the trachytes, but tridymite (which likewise consists of silica) is by no means uncommon in them. It is rarely in crystals large enough to be visible without the aid of the microscope, but in thin slides it may appear as small hexagonal plates, which overlap and form dense aggregates, like a mosaic or like the tiles on a roof. They often cover the surfaces of the larger felspars or line the steam cavities of the rock, where they may be mingled with amorphous opal or fibrous chalcedony. In the older trachytes secondary quartz is not rare, and probably sometimes results from the recrystallization of tridymite. Of the ferromagnesian minerals present augite is the most common. It is usually of pale green colour, and its small crystals are often very perfect in form. Brown hornblende and biotite occur also, and are usually surrounded by black corrosion borders composed of magnetite and pyroxene. Some- times the replacement is complete and no hornblende or biotite is left, though the outlines of the cluster of magnetite and augite may clearly indicate from which of these minerals it was derived. Olivine is unusual,. though found in some tra- chytes, like those of the Arso in Ischia. Basic varieties of plagioclase, such as labradorite, are known also as phenocrysts TRACT 117 in some Italian trachytes. Dark brown varieties of augite and rhombic pyroxene (hypersthene or bronzite) have been observed but are not common. Apatite, zircon and magnetite are prac- tically always present as unimportant accessory minerals. The trachytes being very rich in potash felspar, necessarily contain considerable amounts of alkalis; in this character they approach the phonolites. Occasionally minerals of the fels- pathoid group, such as nepheline, sodalite and leucite, occur, and rocks of this kind are known as phonolitic trachytes. The soda-bearing amphiboles and pyroxenes so characteristic of the phonolites may also be found in some trachytes; thus aegirine or aegironic augite forms outgrowths on diopside crystals, and riebeckite may be present in spongy growths among the felspars of the groundmass (as in the trachyte of Berkum on the Rhine) . Trachytic rocks are typically porphyritic, and some of the best- known examples, such as the trachyte of Drachenfels on the Rhine, show this character excellently, having large sanidine crystals of tabular form an inch or two in length scattered through their fine-grained groundmass. In many trachytes, however, the phenocrysts are few and small, and the ground- mass comparatively coarse. The ferromagnesian minerals rarely occur in large crystals, and are usually not conspicuous in hand specimens of these rocks. Two types of ground- mass are generally recognized: the trachytic, composed mainly of long, narrow, sub-parallel rods of sanidine, and the orthophyric, consisting of small, squarish or rectan- gular prisms of the same mineral. Sometimes granular augite or spongy riebeckite occurs in the groundmass, but as a rule this part of the rock is highly felspathic. Glassy forms of trachyte (obsidians) occur, as in Iceland, and pumiceous varieties are known (in Teneriffe and elsewhere), but these rocks as contrasted with the rhyolites have a remark- ably strong tendency to crystallize, and are rarely to any considerable extent vitreous. Trachytes are well represented among the Tertiary and Recent volcanic rocks of Europe. In Britain they occur in Skye as lava flows and as dikes or intrusions, but they are much more common on the continent of Europe, as in the Rhine district and the Eifel, also in Auvergne, Bohemia and the Euganean Hills. In the neigh- bourhood of Rome, Naples and the island of Ischia trachytic lavas and tuffs are of common occurrence. In America trachytes are less frequent, being known in S. Dakota (Black Hills). In Iceland, the Azores, Teneriffe and Ascension there are Recent trachytic lavas, and rocks of this kind occur also in New South Wales (Cambe- warra range), East Africa, Madagascar, Aden and in many other districts. Among the older volcanic rocks trachytes also are not scarce, though they have often been described under the names orthophyre and orthoclase-porphyry, while " trachyte " was reserved for Tertiary and Recent rocks of similar com- position. In England there are Permian trachytes in the Exeter district, and Carboniferous trachytes are found in many parts of the central valley of Scotland. The latter differ in no essential respect from their modern representatives in Italy and the Rhine valley, but their augite and biotite are often replaced by chlorite and other secondary products. Permian trachytes occur also in Thuringia and the Saar district in Germany. Closely allied to the trachytes are the Keratophyres, which occur mainly in Palaeozoic strata in the Harz (Germany) , in the Southern Uplands of Scotland, in Cornwall, &c. They are usually por- phyritic and fluidal ; and consist mainly of alkali felspar (anortho- clase principally, but also albite and orthoclase), with a small quantity of chlorite and iron oxides. Many of them are lavas, but for a lengthy monograph on a subject, dealing with it technically and authoritatively, whereas a tract is understood to be brief and rather argumentative than educational. There is, again, the rarer word tractate, which is not a tract, in the precise sense, so much as a short treatise. The word " tract " has come to be used for brief discourses of a moral and religious character only, and in modern practice it seems to be mainly confined to serious and hortatory themes. An essay on poetry, or the description of a passage of scenery, would not be styled a tract. In the Protestant world, the tract which Luther composed in 1520, on the Babylonish captivity, has been taken more or less as the type of this species of literature, which, however, existed long before his day, both in Latin and in the vernacular tongues of western Europe. It is difficult, if not impossible, in early history, to distinguish the tract from other cognate forms of moralizing literature, but it may perhaps be said that the homilies of ^Elfric (955- 1025?) are the earliest specimens of this class in English litera- ture. Four centuries later Wyclif issued a series of tracts, which were remarkable for their vigour, and exercised a strong influence on medieval theology. Bishop Reginald Pecock published many controversial tracts between 1440 and 1460. Sir Thomas More, John Fisher (d. 1535) and William Tyndale were prominent writers of controversial treatises. It was the Martin Marprelate agitation, in the reign of Elizabeth, which led from 1588 to 1591 to the most copious production of tracts in English literature; of these nearly thirty survive. On the Puritan side the principal writers were John Udall (1560-1592), Henry Barrowe (d. 1593), John Penry (1550-1593) and Job Throckmorton (1545-1601), the tracts being printed in the house of the last-mentioned; on the side of the Established Church the principal authors were Bishop Thomas Cooper (1517-1594) and the poets Lyly and Nash. An enormous collection of tracts was published between 1717 and 1720 in elucidation of what is known as the Bangorian Controversy, set in motion by a sermon of Benjamin Hoadly, bishop of Bangor, on " The Nature of the Kingdom of Christ " (1717). Convocation considered this a treatise likely to impugn and impeach the royal supremacy in religious questions. A vast number of writers took part in the dispute, and Thomas Sherlock (1678-1761) fell into disgrace through the violence of his contributions to it. Convocation was finally obliged to give way. The most famous collection of tracts published in the course of the igth century was that produced from 1833 onwards by Newman, Keble and E. B. Pusey, under the title of " Tracts for the Times." Among these Pusey's "Tract on Baptism" (1835) and his " On the Holy Eucharist" (1836) had a profound effect in leading directly to the foundation of the High Church party, so much so that the epithet " Tractarian " was bar- barously coined to designate those who wished to oppose the spread of rationalism by a quickening of the Church of England. In 1841 Newman's " Tract No. XC." was condemned by the heads of houses in Oxford, and led to the definite organization of the High Church forces. (X.) Tract Societies are agencies for the production and distribution, or the distribution only, of Christian literature, more especially in SiO2 A12O3 Fe2O3 FeO MgO CaO Na2O K2O H20 Riebeckite trachyte, Hohenberg, Berkum, Rhenish Prussia .... Keratophyre, Hamilton Hill, Peebles, Scotland Trachyte (Orthophyre) Garleton Hill, Haddington, Scotland. Trachyte, Monte Nuovo, Phlegraean Fields, near Naples, Italy . Trachyte, Algersdorf , Bohemia 66-06 64-38 6i-35 6o-33 64. -60 16-46 16-98 16-88 18-74 l8--*Q 2-25 4-04 0-41 2-84 I-IO 5-oi 1-29 V44 O-I9 0-28 0-44 0-38 O-4Q 0-79 i -08 2-39 I-I5 1-72 6-81 7-57 5-26 7-iS 4-61 5-52 4-30 6-12 7-30 6-46 0-62 1-64 1-70 0-56 O-2d others are probably dikes or thin intrusions. As the analyses given above will show, they differ from trachytes mainly in being richer in soda. (J. S. F.) TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tr octal and Ital. trattato), in the literary signification, a work in which some particular subject, or aspect of a subject, is treated. As far as derivation is concerned, a tract is identical with a treatise, but by custom the latter word has come to be used tract form. They vary in importance from the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (London), the Religious Tract Society (London) and the American Tract Society (New York) — all of which are publishing houses of recognized standing — to small and purely local organizations for distributing evangelistic and pastoral literature. It was not until the Evangelical Revival that tract work began to develop along its modern lines. Start- ing from the provision of simple evangelistic literature for home n8 TRACTION use, the enterprise grew into the provision of Christian literature, not only for home use, but also for the mission fields of the world. With this growth there proceeded another develop- ment, the production of books and magazines being added to that of tracts. The title " Tract Society " has, in fact, become misleading, as suggestive of limitations which had but a brief existence and are no longer recognized by the more important agencies. On the other hand it must not be supposed that because the work has gone beyond the provision of tracts, these are no longer widely employed. Probably their use in various forms at home was never wider than it is to-day; whilst in India, China and elsewhere the attack of the Christian tracts is being met by the circulation of vernacular tracts in defence of the non-Christian faiths. The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, founded in 1698, though most widely known as a publishing agency, assists in a wide variety of ways the work of the Church of England. On its publica- tion side, it is for its own Church both a Bible society and a tract society. Moreover, its publications include not only versions of the Holy Scriptures and of the Liturgy, but also theological and general literature in many forms. It has given much attention to providing good reading for children; whilst its tract catalogue is especially rich in works bearing on Christian evidences, Church seasons and the doctrines of the Anglican Church. .To the foreign missions of the Church the S.P.C.K. has been a helper of the utmost value, more especially in regard to their medical missions and their use of Christian literature. In the latter case the help is given by grants of works produced either at home or by mission presses in the field. As early as 1 720 it was using Arabic ; but it has from time to time been of especial value in helping to found a Christian literature in languages or dialects just reduced to writing. Thus whilst recent publications for the mission field include works in Arabic, Chinese and Urdu, they also include publications in Addo, Lunyoro and Sgau Karen. The Religious Tract Society, founded in 1 799, and thus contemporary with the great missionary agencies and the Bible Society, is, like the last-named, an interdenominational organization. Its earliest publications were in English and were tracts. But it speedily undertook book publications and extended its field of operations. It began to provide tracts for China in 1813, and as early as 1817 an auxiliary tract society was founded at Bellary in India by some men of the 84th Regiment. In undertaking book publication, the society became one of the pioneers in the provision of sound and cheap literature; whilst by the issue of the Sunday at Home, the Leisure Hour, the Boy's Own Paper, the Girl's Own Paper, the Cottager and Artisan and other periodicals, it helped to lead the work in the provision of popular magazines. Like the S.P.C.K., the R.T.S. now produces general theological literature as well as tracts in a variety of forms, whilst it also gives especial attention to the provision of healthy reading matter for young people. Its grants of books and tracts are open to members of all Protestant denominations. The society aids Protestant communities on the Continent by maintaining dep6ts at Madrid, Barcelona, Lisbon, Vienna, Budapest and Warsaw; whilst it also assists, by grants, publication work in France, Italy, Russia, Turkey and Scandinavia. In the mission field it works mainly through subsidiary tract societies |ocally organized. The chief of these tract and book societies are in India carried on at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Bangalore, Allahabad and Lahore; in China at Peking, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Canton, Hankow, Chung-king and Mukden; and in Japan at Tokio. The literature produced by these organizations ranges from com- mentaries on the Holy Scriptures to the simplest tracts and leaflets. In 1908 the society opened a special fund in aid of its Chinese work, and by this means the provision of Christian literature in book and tract form for Chinese readers has been greatly extended. Much literature for various foreign fields is also produced in Great Britain and distributed from the society's headquarters. As with the S.P.C.K., the R.T.S. has been of great service in providing (next to the Holy Scriptures) the earliest literature for some languages. Thus it has helped to provide tracts for the Miaos of west China and for the Baganda, together with the Pilgrim's Progress in Bemba and in Ewe\ two little-known African tongues. The languages in which works produced or aided by the society have appeared number about 300. In the distribution of its grants of tracts for home work nearly all the great evangelical organiza- tions have a share. In the administration of a subsidiary tract society all the evangelical agencies at work in its field are as a rule represented. In addition to the work of these societies, the production and distribution of_tracts at home is carried on by The Stirling Tract Enterprise, wh'ch also sends grants of its publications to India, Ceylon and Ainca; by The Children's Special Service Mission, which also issues publications in Chinese, Japanese and some Indian languages; and by The Scripture Gift Mission, which sends its publi- cations into China and the East generally. In the mission field The Christian Literature Society for India (formerly the Christian Vernacular Educational Society), established in 1858, has its head- quarters in London with auxiliary committees in India and Ceylon. It will always be associated with the name of Dr John Murdoch (d. Aug. ip, 1904), its secretary for nearly half a century. It works on similar lines to the tract societies, but includes a wider range of educational literature, in the provision of which it has been especially helpful to the mission schools of India. The Christian Literature Society for China (formerly the Society for the Diffusion of Literature and General Knowledge among the Chinese) is incorporated (1909) in Shanghai, but has an advisory committee and an executive committee in London. It has been of great service in approaching the official and upper classes of China by its magazines and .books, as well as by the diffusion of more popular literature. The American Tract Society (New York) works, both in regard to domestic and foreign enterprises, upon similar lines to those of the Religious Tract Society. Upper Canada has its tract society also and similar organizations exist on the continent of Europe. (A. R. B.) TRACTION (Lat. trahere, to draw), the act of drawing or hauling. As used in this article the term refers to the methods of employing animal and mechanical power for transporting persons or things from place to place in wheeled vehicles. Animal Traction. — The oldest form of motive power is that of animals, those most commonly employed for draught purposes on ordinary roads being horses, mules, donkeys and oxen. On the continent of Europe dogs are often harnessed to light carts or barrows, but in England their use in this way was prohibited by the Cruelty to Animals Act of 1854. Camels and elephants are only rarely used as draught animals in special circumstances. When men and animals carry burdens, or draw or propel loads in certain vehicles, it is difficult, and sometimes impossible, to determine the duty performed in foot-pounds of work, because of the uncertainty of the amount in pounds of the resistance overcome. In this case, for the purpose of comparing performances of the same kind with each other, a unit is employed called a foot-pound of horizontal transport, meaning the conveying of a load of i ft i ft. horizontally. The following table, given by W. J. Macquorn Rankine, gives some examples of the daily duty of men and horses in units of horizontal transport, L denoting the load in ft, V the velocity in feet per second, and T the number of seconds per day of working: — L. V. T 3600" LV. LVT. ib. Feet per second. Hours per day.« Ib. con- veyed i ft. Ib. conveyed i ft. MAN — Walking unloaded , transport of own ) weight ) 140 5-o 10 700 25,200,000 Do. do Wheeling load L in two-wheeled barrow, ) returning empty; V = £ velocity . J 140 224 6-0 1-6 10 10 840 373 30,240,000 13,428,000 Do. one-wheeled barrow, do. . 135 i 6 IO 225 8,100,000 Travelling with burden Conveying burden, returning unloaded 00 140 ri 7 6 225 233 5,670,000 5,032,800 I 252 Carrying burden for 30 seconds only •<. 126 n-7 — 1474-2 — ( — 23-1 — — — HORSE — Walking with cart always loaded . 500 3'6 IO 5400 194,400,000 Trotting do. do. 750 7°2 *i Walking with cart, going loaded, re- ) turning empty; V = i mean velocity ) 500 2-O VI IO 5400 3000 108,000,000 Carrying burden, walking .... 270 3'6 IO 972 34.902,000 Do. trotting .... 1 80 7-2 7 1296 32,659,200 For tramway service, horse, or occasionally mule, traction was formerly employed almost universally, but on account of limited speed and high cost it has been generally abandoned, except in a few localities, where the smallness of the line, low value of livestock, labour and feed, and long headway intervals, make it still profitable. The tractive force required on a straight and level tramway is found to vary from T^TT to -£$ of the load, according to the condition of the rails. On a tramway having grooved rails in average condition it is about T^T- The resistance is thus, at the best, nearly double that on a railway, and sometimes as much as on a good paved road. This is due to the friction of the flange of the wheel in the grooved rail, and to the fact that the latter is always more or less clogged with dirt. The TRACTION 119 clearance between the flange and the groove is necessarily small, as the former must have sufficient strength, and the latter must be narrow. The least inaccuracy of gauge, there- fore, causes extra friction, which is greatly increased on curves. By removing the flanges from two of the four wheels of the tramway car H. E. Tresca (1814-1885) found that the resistance was reduced from ^fa to j-J-g- of the load. The resistance due to gravity is of course not lessened on a tramway; and if T-^vP«ase. systems induction motors are used. The polyphase current is much used as a means of .distributing energy from a central power- station over extended lines of railways, but is generally converted into direct current through the agency of rotary converters, and fed to the lines as such. There are, however, a few railways working directly with induction motors upon a three-phase system of supply. Prominent among these may be mentioned the Valtellina railway in Italy and the Jungfrau railway in Switzerland. Upon these lines the rails are used as one of the three conductors, and two trolley wires are suspended above the track. The locomotive is provided with two trolleys, one running upon each wire, and con- sists simply of an induction motor coupled through appropriate gearing to the mechanism of the truck. For starting a large resistance is introduced into the rotor or secondary circuit of the motors by means of collecting rings placed on its shaft, upon which bear brushes. This resistance is cut out as the speed increases, until it is all withdrawn and the rotor is short-circuited, when full speed is attained. It has been found that potential differences of about 500 volts in each phase can be safely handled, and it is claimed that the few railways which use polyphase currents have shown gratifying results in practice. In the early years of the 2Oth century single-phase alternating current motors for electric traction were developed, and single- phase systems were extensively installed both in Europe ~. ^ and in America. The simplest type of single-phase motor is a series motor provided with the usual commu- tator and brushes, in which the current passes through both the field coils and the armature coils. The armature and field windings being traversed by the same current, the reversal of the field magne- tization and that of the direction of current flow in the armature are coincident, so that the turning effort or torque, on the armature current produced by the interaction of armature and field magne- tization is always in the same direction. Since the alternating current passes through both members of the motor, the armature and field cores are both laminated. In the later types of these motors the field coils are distributed and embedded in the field ring, so that the inner surface of the field ring presents a practically smooth surface to the armature. Troubles were at first experienced with commu- tation of the heavy alternating currents required for the operation of these motors, vicious sparking taking place at the brushes. This was overcome by the use of auxiliary or " compensating " coils, which are embedded in the field magnet ring, being placed between successive magnet coils. These compensating coils are usually connected in series with the main armature and field circuit. They may each, however, have their two ends joined together, (short-circuited), the currents in them being induced by the alternating magnetic flux of the fields. Motors of the above types have the general characteristics of direct current series motors, and possess the same general relations between speed and torque that are such an important element in the success of direct current series motors. The efficiency of alter- nating current motors is not quite so good as that of direct current motors, on account of the rapid reversal of the iron magnetization in the field magnets, but their efficiency is high and their perform- ance in practical work has been excellent (fig. 8). There is another type of single-phase motor that has been used in Europe, but not in America, which is commonly called the repul- sion motor. In these motors the armature is not directly included in the main circuit, but opposite points 'on the commutator are connected together through brushes. The working current is fed to the field magnets, and the rapid reversals of magnetization induce currents in the armature coils, which currents, working with the field magnetization, cause rotation. Several types of repulsion motors have been developed, and in general their characteristics are similar to those of the plain series type. They have not, however, come 124 TRACTION into extended commercial use. Single-phase motors for a given power are much larger, heavier and more expensive than the ordinary direct current motors, owing to the low magnetic densities at which the iron is worked. The power factor is between 0-75 and 0-85. A. P* ••--: I 4 1000 uoo 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 L 25 ts v< .1 \ / \ / / ^ / / \ / / \ ^ t / > 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 imperas FIG. 8. — Characteristics of Series Single-phase Motor. The advantages of the single- phase alternating system lie in the fact that it combines the simplicity of the overhead direct current con- struction with the possibility of exceedingly high voltage. Where heavy traffic is to be handled, and especially where that traffic is scattered, a direct current system, which up to the present has been limited in its voltage, is not commercially possible, as the amount of copper used for distribution and the excessive amount of apparatus required to convert high tension alternating current into low tension direct current, would make the cost prohibitive. In direct current WESTINGHOUSE RAILWAY MOTOR 500 VOLTS GEAR RATIO, 16 TO 73 "33" WHEELS CONTINUOUS CAPACITY 60 AMPERES AT 300 VOLTS .. .. 55 .. .. 400 " FIG. 9. systems for lines of any length, it is the custom to use alternating current of high potential and to reduce it to direct current of low potential at different points along the line. This involves rotary converters, which by their nature require attendance in the sub- stations, while if the traffic is scattered so that the load on the sub- stations may at times be zero, and at other times may be very large, the capacity of the sub-stations must be equal to handling a maxi- mum load, so that the total capacity of each sub-station, would be based on the maximum instead of on an average condition. With the single-phase alternating current system, on the contrary, only static transformers in sub-stations along the line are required, and with the high voltages available (voltages as high as 11,000 volts are used at present) the distances between these sub-stations can be greatly increased as compared with the direct current sub-stations, so that each sub-station feeding a much longer portion of the line would have a better average load than in the direct current case. The static transformers do not require attendance, and their efficiency is much higher than that of the rotary converters. Electric motors for traction purposes have been highly elaborated and developed. At first they drove the car axles through belts or sprocket chains, the motor being sometimes attached „ to the car, sometimes to the truck. At Richmond, however, in 1887, the Sprague method of communicating the power from the motor axle to the car axle was put into practical operation, and this has with slight modifications been retained. It consists of sleeving one end of the motor on the axle, suspending the other FIG. 10. — Standard Railway Motor. flexibly from the car body or truck, and driving from the armature through spur gearing. At first the motors were too small for the work demanded of them. Their high speed required a double reduction in gearing, their overheating caused continual burn-outs, and the sparking at the commutators necessitated constant repairs. These defects were gradually eliminated. The motors were made larger, the quality of the iron and insulation was greatly improved, and finally a four-pole motor requiring only a single-speed reduction by spur-gearing was produced. Since that time further improve- ments in material and design have been introduced, and the present motor has been evolved. Almost all the standard modern traction motors are of the same general design. They are series wound, i.e. the same current passes through both the armature and the fields. This gives a strong starting torque or tractive effort, the torque diminishing as the speed increases. This characteristic is particu- larly suitable for traction. Fig. 9 shows the relation between speed and tractive effort of a standard railway motor of large size and power. The armature is built up of carefully tested iron disks, which are deeply slotted to make room for the coils. These are wound and insulated separately, and placed in the slots in the armature core; sometimes they are held in place by binding wire, sometimes by wedges. The commutator is put in place, the coil connexions soldered to it, and the proper end-coverings put on. The magnet frame is made in two parts, of cast steel, enclosing the entire armature. A lid in the top casting gives access to the brushes, which are of carbon. The field coils are wound on forms and properly insulated. When in operation it is practically water TRACTION 125 and dust proof, and with proper attention is a very durable piece of machinery (fig. 10). Although the standard design of motors is at present based on a single-reduction gearing, there are in operation traction-motors which are not geared. On the locomotives used on the New York Central, the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the Baltimore & Ohio railways in America, the City & South London railway in England, the armatures surround the driving axles. In all the cases mentioned, except the Baltimore & Ohio railway, the armatures are set directly on and solid with the axles of the driving-wheels, while on the Baltimore & Ohio locomotives the motors are sleeved on the axles, there being a slight play between the sleeve and the axle, which allows a flexible support. The wheels are driven by arms projecting from the armature shaft. There is no fixed method of rating the output of traction-motors. Most manufacturers, in giving a certain horse-power capacity, mean that at the given rating the motor will run an hour with a rise in temperature of a certain number of degrees, not that it can be run continuously at the power given. Another system of rating depends on the draw-bar pull which the motor can develop under normal conditions of voltage and speed. Uniformity is greatly needed. One of the most important parts of the equipment of an electric car or locomotive is the controlling device. In the early days of Contrail rs ?'ectr'c traction a number of different methods of regulat- 'ing the speeds of the cars were used, but they have been reduced to practically one standard method. In the old Sprague system there were at first no resistances outside of the motors them- selves, but the field coils of the motors were divided into sections, and by changing the relative connexions of these sections the total resistance of the circuit could be changed; at the same time the strength of the field for a given total current was either increased FIG. ii. — Controller (open). or decreased. In other systems the fields and armatures of the motors were not changed in their relation to one another, but exter- nal resistances were cut out and in by the controller. Usually there are two motors on each car, and it is evident that if the speed of a car be changed within wide limits, all the other factors remaining constant, there will be a very considerable loss by either of these methods of regulating, unless the relative connexions of the motor armatures can be changed. This can be done by putting the two motors in series where low speed is desired, and in parallel where the speed is to be increased. This method was tried in the early days of electric traction at Richmond, and discarded, but it has been again taken up, and is now the standard method of regulation in ordinary tramway work. Roughly speaking, when the«car is started the controller connects the two motors in series with an external resist- ance, then cuts out the external resistance, then breaks the circuit, then connects the two motors in parallel. The external resistance is put again in series with them, and then is gradually cut out as the car speed increases. By this method a considerable range of speed is attained at a fair efficiency. The controller (fig. 1 1) consists of a cylinder having on it a number of copper segments so arranged that on rotating it different connexions are made between stationary fingers that bear on these segments. In the first types much diffi- culty was experienced from the burning of the segments and fingers, due to the sparking on breaking the circuit, but this has been to a large extent obviated by using magnetic blow-outs at the point of break. (A magnetic blow-out is simply a magnet so arranged that the arc caused by breaking the circuit takes place in the magnetic field.) There is a reversing lever on the controllers separate from the controller handle, and interlocking with the controller so that the reverse lever may not be moved except when the controller is in the "off" position. When it is desired to run trains of cars and to accelerate them rapidly, it is sometimes necessary to have more than one car equipped with motors. In this case all the motors must be controlled from one point, and a number of ingenious devices have been evolved to accomplish such " multiple control." In general, each car has its own controller, and all the controllers are operated by electric power from switches on each platform of any of the motor cars. A motor and controlling system designed to save and utilize the power produced by a car running down an incline has been developed and is termed the " regenerative system." A car run- ning over a line having heavy grades must have sufficient energy given to it to overcome its frictional resistance to motion and also to lift the weight of car and load from the bottom to top of each up-grade. On the return trip, the car " coasts " or runs down the grade without the consumption of current, but is restrained from attaining too high a speed by the brakes, thus wasting the energy existing by reason of the position of the car. With the regenerative system the motors are caused to act as dynamos which are driven by the motion of the car axles when descending a grade, and, as they are connected to the line by the trolley or contacting device, the current thus generated is fed to the line and may assist other cars climbing grades at some other point on the system. The delivery of electrical energy also puts a resis- tance on the car axles and produces a braking effect which almost automatically fixes the car speed. If the speed be too high, the excessive current generated will tend to retard the car and reduce its velocity, while if too low the small current produced will set up but little opposition to motion and the car will accelerate. Obviously, series motors cannot be used for this service. The motors have shunt fields, and their speed is varied by varying the field strength. Motors of this type are larger, more costly and slightly less efficient than series machines, so that a regenerative system has no place on roads that have a fairly level contour. When, however, the grades are frequent and excessive, the power saved more than counterbalances these factors, and the system may prove a valuable one for such service. For tramcars of ordinary sizes hand-brakes are used, these being generally spindle brakes, with leverage enough to handle the com- paratively heavy cars. When the size and speed of the car increases, however, these hand-brakes do not give sufficient control, and power brakes have to be adopted. Of these there are several forms that have proved successful in practice. The one most extensively used in electric railways is the air-brake, which is similar in its mechanical operation to the air-brake used on steam railways. The compressed air required for the operation of the brake is obtained by means of an air-pump driven by an electric • motor, the circuit of which is controlled by a switch actuated by the pressure of the air in the receiving tank. When this pressure rises to a predetermined value, the device acts and interrupts the supply of current to the motor, which is thus stopped. When the pressure falls below a determined minimum the device operates in the oppo- site direction, and the motor and pump start. Of electric brakes there are several varieties. One type consists of two iron disks, one keyed on the axle but capable of moving along it a short distance axially, and the other held firmly on the frame of the truck. By means of a coil, set in a recess of annular form turned in the face of the fixed disk, the disks are magnetized transversely, and are drawn together with greater or less pressure, dependent on the amount of current that is allowed to pass through the coil. It is customary to arrange the current connexions in this form of electric brake so that when the handle of the controller is turned beyond the stopping position the current is cut off from the source of supply, and the motor running as a dynamo furnishes the current to work the brake. The magnetic track-brake, which is sometimes used on tramway cars, consists of a pair of steel shoes, suspended from the truck frame and hanging near and over the rail, a steel yoke connecting the two shoes together. On this yoke is wound a heavy magnetizing coil which, when energized, strongly magnetizes the two steel shoes and causes them to draw against and adhere to the track. Bracing links connect these track shoes with brake shoes on the wheel rims, and the drag of the track shoes thus applies pressure also to the wheel shoes. The downward pull of the track shoes gives a greater pressure of the wheels against the track than that due to the weight of the car, and the sliding or " skidding " of wheels, with the conse- quent production of flats, is avoided. A further braking effect comes from the use of the motors as dynamos, driven by the motion of the car, to supply current to the brake magnetizing coils. This therefore is one of the most effective brakes that has been devised. It has, however, not been very extensively used owing to its high cost and difficulties that arise from the track shoes running so close to the rails that any uneven places — frogs, switches, crossings and the like — may rub against them and give a braking effect at times when the car is accelerating or running. A pair of shoes is applied on both sides of the car, one pair being hung over either rail. Another method of braking is by arranging the connexions of the two motors so that one acts as a dynamo driven by the motion 126 TRACY, COMTE DE of the car and supplies current to the other, which works as a motor, tending to turn the wheels in the direction opposite to that in which the car is moving. The production of current by the one motor and the reverse effort of the other give a powerful braking effect. The proper connexions are made by constructing the controllers with contacts additional to those required for motor control, which connect the machines in the desired manner when the controller handle is moved round past the "off " position. Automatic brakes are always preferable to hand-brakes even though they cost much more, because the energy required to propel an ordinary tramcar is from 10 to 25 % more with hand than with automatic brakes. The cause is the constant pressure of the brake shoes of a hand brake against the wheel rims, the shoes being so held by the operator to avoid having too long a hand movement in applying the brake. The maximum pressure possible for any brake should be about 90 % of the weight of the car on the braked wheels. Less than this amount will give an inefficient brake; more will produce sliding or " skidding" of the wheels, producing " flats" on them, and also causing loss of retarding effect. Of the numerous accessories necessary in the operation of electric railways one of the most important is the trolley. For an overhead Accessories svstem tms consists in general of a metallic rod or tube ' ' mounted upon the top of the car and pressed upward against the trolley wire by springs. At the upper end of this trolley pole is generally placed a bronze wheel which runs along the under surface of the wire. On the continent of Europe considerable use has been made of bow-trolleys, which consist of light metallic bow-shaped structures, sustained in place by springs and running along on the under side of the wire against which they rub. The designs patented for trolleys are almost innumerable. Besides the trolleys, cars are ordinarily equipped with switches which are used to break the trolley circuit, with fuses or automatic circuit-breakers, with electric lamps, with lightning arresters, and with the necessary car wiring. The fuses or automatic circuit- breakers guard against an excess of current being passed through the motors, and when they are fitted the ordinary platform switch can be dispensed with. These automatic breakers can be set for any ' desired current. The question of the generation and the distribution of the current belongs to this article only in so far as electric traction _ ,. has introduced peculiarities in the type of apparatus otCurreai. or *^e metn°ds of its use. In a continuous current station the current is generated at an approximately constant potential, varying from 500 volts to 700 volts on different systems. As the load is apt to fluctuate, except in large stations, within wide limits, the machinery must be designed to stand the most severe usage. The engines are more massive than would be necessary for constant loads, and the dynamos must be built to stand sudden overloads without destructive spark- ing; usually, indeed, they are considerably over-compounded, not so much for the sake of raising the voltage as to strengthen the field and prevent sparking on overload. When a number of machines are to be run in parallel — as is usually the case — they are provided with " equalizing " switches, which serve to throw the series fields in parallel. As a result, if one of the machines tends to increase its armature current beyond the proper amount, the current in the series fields does not increase with it, but retains its normal propor- tion. The armature reaction and resistance fall of potential, in this machine, would both tend to increase, thereby decreasing its armature potential, and therefore its current would return to its proper value. From the dynamos the current from each machine goes through an ammeter and automatic circuit-breaker to the main " omnibus " bars, then through the station ammeter to the feeder " omnibus " bars, then through ammeters and circuit-breakers to the feed-cables. As a rule, watt-meters are provided to measure the output of the station, and, if an overhead system is being supplied, lightning arresters are installed. Where continuous currents are used to operate cars at considerable distances from the generating stations, " boosters " are used. These are series-wound dynamos driven at a constant speed, through which is passed the current that is to feed the distant section of the line. Usually the characteristic of the booster is so calculated that the amount by which it raises the voltage for a given current just equals the fall of potential in the feeding-line for the same current. The result is that the potential at the end of the line will be the same as that at the station. The question of economy, as between putting in additional copper and wasting energy in the booster, is easily calculated; the advantage is more and more on the side of the latter as the distance increases and the car service becomes more infrequent. It is necessary to the satisfactory operation of a system that the variations of voltage should not be too great, so boosters sometimes become a practical necessity, irrespective of the question of economy. Accumulators are frequently installed in power stations to prevent the heavy load fluctuations which arise from starting and stopping of cars and ascending or descending grades. The generators give an approximately unvarying amount of current. When the load demand is less than that delivered by the generators, the excess current goes into the storage battery, and when the load is greater than the power from the generators the additional current required comes from the battery. The generators, engines and boilers may thus be proportioned for the average instead of the maximum load requirements, and the sizes of these units are thereby reduced. As traction systems have been combined and extended, the area of operation of many of the companies has grown so that a number of direct-current stations are used for a single system. The limit of distance to which electric energy can be economically supplied at the comparatively low voltages employed is not great, and the advantage of having one or two large stations to supply a system, in place of a number of smaller ones, is evident. This fact has led to the use of high-potential alternating currents for the distribution of energy, the voltage being reduced at the points of consumption, and in most cases changed to a continuous current by rotary converters. If alternating currents are used for the car motors, the economical distribution of energy is greatly simplified, the rotary converters being eliminated and their first cost and losses and expense of operation saved. The expense of operating sub-stations containing rotary converters is necessarily large, and the capital outlay required for them is often greater than for the generating station. As a rule, the cars used for electric traction have varied but slightly from the type of tramway car prevalent in different localities. The tendency, however, has been to increase their size. Cars For electric railway work, as distinguished from tram- way work, the cars generally follow the pattern that is standard on American steam lines. The trucks used for electric cars are made of steel, with heavy axles and suspension bars for carrying the electric motors. For smaller vehicles, a single four-wheel truck is used, the wheel base being limited by the curvature of the track, but not as a rule exceeding 7J ft. For the longer and heavier cars, two four- wheeled bogie trucks are employed. If two motors are used on a double-truck car, and if the grades on the road are very heavy, the trucks are made on the " maximum traction " pattern, in which one pair of wheels in each truck is of smaller diameter than the other and the greater part of the weight of the car is on the larger motor- driven wheels. For very large high-speed cars, trucks are used of practically the same type and weight as are employed on steam railways. (See also TRAMWAY.) (L. Du.) TRACY, ANTOINE LOUIS CLAUDE DESTUTT, COMTE DE (1754-1836), French philosopher, son of a distinguished soldier, was born in Bourbonnais on the 2oth of July 1754. He belonged to a noble family of Scotch descent, tracing its origin to Walter Stutt, who in 1420 accompanied the earls of Buchan and Douglas to the court of France, and whose family afterwards rose to be counts of Tracy. He was educated at home and at the univer- sity of Strassburg, where he was chiefly noted for his athletic skill. He went into the army, and when the Revolution broke took an active part in the provincial assembly of Bourbonnais. He was elected a deputy of the nobility to the states-general, where he sat alongside of his friend La Fayette. In the spring of 1792 he received the rank of marshal de camp in command of the cavalry in the army of the north; but the influence of the extremists becoming predominant he took indefinite leave of absence, and settled at Auteuil, where, with Condorcet and Cabanis, he devoted himself to scientific studies. Under the Reign of Terror he was arrested and imprisoned for nearly a year, during which he studied Condillac and Locke, and aban- doned the natural sciences for philosophy. On the motion of Cabanis he was named associate of the Institute in the class of the moral and political sciences. He soon began to attract attention by the memoires which he read before his colleagues — papers which formed the first draft of his comprehensive work on ideology. The society of " ideologists " at Auteuil embraced, besides Cabanig and Tracy, Constantin Francois de Chassebceuf, Comte de Volney and Dominique Joseph Garat (1740-1833), professor in the National Institute. Under the empire he was a member of the senate, but took little part in its deliberations. Under the Restoration he became a peer of France, but protested against the reactionary spirit of the government, and remained in opposition. In 1808 he was elected a member of the French Academy in place of Cabanis, and in 1832 he was also named a member of the Academy of Moral Sciences on its reorganization. He appeared, however, only once at its conferences, owing to his age and to disappointment at the comparative failure of his work. He died at Paris on the gth of March 1836. Destutt de Tracy was the last eminent representative of the sensualistic school which Condillac (q.v.) founded in France upon a one-sided interpretation of Locke. He pushed the sensualistic TRACY, B. F.— TRADE, BOARD OF 127 principles of Condillac to their last consequences, being in full agree- ment with the materialistic views of Cabanis, though the attention of the latter was devoted more to the physiological, that of Tracy to the psychological or " ideological " side of man. His ideology, he frankly stated, formed " a part of zoology," or, as we should say, of biology. To think is to feel. The four faculties into which he divides the conscious life — perception, memory, judgment, will — are all varieties of sensation. Perception is sensation caused by a present affection of the external extremities of the nerves; memory is sensation caused, in the absence of present excitation, by dis- positions of the nerves which are the result of past experiences; judg- ment is the perception of relations between sensations, and is itself a species of sensation, because if we are aware of the sensations we must be aware also of the relations between them ; will he identifies with the feeling of desire, and therefore includes it as a variety of sensation. It is easy to see that such conclusions ignore important distinctions, and are, indeed, to a large extent an abuse of language. As a psychologist de Tracy deserves credit for his distinction between active and passive touch, which developed into the theory of the muscular sense. His account of the notion of external existence, as derived, not from pure sensation, but from the experience of action on the one hand and resistance on the other, may be compared with the account of Bain and later psychologists. His chief works are Elements d'ideologie (1817-1818 ; 2nd ed., 1824- 1825), in which he presented the complete statement of his earlier monographs; Commentaire sur I' esprit des lots de Montesquieu (1806; 5th ed., 1828; Eng. trans., President Jefferson, 1811); Essai sur le genie et les ouvrages de Montesquieu (1808). See histories of philosophy, especially F. Picavet, Les Ideologues chs. v. and vi. (Paris, 1891), and La Philosophic de Biran (Acad<5mie des sci. mor. et pol., 1889); G. H. Lewes, Hist, of Phil. TRACY, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1830- ), American lawyer and soldier, was born in Owego, New York, on the 26th of April 1830. He was educated at the Owego academy, was admitted to the bar in 1851, was district-attorney of Tioga county in 1853-1859, and was a member of the state Assembly in 1862. In 1862 he organized the icxpth and the I37th regiments of New York Volunteer Infantry and (Aug. 28) was made colonel of the former. In September 1864 he became colonel of the I27th United States Colored Infantry; in 1864-1865 was in command of the prison camp at Elmira, New York, and in March 1865 was breveted brigadier-general of volunteers. He received a Congressional medal of honour in 1895 for gallantry at the Wilderness in May 1864. He was United States district- attorney for the eastern district of New York in 1866-1873, and an associate judge of the New York court of appeals in 1881- 1882. In 1889-1893 he was secretary of the navy in the cabinet of President Benjamin Harrison, and then resumed the practice of law in New York City. He was chairman of the commission which drafted the charter for Greater New York, and in 1897 was defeated as Republican candidate for mayor of the city. In 1899 he was counsel for Venezuela before the Anglo- Venezuelan boundary arbitration commission in Paris. TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng, the forms (red, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track), originally a term meaning track or course, and so surviving in " trade-wind " (q.v.), a wind which always blows in one course; hence a way of life, business or occupation, and, specifically, the handicraft in which a man has been trained and which he makes his means of livelihood, or the mercantile business which he carries on for profit, as opposed to the liberal arts or professions. A further development of meaning makes the word synonymous with commerce, comprehending every species of exchange or dealing in commodities. See COMMERCE ; BALANCE OF TRADE ; FREE TRADE ; PROTECTION ; TARIFFS; TRADE ORGANIZATION; and also the sections dealing with trade and commerce under the various countries. TRADE, BOARD OF. The greater part of such supervision of commerce and industry as exists in the United Kingdom is exercised by the " Committee of Privy Council for Trade " or, as it is usually called, the board of trade. As early as the i4th century councils and commissions had been formed from time to time to advise parliament in matters of trade, but it was not till the middle of the i7th century, under the Commonwealth, that any department of a permanent character was attempted. Cromwell's policy in this respect was continued under the Restoration, and in 1660 a committee of the privy council was appointed for the purpose of obtaining information as to the imports and exports of the country and improving trade. A few years later another committee of the council was appointed to act as intermediaries between the crown and the colonies, or foreign plantations, as they were then called. This joint commission of trade and plantations was abolished in 1675, and it was not until twenty years later that it was revived under William -III. Among the chief objects set before this board were the inquiry into trade obstacles and the employment of the poor; the state of the silver currency was also a subject on which John Locke, its secretary, lost no time in making representations to the government. Locke's retirement in 1700 removed any chance of the board of trade advocating more enlightened opinions on commercial subjects than those generally held. It had only a small share in making the constitutions of the Amer- ican colonies, as only the Carolinas, Pennsylvania, Georgia and Nova Scotia were formed after the reign of Charles II.; and in 1760 a secretary of state for the colonies was appointed, to whom the control drifted away. In 1780 Burke made his celebrated attack on the public offices, which resulted in the abolition of the board. In 1786, however, another permanent committee of the privy council was formed by order in council, and with one or two small exceptions the legal constitution of the board of trade is still regulated by that order. Under it all the principal officers of state, including the first lords of the treasury and admiralty, the secretaries of state, and certain members of the privy council, among whom was the archbishop of Canterbury, obtained seats at the board ex officio; and ten unofficial members, including several eminent statesmen, were also placed on the committee. The duties of the revived board were made the same as they were in the beginning of the century, but the growth of commerce necessarily threw new administrative duties upon it. The board of trade thus became a mere name, the president being practically the secretary of state for trade, and the vice- president became, in 1867, a parliamentary secretary, with similar duties to those of a parliamentary under-secretary of state. At present, besides the president, who has usually a seat in the cabinet,1 and whose salary is £5000 a year, there is a parliamentary secretary with a salary of £1200, a permanent secretary (salary £1500, rising to £1800), and four assistant secretaries (each with a salary of £1200) for the harbour, marine, commercial, labour and statistical, and railway departments. There are also other important officials in charge of different departments, as mentioned below. i. The Commercial, Labour and Statistical Department is the real remains of the original board of trade, as it combines the charge of the trade statistics with the general consultative duties with which King Charles II. 's board was originally entrusted. The statistical work includes compiling abstracts, memoranda, tables and charts relating to the trade and industrial conditions of the United King- dom, the colonies and foreign countries, the supervision of the trade accounts, the preparation of monthly and annual accounts of ship- ping and navigation, statistics as to labour, cotton, emigration and foreign and colonial customs, tariffs and regulations. The commer- cial intelligence department collects and disseminates accurate information on general commercial questions, and collects and exhibits samples of goods of foreign origin competing with similar British goods. It keeps a register of British firms who may desire to receive confidential information relative to their respective trades and supplies that information free of charge. The labour statistics published by the department are exhaustive, dealing with hours of labour, the state of the labour market, the condition of the working classes and the prices of commodities; annual reports are also 1 Since 1882 there have been only two occasions on which the president of the board was not included in the cabinet. Frequent suggestions were made as to raising the status and salary of the president of the board, which up to 1900 was £2000. Lord Jersey's committee in 1904 suggested that the president should be put on the same footing as a secretary of state, and be given the title of " minister of commerce and industry." In 1909 the Board of Trade Act repealed the Board of Trade (President) Act 1826, which limited the salary of the president, and enacted that the president should be paid such annual salary as parliament might determine (£5000). The increased salary came into operation in 1910, when a new president of the board came into office. 128 TRADE MARKS published of trade unions, of strikes and lock-outs and other important subjects. The staff comprises a controller-general (salary £1200 rising to £1500), a deputy controller-general and labour commis- sioner, a principal for statistics, a principal of the commercial depart- ment, an assistant labour commissioner, a chief staff officer for commercial intelligence, a chief labour correspondent, a special inquiry officer, and a staff of investigators and labour correspondents. The department also edits the Board of Trade Journal (started in 1886), giving items of commercial information, trade and tariff notices and various periodical returns. There are also branches which deal with the census of production, labour exchanges, &c. 2. The Railway Department was originally constituted in 1840, and performs multifarious duties under various railway acts, including the inspection of railways before they are open, inquiries into accidents, reports on proposed railways, approval of by-laws, appointment of arbitrators in disputes, as well as many duties under private railway acts. The inspection of tramways, their by-laws and "provisional orders" are all dealt with here, as are similar orders relating to gas and water schemes and to electric lighting. There is a special office of inspection of railways with a chief inspecting officer (salary £1400) and an assistant staff. Patents, designs and trade marks are now dealt with by the patent office under the charge of a controller-general (salary £1800), which is subordinate to the railway department, and copyright, art unions and industrial exhibitions are also among the matters dealt with by the department. Annual returns with regard to its business are published by the department. 3. The Marine Department was created a separate branch of the board of trade in 1850, about which time many new and important marine questions came under the board of trade, such, for example, as the survey of passenger steamers, the compulsory examination of masters and mates, the establishment of shipping offices for the engagement and discharge of seamen. Further work fell to the marine department by the act of 1853, which gave it the control of lighthouse funds, and to a certain extent of pilotage. The consoli- dating Merchant Shipping Act of 1854 and subsequent legislation so much increased the department that in 1866 it was divided into three, viz. the present marine department, which deals with ships and seamen, the harbour department and the finance department. 4. The Harbour Department was, as stated above, a branch of the marine department until 1866, so far as it is connected with the physical adjuncts of navigation, but various other matters have since been added, e.g. the charge of the foreshores belonging to the crown, formerly managed by the commissioners of woods and forests, and the protection of navigable harbours and channels, long under the control of the admiralty, provisional orders under the General Pier and Harbour Acts and under the Pilotage Acts, and the settle- ment of by-laws made by harbour authorities. Control over the lighthouse funds of the lighthouse authorities of the United King- dom, the registry of British ships, wreck, salvage and quarantine are all among the matters dealt with by this department, which also has charge ofthe standards department for weights and measures. 5. The Finance Department was, like the harbour department, separated in 1866 from the marine department. The accounts of all the branches of the board of trade are in its charge, including the subordinate offices. It also deals with the accounts of harbours, lighthouses and mercantile marine offices, and of the merchant seamen's fund, and with the consuls' accounts for disabled seamen abroad. Savings banks and seamen's money orders are also among the accounts and payments with which it is charged, and outside these marine matters it has to prepare for parliament the life in- surance companies' accounts and to take charge of the bankruptcy estate accounts. 6. The Bankruptcy Department was established under the 7ist section of the Bankruptcy Act 1883. At its head is the inspector- general in bankruptcy (salary £1200). An account of the duties of the department will be found under BANKRUPTCY. 7. The Fisheries Department. — By an act of 1886 the powers of the home office over salmon and other fisheries were transferred to the board of trade, and a small department was consequently created charged with the care of those industries. But by an act of 1903 (3 Ed. VII. c. 31) the powers and duties of the board of trade under this department were transferred to the board of agriculture and fisheries. TRADE MARKS. A "trade mark" may be defined as a symbol, consisting in general of a picture, a label or a word or words, applied or attached to the goods of a trader for the purpose of distinguishing them from the similar goods of other traders, and of identifying them as his goods, or as those of his successors, in the business in which they are produced or put forward for sale. A trade mark differs in its legal character both from a patent and from a copyright. In the case of a trade mark the property and the right to protection are in the device or symbol adopted to designate the goods to be sold, and not in the article which is manufactured and sold. The article is open to the whole world to manufacture and sell, and all that the owner of the trade mark is entitled to prevent is such use of his mark by other traders as will lead purchasers to buy, as his, goods which are not his. On the other hand, patent-right and copy- right protect the substance of the article; and any unauthorized manufacture of it in the former case, or reproduction of it in the latter, while the protection lasts, is prohibited. The grounds, however, on which trade marks, patent-right and copyright obtain legal recognition, though they are to a certain extent dissimilar, have a common element. Patent-right and copy- right rest upon the view that the results of the original labour of the inventor and the author ought, as a matter alike of justice and of public policy, to be secured against piracy; while, as regards the proprietor of a trade mark, the question of originality does not arise so long as the mark is sufficiently distinctive really to identify his goods and, for purposes of registration, to satisfy the Trade Marks Acts. In truth, the registration of a trade mark is rather the recognition of a fact than the grant of a privilege (Kerly and Underhay, Trade Marks Act, 1905, p. 3). The law as to trade marks as well as that as to patents or copyright is based on a man's rights to have guaranteed to him the profit derivable from his own property. " No man," said James (L.J.), in the case of the Singer Manufacturing Co. v. Loog (1880, 18 Ch. D., 412), "is entitled to present his goods as being the goods of another man, and no man is permitted to use any mark, sign or symbol, device or means, whereby, without making a direct false representation himself to a purchaser from him, he enables such purchaser to tell a lie or to make a false representation to somebody else who is the ultimate customer." I. British Trade Marks before the Registration Acts. — The existing law in the United Kingdom cannot be properly appre- ciated unless the subject is approached in the first instance from the historical side. English trade-mark law practically com- mences with the first years of the igth century. The use of trade marks was indeed of far earlier date, for in 1742 we find Lord Hardwicke declaring that " every particular trader had some particular mark or stamp." But in the very case in which Lord Hardwicke made that statement (Blanchard v. Hill, 2 Atkyns, 484) he refused to protect the " Great Mogul " stamp on cards, being apparently under the influence of the notion that the legal recognition of trade marks would involve the creation of a new species of monopoly; and with regard to a case decided in the reign of James I. (Southern v. How, Cro. Jac. 471), in which a clothier had applied the mark of another clothier to his own inferior goods, the reports leave it doubtful whether the action was brought by the owner of the mark, or by a defrauded customer, in which latter event it would be merely an ordinary action for deceit. But although the actual law of trade marks cannot be traced farther back than the beginning of the ipth century, Lord Eldon repeatedly granted injunctions to restrain one trader from fraudulently " passing off " his goods as those of another, and thus laid a foundation on which the present law has been built up. The stages through which its development passed possess considerable interest, and may be described quite briefly. The first reported case — apart from the doubtful one in the time of James I. above referred to — in which the infringement of a trade mark (a label on blacking) was restrained by the court of chancery was Day v. Day (Eden on Injunctions, ed. 1821, p. 314) in 1816. In 1824 the common law courts, in the case of Sykes v. Sykes (3 B. & C. 541), established the right of the owner of an infringed trade mark to damages. In 1833 it was held by the court of king's bench that it was not necessary for the plaintiff in an infringement action to prove that the defendant's goods were inferior to his, or that he had suffered special damage by the infringement. Later this became a rule of equity as well as of law. On another point, however, the practice of the courts of common law and equity diverged for a time. It was decided by Lord Cottenham in 1838, in the leading case of Millington v. Fox (3 Mylne & Craig 338), that an injunction to restrain the infringement of a trade mark could be obtained, even although the defendant had acted without fraudulent intent. On the common law side, on the other hand, fraud was an essential ingredient in the cause of action, and TRADE MARKS 129 remained so till the fusion of law and equity by the Judicature Acts. The effect of Lord Cottenham's decision in the case of Milling- ton v. Fox clearly was to recognize a right of property in trade marks, and the action for infringement became a familiar species of litigation. Under the then existing law, however, the plain- tiff in such actions generally found himself in a very disadvan- tageous and unsatisfactory position. The basis of his action was the reputed association between his trade mark and his goods. This association the defendant — often a person of no means — would deny, and it had to be proved as a fact by witnesses at a cost to the plaintiff which there was little hope of his recovering. Moreover, even if the trade mark proprietor secured a judgment in his favour, it carried with it no immunity from the obligation of again establishing his right to the mark against any subsequent infringer who chose to dispute it. Thus — to take an interesting and pertinent illustration given in Kerly on Trade Marks (p. 6) — the case of Rodger -s v. Nowlll (22 L. J. Ch. 404) lasted five years and cost the plaintiff £2211, without giving him in the end any security that he might not have to incur equal delay and expense in proving his title to the exclusive use of the trade mark in proceeding against other defendants. To complete this state- ment of the shortcomings of the law before the Merchandise Marks Act 1862, it should be noted that the infringement of trade marks — except in cases where the seller of spuriously marked goods cheated the buyer — was not a criminal offence. The remedies obviously needed were the establishment of a system of registration of trade marks which would simplify the proof of a plaintiff's title, and the creation of a criminal law of false marking.1 The first step in the accomplishment of the latter object was taken by the Merchandise Marks Act 1862. II. Under the Registration Acts. — Provision was first made for the registration of trade marks by the Trade Marks Registration Act 1875. That statute made registration in the register of trade marks which it established prima facie evidence of the right of the registered proprietor to the exclusive use of the trade mark in connexion with goods of the class for which it was registered and used, and enacted that it should after the expiration of five years be conclusive proof of such right, provided that the proprietor of the mark remained the owner of the goodwill of the business in which it was used. This provision was carried as to the act of 1883 (s. 76). The act also provided that a person should not be entitled to institute any proceeding to prevent the infringement of trade mark until it was registered, or (a later statutory modification) until, in the case of a mark in use before the passing of the act of 1875, registration of the mark as a trade mark had been refused. The act of 1875 was a con- siderable success, but no provision was made under it for the registration of words unless they either were old marks or were registered in combination with one or more of the " essential particulars " prescribed by the act, such as a distinctive device, heading, mark, label or ticket. These limitations excluded from registration most of the trade marks ordinarily in use. The Patents Designs and Trade Marks Act 1883 remedied this defect besides altering the law in other important respects. The act of 1883 was amended in 1888 on the recommendation of a committee presided over by Lord Herschell. Neither the act of 1875 nor those of 1883 and 1888 altered the common law definition of a trade mark, nor contained any definition of the term. The description in the acts of what was registrable as a trade mark led to much litigation, and the interpretations of the judges left commercial men dissatisfied on three points : (i) the number of good and valuable trade marks which were not registrable; (2) that on allowing registration the patent office insisted on disclaimers which hampered the owner in obtaining protection in the colonies and foreign countries; (3) that there was no effective period of Limitation to attacks on 1 Further reference may be made, in regard to the subject of trade marks before the Registration Acts 1883-1888, to an admirable introductory chapter in Kerly on Trade Marks, and also to the report of the Merchandise Marks Committee 1862, and the annual reports of the commissioners af.d the comptroller-general of patents from 1876 to 1884 (and report). xxvn. s registered trade marks, because though registration for five years was declared conclusive by s. 76 of the act of 1883, the powers of the court to rectify the register could be invoked even after the lapse of the five years (re Gesletner's Trade Mark, 1907, 2 Ch. 478). In re-enacting and enlarging the provisions of the act of 1875 the act of 1883 laid down certain essential particulars of one at least whereof a trade mark must consist to be regis- trable. These particulars will be considered later in dealing with the present law. The act of 1883 first provided for " word marks," and included among them " a fancy word or words not in common use " [s. 64, (i) (c)]. The expression " fancy word," used in the act of 1883, gave rise to considerable difference of opinion. It was interpreted by the court of appeal as equivalent to " obviously meaningless as applied to the article in question," or " obviously non- descriptive." In accordance with this interpretation, the words " gem " for guns, " melrose " for a hair restorer, " electric " for velveteen, and " washerine " for a soap were all held not to be registrable. On the recommendation, however, in 1887, of a committee appointed by the board of trade, and presided over by Lord Herschell, the expression " invented word " was substituted for " fancy word " by the act of 1888. In 1905 and 1907 the legislation as to trade marks was amended and remodelled. A bill was introduced in 1905 at the instance of the London Chamber of Commerce, and after consideration by a select committee became the Trade Marks Act 1905. This act repeals the bulk of the provisions of the Patents, &c., Acts of 1883 and 1888 with respect to trade marks, and embodies them with amendments (to be noticed later) in a separate statute. The only portions of the earlier acts left standing with respect to trade marks were ss. 83 and 84 (as amended in 1885 and 1888) with reference to the administration in the patent office of the law as to trade marks (1905, s. 74); ss. 103 and 104 of the act of 1883 (as amended in 1885) relating to registration of trade marks, both as enacted in the acts of 1883 and 1885 and as applied by orders in council, are to be read as applying to trade marks registrable under the act of 1905 (s. 65). The sections of the Patents Acts of 1883, 1885 and 1888, thus preserved as to trade marks, were repealed by the Patents and Designs Act 1907. Sections 62 seq. of this act replace ss. 83 and 84 of the act of 1883, and retain the administration of trade mark law in the patent office; and s. 91 replaces ss. 103 and 104 of the act of 1883 as to international and colonial arrangements for mutual protection (inter alia) of trade marks. According to the rule laid down by the Interpretation Act 1889 the refer- ences in the act of 1905 to the acts of 1883, &c., are to be read as applying to the above-stated sections of the act of 1907. The act of 1905 differs from the preceding acts in containing a definition of trade mark for the purposes of the act unless the context otherwise requires; viz. that it " shall mean a mark used or proposed to be used upon or in connexion with goods for the purposeof indicat- ing that they are the goods of the proprietor of such mark by virtue of manufacture, selection, certification, dealing with or offering for sale "; and " mark " is defined as including " a device, brand, heading, label, name, signature, word, letter, numeral or any combination thereof " (s. 3). The act, modifying to the extent indicated in italics the acts of 1883 and 1888, prescribes (s. 9) that a trade mark to be registrable must contain or consist of at least one of the following essential particulars : — 1. The name of a company, individual or firm represented in a special or particular manner (under the act of 1883 it has been held that the name must be in the nominative case, and that ordinary printing is not representation in a particular manner). 2. The signature of the applicant for registration or some prede- cessor in his business. It is not clear that this includes descriptive trading styles. 3. An invented word or words. 4. A word or words having no direct reference to the character or quality of the goods, and not being according to its ordinary signifi- cation a geographical name or a surname. 5. Any other distinctive mark; but a name, signature, or word or words other than such as fall within the descriptions in the above para- graphs 1,2,3 and 4, shall not, except by order of the board of trade or of the court, be deemed a distinctive mark. By distinctive is meant " adapted to distinguish the goods of the proprietor of the trade mark from those of other persons ": and " in determining whether a trade mark is so adapted the tribunal may in the case of a trade mark in actual use take into consideration the extent to which such 130 TRADE MARKS Invented Words. user has rendered such trade mark in fact distinctive for the goods in respect of which it is registered or proposed to be registered." Where the mark is limited to specified colours, that fact may be taken into account in deciding whether the mark is distinctive (s. 10). There are certain special rules as to cotton marks. Trade marks containing the essential particulars are not regis- trable if they contain any matter which would by reason of its being calculated to deceive or otherwise be disentitled to protection in a court of justice or would be contrary to law or morality, or any scandalous design (s. 11). (See Eno v. Dunn, 1890, 15 App. Cas. 293, and the " Motricine " case, 1907, 2 Ch. 435.) Registration of the same matter as a trade mark under the act of 1905 and as a design under the Patents and Designs Act (1907) is possible (re U.S. Playing Card Co.'s Applic., 1907, W. N. 251). Old marks are registrable, i.e. any special or distinctive word or words, letter, numeral or combination of letters or numerals, used by the applicant or his predecessors in business before the I4th of August 1875, subject to the qualification that it has " continued to be used either in its original form or with additions or alterations not substantially affecting the same down to the date of the applica- tion for registration " (s. 9). In the case of new marks, but not of old marks, a trade mark is not registrable except by order of the court in respect of any goods or description of goods which is identical with a mark already on the register with respect to such goods or description of goods, or so nearly resembles such registered mark as to be calculated to deceive (s. 19). Most controversy arose under the acts of 1883 and 1888 as to the meaning of the phrase " invented word " preserved in the act of 1905. An invented word need not be wholly meaningless, nor is it disqualified because words may have suggested it. Thus " mazawattee " was held to be an " invented word," although the latter part of it was a Sinhalese term meaning " estate," and there were estates in Ceylon having names ending with " wattee " from which tea came; and in a leading case on the construction of the clauses under consideration (Eastman Co.'s Trade Mark, L. Rep. 1898, A. C. 571), the word " solio " was held to be registrable as a trade mark for photographic printing paper under both clauses, although it was objected that " solio " was equivalent to "sunio." The expression " calculated to deceive " has been considered by the courts in very many cases. It is not merely or chiefly the retailer or dealer who has to be kept in view when the question of the likeli- hood of deception is under consideration. The courts have regard also, and mainly, to the ultimate purchaser whom the trade mark may reach, and careless or unwary persons are considered as well as those who are careful and intelligent. The judge's eye is the ultimate test as to the degree of resemblance that is calculated to deceive, although expert evidence on the point is admissible. " Savonol " for soap (/. C. & J. Field Ltd. v. Wagel Syndicate Ltd., 1900, 17 R.P.C. 266), " tachytype " for typographical and composing machines (in re Linotype Co.'s Application, 1900, 17 R.P.C. 380), have been held to be invented words. But the following have been held not invented — " uneeda " (=you need a) in re National Biscuit Co. (1902 ; I Ch. 783) ; " absorbine " for an absorbent prepara- tion (Christy & Co. v. Tipper & Son, 1005, 21 R.P.C. 97, 775); " bioscope " (Warwick Trading Co. v. Urban, 1904, 21 R.P.C. 240); " cyclostyle " (re Gestetner's Trade Mark, 1907, 2 Ch. 478) ; and cf. in re Kodak and Trade Marks (1903, 20 R.P.C. 337). Subsections (3) and (4), it should be noted, are independent: the former deals with newly-coined words, the latter deals with the existing words of the English language, or of other languages likely to be known to the public. A word which is really " invented " may be registered, whether it is descriptive or not. An old word used in a new sense is not invented (Hommel v. Bauer & Co., 1904, 21 R.P.C. 576). The exact scope of clause (5) as to other distinctive marks has not been much discussed by the courts. Registration was allowed of the word " apollinaris " as a distinctive mark for the mineral waters of the applicants, on an undertaking to apply it only to water from the Neuenahr spring or district (in re Apollinaris Trade Mark, 1907, 2 Ch. 178). Under prior legislation the mark had been refused registration as being a geographical name (re Apollinaris Co.'s Trade Mark, 1891, 2 Ch. 186). Identical marks (except old marks) may not be registered in respect of the same goods, or goods of the same description, for two different persons (s. 19) ; and where several appli- cants make rival claims to identical marks the registrar may refuse to register until their rights have been deter- mined by the court or settled by agreement in manner approved by the registrar, or, on appeal, by the board of trade (s. 20). In the case of honest concurrent user or of other special circumstances making it proper so to do, the court may permit the registration of the same mark or of nearly identical marks for the same goods by more than one owner, subject to such conditions or limitations, if any, as to mode or place of use or otherwise as the court may think it right to impose (s. 21). New provisions were made in 1905 as to what are called " associa- ted trade marks." Where registration is sought for a mark so closely resembling a mark of the applicant already on the register for the same goods as to be calculated to deceive or cause confusion if used by any one but the applicant, the registration of the new mark Identical Marks. may be conditional on entering both marks as associated trade marks (s. 24). This section applies only to marks closely resembling one already on the register for the same goods or des- cription of goods, and has nothing to do with identical '*ss<'c'a'e<* marks (Birmingham Small Arms Co.'s Application, 1907, Mm**- 2 Ch. 396). In the case of combined trade marks provision is made for regis- tering as separate trade marks -the part in which the applicant has exclusive rights, and as associated marks trade marks of which the exclusive portion forms a part (s. 25). A series of trade marks of the same owner may be registered on one registration as associated marks (s. 26). Provision is made for allowing the registration of marks used upon or in connexion with goods by an association (or person) which undertakes the examination of goods in respect „ of origin, material, mode of manufacture, quality, j>ra"<'a™- accuracy, or other characteristic, and certifies the result £ ?" of the examination by marks used upon or in connexion with the goods. These marks cannot be registered unless the board of trade consider their registration of public advantage. Their registration is not conditional on the association or person being a trader or having goodwill in connexion with the examination or certification. The registration gives the association or person the rights of the owner of a registered trade mark, except that assign- ment and transmission needs permission of the board of trade (s.62). In respect of cotton piece-goods, marks consisting of a line heading alone or a word alone are not registrable, and no word or line heading is treated as distinctive in respect of such goods. In respect of cotton yarn the same rule applies with respect to words, and no registration of any cotton mark gives any exclusive right to the use of a word, letter, numeral, line, heading or combination thereof [s. 64 (10)]. By s. 68, which is a re-enactment of s. 105 of the Patents, &c., Act, 1883, it is made illegal for any person without the authority of the king to use the royal arms in any trade in such a manner .. . as to create the belief that he has authority so to do ; J;se a similar provision is embodied in the Merchandise , . »_ Marks Act 1898 of the Isle of Man. The central register of trade marks is kept at the Patent Office, Southampton Buildings, London, and is under the charge of the comptroller-general of patents, designs and trade marks, „ ^ . . who is appointed by and acts under the superintendence of the board of trade, and has a deputy — the registrar of trade marks. There is a branch registry at Manchester, whose chief officer is the keeper of cotton marks, which deals with all applications for the registration of trade marks for cotton goods falling within classes 23, 24, 25 in schedule 3 of the Trade Marks Rules 1906. The registry has been long established, but was not recognized by statute till 1905. Records are kept and are open to public inspection of all applications made since 1875, whether granted or refused. There is a branch registry at Sheffield containing the marks for metal goods (" Sheffield marks ") registered by persons carrying on business in or within six miles of Hallamshire. The care of this register is vested in the Cutlers' Company, who are substituted for the comptroller as to registration of " Sheffield marks " (s. 63). Applications made to the company are notified to the registrar, and may not be proceeded with if he objects. Any person aggrieved by the registrar s objection may appeal to the court. Applications made to the registrar for metal marks are notified to the Cutlers' Company. Persons aggrieved by the decision of the Cutlers' Company have an appeal to the courts (s. 64). In 1906 fourteen applications were made at the head registry which were all dealt with by the Cutlers' Company. That company, by arrangement made with the sanction of the treasury, retain all fees taken at Sheffield with respect to registration up to £400, and half of the fees received in excess of that amount (Parl. Pap., 1907, No. 164, p. 9). A trade mark must be registered in respect of particular goods or classes of goods (s. 8), and the classification in force is scheduled to the Trade Marks Rules 1906 (R. & O., 1906, No. 233). _^ Doubts as to the class to which the goods in question belong are settled by the registrar. The procedure for obtaining registration is regulated by the act of 1905 and the rules above mentioned. The registrar has power to refuse applications or accept them absolutely or subject to conditions, amendments and modifications (s. 12). His discretion is not absolute, but subject to the provisions of the act (re Birmingham Small Arms Co.'s Application, 1907, 2 Ch. 396); and he must if required state his reasons, and his decision is subject to appeal to the board of trade or the court at the option of the applicant [s. 12 (3)]. " New marks " may not be placed on the register except by order of the court for any goods or description of goods which are identical with marks already on the register with respect to the same goods, &c., or so nearly resemble a registered mark as to be calculated to deceive (s.'ig). The question whether particular goods are of the same description is not determined solely by reference to the statu- tory classification. " The true test," says Kerly (Trade Marks, p. 181), " would seem to be supplied by the question: Are the two sets of goods so commonly dealt in by the same trader that his TRADE MARKS customers, knowing his mark in connexion with one set, and seeing it upon the others, would be likely to suppose that it was used upon them also to indicate that they were his goods? " Wine and spirits, beer, and even aperient drinks and baking powder, have been held to be " goods of the same description." When a trade mark contains (i) parts not separately registered as trade marks or (2) matter common to the trade or otherwise of a non-distinctive character, the registrar, or the board of trade or the court, in deciding whether the mark shall be entered or retained on the register, may impose as a condition that the owner shall disclaim all right to exclusive use of any part or parts of such trade mark or of all or any portion of such matter to the exclusive use whereof they deem him not to be entitled, or make any other disclaimer which they consider needful to define his rights under the registration (s. 15). Marks calculated to deceive are not entitled to protection (Eno v. Dunn, 1890, 15 App. Cas. 250). Applications as accepted are advertised; the advertisements state the conditions, if any, imposed on acceptance (s. 13). Notice of opposition to the registration of a trade mark may be given under s. 14 of the act of 1905 (which replaces s. 69 of the act of 1883). The registrar after consideration decides whether the opposition is well or ill founded. His decision is subject to appeal to the High Court or by consent of the parties to the board of trade [1905, s. 14 (5)]. In 1906 there were 251 notices of opposition, of which 51 were heard. There were 4 appeals to the board of trade, all referred by the board to the court under s. 59 of the act. There may be added to any one or more of the " essential particu- lars " above enumerated any letters, words or figures, or a combina- tion of these. But the right to the exclusive use of the added matter must be disclaimed. A man is not required, however, to disclaim his own name, or trade name, or that of his place of business, if the name appears in the mark. The number of applications to register trade marks in 1884 was 7104, and the number of marks registered 4523. In 1906 the corresponding figures were 11,414 and 4731. These figures included 153 applications made to the Cutlers' Company at Sheffield (Part. Pap., 1907, 164, 24th report). The register may be corrected on the request of the registered owner of a trade mark as to errors or changes of address in the name of the registered owner, or by cancelling entries of I^Ait marks or by striking out classes of goods for which fy" ftl?'3- mark 's registered or by entering disclaimers or R" • ter memoranda as to a mark, provided that they do not extend the rights given by the existing registration (s. 33)- A registered trade mark may be altered or added to in matters not substantially affecting its identity (s. 34). Thus a firm on be- coming a limited company has been allowed to add the word " limited " to its name upon a registered mark, but no alteration will be permitted in regard to any " essential particular." In the above cases the corrections or alterations are made by the registrar subject to appeal to the board of trade (ss. 32, 34). A registered trade mark may be taken off by order of the court on the application of a person aggrieved, on the ground that it was registered without a bona fide intention to use it in connexion with a particular class of goods, and that there has not been any such bona fide user, or that there has been no such bona fide user during the five years preceding the application. Non-user may be excused if proved to be owing to special circumstances and not to any intention not to use or to abandon the use of the mark (s. 37). (See re Hare's Trade Mark, 1907, 24 R.P.C. 263). The register may be rectified by order of the court on the application of any person aggrieved, or in the case of fraud in regis- tration or transmission of the mark on the application of the registrar. The powers of rectification include correcting or expunging wrong entries, supplying errors and omissions and defects Registration is effective for 14 years but is renewable (s. 28). The registration if valid gives the proprietor the exclusive right to _ . the use of the mark on or in connexion with the R-vtstra- Koods in respect of which it is registered (1905, s. 39). This rule is subject to the following qualifications. (a) Where two or more persons are registered owners of the same or substantially the same mark in respect of the same goods, no one of them shall as against any other of them have any right of exclusive user except so far as their respective rights have been defined by the court. (6) Registration of a trade mark does not entitle the proprietor to interfere with or restrain the user by any person of a similar mark upon or in connexion with goods upon or in connexion with which such person has by himself or his predecessors in business continuously used such trade mark from a date anterior to the use of the mark by the registered proprietor, or to object to the registration of the other man's similar mark for concurrent user. In all legal proceedings relating to a registered trade mark registra- tion is prima facie eyidence of validity, and after seven years from the original registration, or seven years from the passing of the act of 1905, whichever shall last happen, the original registration shall be taken to be valid in all respects unless it was obtained by fraud, or the mark offends against s. II of the act. This pro- vision as to validity limits the power which formerly existed of getting rid of long registered marks by proceedings to rectify the register. Registered trade marks are assignable and transmissible only with the goodwill of the business concerned in the goods for which they are registered, and are determinable with the goodwill (s. 22). Associated marks are assignable and transmissible only as a whole and not separately (s. 27). The owner of a registered mark may assign the right to use his registered mark in any British possession or protectorate or foreign country in connexion with any goods for which it is registered, together with the goodwill of the business therein of such goods (s. 22). Provision is made for apportioning marks where the goodwill of a business by dissolution of partnership or otherwise does not pass to a single successor (s. 23). The assignments, &c., on proof of title, are recorded on the register (s- 33)- It is a condition precedent to an action for the infringement of a new trade mark that the plaintiff should be the registered proprietor of the mark at the time when the action comes on for hearing. This last provision does not apply to an action for " passing-off " (vide infra). In actions for infringement, evidence of passing off, or that the infringing mark is calculated to deceive, is not necessary. The court decides on the probability of deception by inspecting and comparing the marks (Hennessy v. Keating, 1907, 24'R.P.C. 485). In the case of an old mark in use before the 1 4th of August 1875 proceedings may be taken if registration under the act of 1907 has been refused (s. 42). The right to a trade mark lapses if the mark ceases to be distinc- tive and becomes publici juris; if it is separated from the goodwill (a trade mark can only be assigned with the goodwill) ; if the mark is applied by the trader to spurious goods (as where boxes of cigarettes were so labelled, in conformity with an alleged custom of the trade, as to indicate that they were of Russian manufacture; which was not the fact ; or when the mark is abandoned) ; (temporary disuse, however, is not abandonment unless the mark has in the meantime become associated with the goods of another trader) ; or where, as in the " linoleum " case (7 Ch. D. 834) it has become the name of the goods, and so merely descriptive; or after fourteen years where registration is not renewed. In dealing with a claim for infringement the court must admit evidence of the usages of trade as to the get-up of the goods for which the mark is registered, and of any trade marks or get-up legitimately used with such goods by other persons (s. 43)- The registrar has an uncontrolled discretion in the administration of the act, except in those cases in which an appeal is given from his acts or refusals to the court or the board of trade Anoeal, *- (ss. 53, 54). In cases of difficulty he consults the law "ppet officers (s. 56). Actions or other proceedings with relation to trade marks, so fai as they are for the court, may be brought in the High Court of Justice in England or Ireland and in the Court of Session in Scotland (ss. 3, 69). In the case of marks registered on application at the Manchester branch, the chancery court of Lancaster has concurrent jurisdiction with the High Court (s. 71). Actions for infringement of a trade mark are not within the jurisdiction of the county court (Bow v.Hart, 1905, I K.B. 592). An annual report is made by the comptroller-general of patents, &c., as to proceedings with reference to trade marks. III. " Passing-off " and Trade Name. — A trader has generally, besides his trade mark, numerous other symbols, which he uses as indicia of his goods, e.g. the name of title under which he himself trades, the name under which his goods are known and sold, badges of property which are termed " trade name," and the distinctive " get-up " of the goods as they appear in the market. These symbols enjoy the protection of the law, under certain conditions, equally with trade marks. No trader is entitled to " pass off " his goods as those of another, and if he infringes this rule he is liable to an action for an injunction and damages, and these rights are preserved by the Trade Marks Act 1905 (s. 45). The right to be protected against " passing-off " is restricted to goods of the same description as those upon which the trader uses the " get-up," &c., imitated. Even if the " pass- ing-off " is done innocently it will be restrained (Milling/on v. Fox, 1838, 3 Mylne and Craig, 338). This case is described as not one of the use of a properly descriptive name, but rather a case of the same class as those in which a fancy or invented name is used (Cellular Clothing Co. v. Maxton, 1899, App. Cas. 326, 341). Although the first purchaser is not deceived, still if the article delivered to him bears words or marks such that it is " calculated to deceive " a purchaser from him, the use of them is illegal. To this general rule there are several exceptions: — I. No monopoly is allowed in names that are merely descriptive. But words which prima facie are descriptive, such as " camel-hair belting," for belting made of camel-hair (Reddaway v. Banham. 132 TRADE MARKS 1896, App. Cas. 199), or " Stone Ales " for ales brewed at Stone (Montgomery v. Thompson, 1891, App. Cas. 217), may be shown to have acquired by long use a " secondary distinctive meaning," and, in fact, to mean the goods of a particular trader. And where a defendant is not selling the genuine goods indicated by the name, as where the composition of the goods is a secret, even if the name might otherwise be taken as merely that of the goods, he cannot rely on the defence that the name is descriptive (Birmingham Vinegar Co. v. Powell, 1897, App. Cas. 710; the " Yorkshire Relish Case"). If, however, the primary meaning of the word is simple and well known, it is extremely difficult to establish a secondary meaning exclusive of the primary one (Hommel v. Bauer & Co., 1905, 22 R.P.C. 43; " Haematogen," a preparation for forming blood, secondary meaning not established; cf. Fells v. Hedley & Co., 1904, 21 R.P.C. 91; "Naphtha soap," secondary meaning not established; Wurm v. Webster & Girling, 1904, 21 R.P.C. 373; "White Viennese Band," secondary meaning not established ; Cellular Clothing Co. v. Maxton, 1899, A.C. 326, " cellular " as applied to cloth, secondary meaning not established). But although a name may not, owing to the fact that it consists of well-known or descriptive words, be inherently entitled to protection, a distinctive scroll or device, in which it is embodied, may be so. Thus, in a case (Weingarten Brothers^. Bayer & Co., 1905, 21 Times L.R. 418; and see 19 Times L.R. 604) which sharply divided judicial opinion in England, the defendants were restrained from selling corsets in boxes bearing the name " Erect Form Corsets " scrolled thereon by the plaintiffs in a distinctive manner. No monopoly, of course, could be claimed in the words, but it was otherwise with the scroll. The use of a fancy name " iron oxide tablets " has been restrained where it was found likely to cause deception as being used to supersede in the market certain well-known " Iron Ox " tablets (Iron Ox Remedy Co. v. Co-operative Wholesale Society Ltd., 1907, 24 R.P.C. 425). (2) A trader cannot be prevented from trading under his own name, if he is using it honestly (bona fide) ; even though from its similarity to the name of another trader — even one previously well-established — it may injure the business of the latter (Burgess v. Burgess, 1853, 3 De Gex, M. & G. 896; Turton v. Turton, 1889, 42 Ch. D. 128; Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co. v. Dunlop Motor Co., 1907, App. Cas. 430). This right is recognized by the Trade Marks Act 1905, s. 44, which provides that registration of a trade mark under the act shall not interfere with any bona fide use by any person of his own name or place of business or that of any of his predecessors in business. But if a trader has never carried on such a business on his own account or in partnership with others, he cannot, by promoting and registering a joint-stock company with a title of which his name forms part, conferon the company the rights which he as an individual possesses in the use of his name (Fine Cotton Spinners, &c., Associa- tion Ltd. and John Cash &• Sons Ltd. v. Harwood Cash & Co. Ltd., 1907, 2 Ch. 184). If a trader's own name has, before he entered the trade, become the trade name of some other person's goods, he would probably not be allowed to use it without taking steps to prevent deception. This rule does not debar him from using " any bona fide description of the character or quality of his goods " (1905, s. 44). A name can become universally known as referring to the goods of a particular maker, i.e. as having a secondary meaning. This does not give exclusive rights to use of the name, but only to prevent other firms from using the goods so as to pass off their goods as those of the person whose name is in question (Joseph Rodgers & Sons Ltd. v. Hearnshaw, 1906, 23 R.P.C. 348). It is provided by the Companies Act 1862 (s. 20), that no company shall be registered under a name identical with that by which a subsisting company is already registered, or so nearly resembling it as to be calculated to deceive, unless the subsisting company is in process of being wound up and consents to such registration; and provision is also made for a change of the name of any company which, through inadvertence or otherwise, is registered under a name coming within the statutory prohibition. It is to be observed (cf. Buckley, Companies Acts, 8th ed. p. 27) that (a) the Companies Act 1862 applies only to the case of taking the name of a subsisting company already registered, and not to a case where a new company proposes to register in the name of, or in a name closely resembling, the name of an old-established company which is not registered, or of a firm or individual trader; (6) that as soon as the new company is registered the act ceases to apply; and (c) that the act forbids registration irrespectively of the question whether the business proposed to be carried on by the new company is the same as that of the subsisting company or not. But the provisions of the Com- panies Act on this subject are merely supplemental to the common law, and any company trading in the United Kingdom may restrain persons from registering a new company to carry on a rival business under a name identical with or so similar as to be calculated to deceive, and a company already registered under such a name may be restrained from carrying on a rival business under it. The right to interfere depends not upon fraud but upon the tendency of the similarity to cause confusion, deception or mistake (Fine Cotton Spinners case above cited; Birmingham Small Arms Co. v. Webb, 1907, 24 R.P.C. 27; Star Cycle Co. v. Frankenburgs, 1907, 24 R.P.C. 405; re Reddaway & Co., 1907, 24 R.P.C. 203). _In such proceedings evidence is admissible to show how the existing company has used the name, and what, by reason of its con- necting that name with its goods, the public have come to at- tribute to it (Daimler Motor Car Co. v. London Daimler Co., 1907, 24 R.P.C. 379). A new company will not be allowed to take the whole name of a subsisting company, even although that name is of a descriptive character (Manchester Brewery Co. Ltd. v. North Cheshire and Manchester Brewery Co. Ltd., 1899, App. Cas. 83). The purchaser of the goodwill of a business has the right to use the trade name under which the business is known, and to restrain others from using it or such imitations of it as may mislead the public. But he is not entitled by the use of the trade name to make the vendor liable, under the doctrine of " holding out," for debts of the business incurred after the sale. And if the vendor of the goodwill gave his name to the business, he cannot (in the absence of any restrictive condition in the agreement for sale) be prevented from beginning to trade in his own name again, unless it be shown that in so doing he is attempting to deceive the public into the belief that he is still the owner of the old business. In construing the words " calculated to deceive " (s. 20) the courts will adopt principles closely analogous to those applicable in " passing off " cases in which the question is raised whether a trade name or the description or get-up of a particular class of goods is or is not likely to deceive (BritishVacuum Cleaner Co. v. New Vacuum Cleaner Co., 1907, 2 Ch. 312; Aerators Ltd. v. Tollett, 1902, 2 Ch. 319, 324). When the names of the two companies contain terms of common ordinary meaning descriptive of an article, s. 20 will be applied less readily than where the words said to create the confusion are of the character of fancy words relating rather to the maker than the article (Vacuum Cleaner Case). IV. Merchandise Marks. — The first attempt to make the falsification of trade marks a criminal offence was in the Mer- chandise Marks Act 1862 (25 & 26 Viet. c. 88). That statute provided that the forgery of a trade mark with intent to defraud, and the false application of a trade mark to goods with the like intent, should be misdemeanours, but left upon the prosecutor the burden of establishing the fraudulent intent. The act • contained no provision for summary prosecutions, and did not provide for the seizure of falsely-marked goods on importation from abroad. The international convention for the protection of industrial property, made at Paris in 1883, to which Great Britain acceded in 1884, contains a provision that all goods illegally bearing a trade mark or trade name may be seized on importation into those states of the union where the mark or name has a right to legal protection, and that the seizure shall be effected at the request of either the proper public department or of the interested party, pursuant to the internal legislation of each country. The law had to be amended in order to carry out this article in the convention, and the Merchandise MarksAct 1887 was passed to effectuate this object and generally to make better provision for the protection of merchandise. It was subsequently amended in 1891 and 1894. The effect of the provisions of these statutes may be briefly stated. Any person is guilty of an offence, punishable on indictment or summary conviction by fine or imprisonment, who does any of the five following acts, unless he proves as regards the first four of them that he acted without intent to defraud (there is a special defence to No. v. which is noted below): (i). forges any trade mark, or makes, disposes of, or has in his possession for such purpose any die or instrument; (ii.) falsely applies any trade mark or a colourable imitation of any trade mark to goods; (iii.) applies any false trade description to goods; (iv.) causes any of the above offences to be committed; (v.) sells or exposes for sale, or has in his possession for sale, trade or manu- facture, any goods or things to which any forged trade mark or false trade description is applied, or any trade mark or colourable imitation of a trade mark is falsely applied, unless the defendant proves that, having taken all reasonable precautions, he had no ground to suspect the genuineness of the mark, &c., and also that on demand he gave to the prosecutor all the information in his power as to the person from whom he obtained the goods, &c., or proves that he otherwise acted "innocently." (See Thwaites &• Co. v. McEvilly, 1903, 20 R.P.C. 663). " Trade description " is defined as any descriptive statement or other indication as to the measurement, quantity (not quality, it should be observed), or weight, place or mode of production, or TRADE MARKS the material of the goods, or as to their being subject to an existing patent, privilege or copyright; conventional or customary descriptions lawfully in use in August 1887 to indicate n i n tnat goods are of a particular class or method of ""'manufacture are allowed to be continued; but if they contain the name of a place and are calculated to mislead as to the real place of production, the name of the latter must be added. The test of what is a trade description depends upon the understanding of the trade and not on scientific correctness (Fowler v. Cripps, 1906, I K.B. 16). On a prosecution for any of these offences, there is a power to forfeit the things found although no one is convicted. If the offender is indicted (it is in his option to be tried in this way) the punishment is fine and imprisonment, the latter not to exceed two years. On summary conviction the punishment is not to exceed, for a first offence, four months' imprisonment, with or without hard labour, and a fine of £20; and for any subsequent offence six months' im- prisonment and a fine of £50. The importation is forbidden of goods by means of or in relation to which an offence against the acts has been committed, and also of all goods of foreign manufacture bearing any name or trade name being or purporting to be that of a manufacturer or trader within the country, unless it be accom- panied by a definite indication of the country where the goods were made or produced. There are also special provisions with regard to the marking of catch-cases. The commissioners of customs have power to make general orders for carrying out the Merchandise Marks Acts. (See Regulations of the 1st of December 1887, Stat. R. & O. Revised, 1904, vol. viii. tit. Merchandise Marks.) Prosecu- tions may be undertaken by the board of trade in cases appearing to affect the general interests of the country or of a section of the community, or of a trade, subject to regulations made on the aist of May 1892; and the board of agriculture and fisheries has a like power in the case of the produce of agriculture, horticulture and fisheries [act of 1894, s. i; Board of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1903, s. i (8); see the regulations of the 27th of October 1894, Stat. R. & O. Revised, vol. viii. tit. Merchandise Marks.]. Under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, and the Butter and Margarine Act 1907, the importation, except in containers showing their character, of margarine, margarine cheese, adulterated or im- poverished butter, milk-blended butter or condensed, separated or skimmed milk, is penalized, and it is provided that the commissioners of customs, in accordance with directions given by the treasury after consultation with the board of agriculture, shall take such samples of consignments of imported articles of food as may be necessary for the enforcement of the law. V. International Arrangements. — (The Trade Marks Act 1905 applies to the British Islands.) By the international conven- tion for the protection of industrial property (see PATENTS), which was signed at Paris in 1883, the signatory states (others have since acceded) agreed that the subjects or citizens of each state should, in all the other states, enjoy as regards trade marks and trade names the advantages that their respective laws then granted, or should thereafter grant, to their own subjects or citizens. So far as Great Britain is concerned the provisions made for carrying out this convention are contained in s. 65 of the Trade Marks Act 1905 and in s. 91 of the Patents and Designs Act 1907.' The effect of that section is to confer on an applicant for the protection of a trade mark in one of the other contracting states a priority over other applicants for registration in the United Kingdom during the space of four months. The section does not, however, exempt the applicant from the conditions and formalities incumbent on ordinary applicants for registration in Great Britain; nor does the fact that the foreign application has been successful of itself give the applicant a right to have his mark accepted for registration. Under the Convention of Madrid of the I4th of April 1891 (to which Great Britain is not a party) a trade mark may be registered as the result of a single application in the countries of all the signatory powers. Besides the general international conventions there are also particular arrangements between many states, e.g. Germany and Italy (Italian law of the 24th of December 1903). Guatemala and Salvador, also signatory parties, have withdrawn from the convention. The following is a list of the British orders in council that have been issued, applying to foreign countries, s. 103 of the Patents, &c., Act 1883: — 1 This section supersedes ss. 103, 104 of the Patents, &c., Act 1883. The references to these sections in the Trade Marks Act 1905 must now be read as applying to s. 91 of the Patents, &c., Act 1907. Foreign State. Date of Order in Council. Belgium. June 26, 1884. Brazil Cuba June 26, 1884. January 12, 1905. Denmark (including the Faroe Islands) Dominican Republic October 21,1 890. Ecuador May 16, 1893. France June 26, 1884 Germany .... October 9 1903 Greece . October 15 1894 Honduras September 26,1901. Italy June 26, 1884. Japan October 7 1899 Mexico May 28 1889 Netherlands June 26, 1884. ,, (East Indian Colonies). „ (Curacoa and Surinam) Norway (and Sweden) .... Paraguay .... November 17, 1888. May 17, 1890. July 9, 1885. Portugal June 26 1884 Rumania August 5 1892 Servia June 26 1884 Spain Sweden (and Norway) Tune 26, 1884. July 9, 1885. Switzerland June 26 1884 Tunis June 26, 1884 United States Uruguay July I2t I88;.2 SeDtember 24. 1886. All these orders in council are printed in the Statutory Rules and Orders Revised (ed. 1904), vol. ix., under the title " Patents, &c." By orders in council, made under the provisions of the Foreign Jurisdiction Acts, penalties have been imposed on British subjects committing offences against the Patents, &c., Act 1883-1888 (now represented by the Trade Marks Act 1905, and the Patents and Designs Act 1907) and the orders in council issued thereunder, and the Merchandise Marks Act 1887: China and Corea (1904), Egypt (1899), Morocco (1889), Muscat (1904), Ottoman Empire (1899), Persia, Persian coast and islands (1889-1901), Siam (1906) and Zanzibar (1906). By s. 91 of the Patents and Designs Act 1907,' and s. 65 of the Trade Marks Act 1905, the king is empowered by order in council to apply the provisions of 5.91 above mentioned, with such variations or additions as may seem fit, to any British possession. The follow- ing is a list of the orders in council that have been issued : — British Possessions. Date of Order in Council. August 7 tool New Zealand February 8 1890 Trinidad and Tobago .... Australia (Commonwealth) . . . August 12, 1907. August 12, 1907. The orders in council up to 1903 are printed in the Statutory Rules and Orders Revised (ed. 1904), vol. ix.,underthe title" Patents, &c." It should be added that the protection of the Merchandise Marks Act 1887, extends to any trade mark which, either with or without registration, is protected by law in any British possession or foreign state to which the provisions of s. 103 of the act of 1883 or s. 91 of the act of 1907 are, under order in council, for the time being applic- able. A foreigner suing in the United Kingdom for infringement of a trade mark, or for " passing off," is in the same position as a subject. VI. Colonial and Foreign Trade Mark Laws. — The British colonies generally follow the model of the English Trade Marks Acts (1883-1888). Australia. — Legislation on trade marks is one of the subjects which the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (s. 9, pt. v. 51, xviii.) places within the exclusive competence of the Federal Parliament. By the Commonwealth Trade Marks Act 1905, s. 20, provision is made for registration of trade marks throughout the Commonwealth, and subject to this act and other Commonwealth legislation the common law of England as to trade marks is applied throughout the Common- wealth. Prior to this act most of the states had their own trade mark law (New South Wales, No. 19 of 1900; Tasmania, No. 9 of 1893; Victoria, No. 1146, 1890; Western Australia, Nos. 7 2 A treaty was also concluded between Great Britain and the United States on the 24th of October 1877, for the protection of trade marks. 3 This section re-enacts the provisions of ss. 103, 104 of the Patents, &c., Act 1883. 134 TRADE MARKS of 1884, 5 of 1886, 4 of 1894). But the state Trade Marks Acts, with certain savings, cease to apply to trade marks (1905, s. 6). The Commonwealth act contains certain novel provisions: — 1. As to a Commonwealth trade mark to be applied to all goods included in or specified by a resolution passed by both houses, that in their opinion the conditions as to the remuneration of labour in connexion with their manufacture are fair and reasonable (s. 78). The mark consists in a device or label bearing the words " Australian Labour Conditions." 2. As to workers' trade marks intended to protect the products of any individual Australian worker or association of such workers other than primary products of agricultural or pastoral industries (s. 74). Sections 115, 116 of the act contain provisions for inter- national and intercolonial arrangements as to protection of trade marks based on ss. 103, 104 of the act of 1883. By the Commerce Trade Descriptions Act, No. 16 of 1905, the import into and export from Australia of falsely marked goods is prohibited. In Canada the law as to trade marks (Rev. Stats, c. 63) and merchandise marks (c. 41 of 1888) has been regulated by Dominion acts, similar to English statute law. New Zealand has an act of 1889. The Hong-Kong ordinance, No. 18 of 1898, is a typical instance of an ordinance in a Crown colony [see also Ceylon, No. 9 of 1906, Jamaica (laws 17 of 1888 and 6 of 1889)]. In the Bahamas a trade marks law was passed on the 29th of May 1906, based on the imperial act of 1905. In the Straits Settlements there is no registration of trade marks, but the common law as to " passing off " is applied. United States. — Provision for the registration of trade marks in the United States was first made by an act of Congress of 1870; but that enactment was subsequently declared invalid by the Supreme Court (U.S. v. Stejfens, 1879, 100 U.S. 82), on the ground that the constitution of the United States did not authorize legislation by Congress on the subject of trade marks, except such as had been actually used in commerce with foreign nations or with the Indian tribes. Congress legislated again on the subject in 1881 (act of the 3rd of March 1881, Revised Stats. U.S. ss. 4937-4947). The act of 1881 was repealed by an act of the 2oth of February 1905 (s. 592), which, as modified by an act of the 4th of May 1906, now regulates the subject. A trade mark may be registered by the owner if he is domiciled within the United States, including all territory under the juris- diction and control of the United States (s. 29), or resides or is located in any foreign country which by treaty, convention or law affords similar privileges to citizens of the United States (s. i). The right of persons domiciled in the United States was in 1906 extended to owners of trade marks who have a factory in the United States, so far as concerns the registration, &c., of trade marks used in the products of the factory (1906, s. 3). To obtain registration the owner of the mark (whether firm, corpora- tion, association or natural person) must file in the patent office an application (a) specifying the name, domicile, location and citizenship of the applicant; (6) stating the class of merchandise and the particular description of goods in the class to which the mark is appropriated; ' (c) annexing a drawing of the trade mark and as many specimens as may be required by the commissioner of patents; (d) giving a description of the trade mark (only when needed to express colours not shown in the drawing); and (e) specifying the mode in which the mark is applied and affixed to goods; (/) stating the time during which the m rk has been used (1906, c. 2081, s. i). The application must be accompanied by a fee of $10, and be supported by a sworn declaration verifying the ownership and the drawing and description and stating that no one else has a right to use the mark, nor one so like it as might be calculated to deceive, and that the mark is in use in commerce among the several states or with foreign countries or with Indian tribes (1905 c. 592, s. 2). Where the applicant resides or is located in a foreign country he must also show that the mark is registered in the foreign country, or that application has been made to register it there. Registration on behalf of foreign registrants is not made until foreign registration is proved nor unless application for United States registration is 1 By the law of 1906 (s. 21) the commissioner of patents is directed to establish classes of merchandise. made within four months of the application abroad (1905, c. 592, SS. 2, 4). The United States policy is to require registration of all trade marks unless they (a) consist of or comprise scandalous or immoral matter; (6) consist of or comprise the flag or insignia of the United States, or of any state or municipality, or of any foreign nation ; (c) are identical with another known or registered trade mark owned and used by another and appropriated to merchandise of the same description, or so nearly resemble such other marks as to be likely to cause confusion or mistake in the mind of the public or to deceive purchasers; (d) consist merely in the name of an individual, firm, corporation or association, unless it is written, printed, impressed or woven in a particular or distinctive manner, or is associated with a portrait of the individual ; (e) consist merely in words or devices descriptive of the goods with which they are used, or of the character or quality of such goods, or merely of a geographical name or term ; (/) contain the portrait of a living individual unless his consent is evidenced by an instrument in writing. Old marks may be registered irrespective of the above rules, no proof that they have been actually and exclusively used as a trade mark of the applicant or his predecessors from whom he derived title in such commerce as aforesaid for ten years before the 2Oth of April 1905. Applications made in proper form with the prescribed fee are at once examined in the patent office and if in order are gazetted to give opportunity for " interference." Decisions of the examiners on applications or oppositions are subject to appeal to the commissioner of patents, and from him to the court of appeals for the District of Columbia (ss. 8, 9). The general jurisdiction in trade mark cases is given to the Federal courts below the Supreme Court, which has power by certiorari to review the decisions of circuit courts of appeal upon such cases (ss. 17, 1 8). The maximum protection given by registration is twenty years. The protection given to marks already registered in a foreign country lapses when the mark ceases to be protected in the foreign country (s. 12). Certificates of registration are issued under the seal of the patent office. Provision is made to prevent importation of merchandise which copies or simulates the name of any domestic manufacture, manu- facturer or trader, or of a manufacturer or trader located in a country affording like privileges to the United States, or which copies or simulates the trade mark registered in the United States, or which bears names or marks calculated to create the belief that it is made in the United States, or in any country other than the true country of origin. United States traders who seek protection can have their names and marks recorded and communicated to the customs department (s. 27). At any time during the six months prior to the expiry of the term of twenty years the registration may be renewed on the same terms and for a like period. The right to the use of any registered trade mark is assignable (with the goodwill of the business in which it is used) by an instrument in writing; and provision is made for recording such instruments in the patent office (s. 10). France. — In France (laws of the 23rd of June 1857, and the 3rd of March 1890) trade marks are optional, but may be declared compulsory for certain specified articles by decrees in the form of administrative orders. The decrees regulating registration are of the 27th of February 1891 and the I7thof December 1892. The following are considered trade marks: names of a distinctive character, appellations, emblems, imprints, stamps, seals, vignettes, reliefs, letters, numbers, wrappers and every other sign serving to distinguish the products of a manufacture or the articles of a trade. A fixed fee of one franc is charged for entering the minute by registration (dep6t) of each mark, and making a copy thereof, exclusive of stamp and registration fees. By legislation of the 1st of August 1905 and the nth of July 1906 provision is made for marking certain classes of commodities, mainly food products, to prevent falsification and the sale of foreign products as French. Germany. — Under the German trade mark law of the I2th of May 1894 any person whatsoever can acquire protection for a trade mark, and all foreigners in Germany are placed on an exactly equal footing with Germans in the eyes of the law, so long as they have a domicile (Niederlassung) within the empire, i.e. a place of business or a resi- dence which involves the payment of German taxes. The registration of a trade mark expires ipso facto after ten years from its date, but may be renewed for a similar period. Germany acceded to the international convention on the 1st of May 1903. In the Netherlands (law of the 3Oth of September 1893) two distinct forms of registration are in force: (a) registration merely for the Netherlands; (6) international registration, available for the states of the international union. The following other foreign trade mark laws may also be noted: Austria-Hungary, law of 1890 (published in Vienna on the 6th of January and in Budapest on the 6th of April 1 890) , and amending law of the 30th of July 1895, which enactment protects additions to trade marks. Denmark (law of the nth of April 1800, and an amending law of the igth of. December 1898, which enables traders to register words or figures, provided that these are not indicative of the origin, kind, use, quality or price of the goods). Japan (law of the 1st of July, and regulations of the aoth of July 1899). Russia (law TRADE ORGANIZATION 135 of the 26th of February [gth of March] 1896). Switzerland (law of the 26th of September 1890). AUTHORITIES. — Sebastian, Trade Marks (4th ed., London, 1899; in this work the American cases are fully dealt with) ; Kerly, Trade Marks (London, 3rd ed., 1908); Kerly and Underhay, Trade Marks Act 190$ (London, 1906); Cartmell's Digest (London, 1876-1892); Sebastian, Digest (London; cases down to 1879); Gray, Merchandise Marks Act (London, 1888); Safford, Merchandise^ Marks (London, 1893). The reports of the Departmental Committee of 1887, and of the Select Committees of the House of Commons appointed in 1887 and 1890 to consider the law with regard to merchandise marks and false marks, and the annual Reports of the Comptroller-General, throw great light on both the history and the practical working of the law. For American law, see Browne, Treatise on Trade Marks (Boston, 1873); Cox, American Trade Mark Cases (Cincinnati, 1871); Manual of Trade Mark Cases (Boston, 1881); Greeley, Foreign Patents and Trade Marks (Washington, 1899); Paul, Law of Trade Marks (St. Paul, Minn., 1903) ; and the reports of the com- missioner of patents. As to foreign trade mark laws generally, see the following : British Parl. Papers; Reports relative to Legislation in Foreign Countries (1879; Cd. 2284, 2420); Reports from H.M.'s Representatives Abroad, on Trade Marks, Laws and Regulations (1900; Cd. 104); Summaries of Foreign and Colonial Laws as to Merchandise Marks (1900; Cd. 358, p. 850 seq.). (A.W.R.; W.F.C.) TRADE ORGANIZATION. The development of commercial organization which attended the growth of trade and industry during the igth century assumed two distinct phases. In the first we see the creation of associations of persons engaged in trade and industry for the purpose of protecting their interests and of facilitating and fostering commercial relations. In the second, governments elaborate departmental organizations for the supervision of commerial matters, and utilize their con- sular services as means of commercial intelligence and influence. The associations belonging to the first category comprise three classes: — a. Those which are themselves engaged in trade, like ordinary joint-stock companies, or which result from the combination of firms or individuals in the same or connected trades, for the purpose of facilitating or restricting production, limiting com- petition, regulating prices, &c. b. Those which, without engaging in trade, aim at providing facilities for the transaction of commercial or financial operations. They chiefly take the form of exchanges, bourses, public sale rooms, &c., such as the Baltic, Lloyd's, the Stock Exchange, the Corn and Coal Exchanges, the Commercial Sale Rooms. c. Non-trading bodies, in the nature of public institutions, whose objects are to protect the interests of trade. When, at the close of the i8th century and early in the igth, the power of the old trade gilds and corporations of merchants had been broken, both governments and commercial men soon realized that the ancient societies would not follow the com- mercial evolution, and that new organizations must be created to meet new requirements. Two systems were evolved, which, British and from their prototypes, are known as the British French and the French systems. In the former, trade Systems, organizations were left to develop themselves in their own way, and in whatever direction they might think fit, without any official interference. In the latter, on the contrary, the government constituted itself the creator of trade organizations, which it incorporated into the administrative system of the country, and to which it gave an official status as an integral part of the machinery of the state. The former have grown chiefly into associations for the promotion and defence of commercial interests, whilst the latter have mainly become sources of commercial information and means of action at the disposal of the government. While organizations on the British system are, as regards the government, purely advisory bodies whose opinion might or might not be asked in connexion with commercial matters, and whose duties are limited to the services which they are in a position to render to their members and to commerce generally, organizations on the French system not only must be consulted, in certain specified cases, by the government, especially in connexion with the drafting of com- mercial legislation and of regulations affecting trade, but they have also administrative duties to perform, such as the control of public commercial institutions, of testing, standardizing and conditioning establishments, port and dock works, &c. The British system obtains in the United Kingdom and the British colonies, in the United States and in Belgium, while the French has been adopted in most European countries, and in Japan. I. — GREAT BRITAIN AND COLONIES A. — Commercial Associations. In the United Kingdom commercial associations arose with the growth of trade, without any assistance from the state and free from all government restriction or control. The first in point of date were the " commercial societies " which were formed, chiefly during the last quarter of the i8th century, in Birmingham, Exeter, Halifax, Leeds, Liverpool and Manchester, and which exercised a not unimportant influence upon com- mercial developments at the close of the i8th and in the early years of the ipth centuries. The modern associations which superseded them divided themselves into four classes, viz: — a. Chambers of commerce and associations which aim at becoming representative of general commercial interests; 6. Associations or institutes which represent particular trades or branches of trades; c. Trade protection societies, which look after the interests of retail as well as wholesale traders, and undertake to supply them with information as to the standing and credit of firms, expose swindlers, collect debts, &c. ; and d. Non-representative associations rendering general com- mercial services. a. Chambers of Commerce and General Associations. — Most of the chambers of commerce in the United Kingdom were formed during the latter half of the loth century, although a few were in existence much earlier. The oldest British chamber is the Jersey chamber, which dates from 1768. The Glasgow chamber was founded in 1783. Dublin followed in 1785, Edinburgh in 1786, Manchester in 1794, Belfast in 1796, Birmingham in 1813, Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1818, Liverpool in 1851, Sheffield in 1857, &c. The London chamber was the last of the chambers of impor- tance to be established; it dates only from 1881. The London Chamber of Commerce, which has over 3000 members, is one of the most representative associations of its kind, and the organization adopted has been very effective in securing _ this. The chamber has been divided into trade sections, ' "e Loaaoa of which there are at present forty-four, and members specify the sections to which they desire to belong. Each section has a separate organization, and is presided over by a chairman elected by itself, who may be helped by an elected committee if found advisable. The general council of the chamber confirms the election of chairmen of sections, and no action can be taken by the chamber on the recommendation of a section without authoriza- tion of the council. The chamber has placed itself in connexion with a number of mercantile associations which, whilst preserving their separate organizations and their independence of action, have found it advantageous to work in conjunction with it, either for general or for particular purposes, and to have a voice in its council. The more important of these are the Institute of Bankers, the Institute of Chartered Accountants, the Society of Accountants and Auditors, the General Ship Owners' Society, the General Produce Brokers' Association, the Federation of Grocers' Associations of the United Kingdom, the West India Committee, the Corn Trade Association, the United Planters' Association of Southern India, &c. Particular reference should also be made to the Liverpool chamber, which, as regards division into trade sections and co-operation with independent associations, works on similar lines Thf to those of the London chamber. The African trade , . . section of the Liverpool chamber has been prominent chamber in connexion with African questions, and since its foundation in 1884 has been the leading voice in all matters relating to West Africa. The Association of Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom, which was formed in 1860, contributed much to give chambers of commerce as a whole a national importance. This association, like the chambers themselves, was of course **? &tioa purely voluntary, and at its foundation only sixteen °t CJ* chambers decided to join it. The association is main- ° ° tained by an annual subscription from the constituent chambers. It has been instrumental in passing many useful acts of parliament, and in otherwise influencing legislation upon com- mercial topics. The general meetings, which are held annually in March, in London, and at which delegates are present from all parts of the country, have come to be considered as a kind of parlia- ment of trade, and representatives of the Board of Trade, the general post office, and the foreign and colonial offices are generally in attendance. Special meetings take place in September, and are held in provincial towns on the invitation of the local chamber. 136 TRADE ORGANIZATION The association has limited its work to the United Kingdom, and has not taken advantage of the commercial development of the colonies to afford colonial interests an opportunity of voicing their needs in the metropolis. To supply this need the London Chamber of Commerce has, from time to time, organized congresses of chambers of commerce of the empire. Some of these congresses have been held in the colonies, the first being at Montreal in 1903. The home organization of chambers of commerce is supplemented by a few British chambers which have been established in foreign countries. These institutions are self-supporting, and not, as seems often to be thought, branches of, or subsidized Chambers Qr ,-ontrolled by home chambers. The British Chamber Abroad. Qj Commerce in Paris, which is the oldest of them, dates from 1 873, and was originally established by British merchants in Paris for the defence of their own trade interests. Its scope soon extended, however, arid it admitted to membership British firms trading with France although not resident in France, and in course of time became representative of general British commercial interests in the French markets. Other British chambers are tobefoundinGenoa, Alexan- dria, Barcelona, Constantinople and St Petersburg. In Brussels'an Anglo-American chamber jointly represents British and American interests. Several countries are represented in London by chambers of commerce, while the American Chamber (Liverpool), the Anglo-Belgian, the Anglo-Portuguese, the Aus- tralasian, the Italian, the Norwegian and the Swedish Chambers la chambers are members of the Association of Chambers Eaglaad. of Commerce of the United Kingdom. The United States are represented in England by the American Chamber of Commerce in Liverpool. Commercial organization in the colonies is very much on the same footing as it is in the United Kingdom. The most representa- ... . live associations are the chambers of commerce, whose constitution and functions are similar to those of the "*' British chambers. In Canada the chambers, which are also sometimes called Boards of Trade, after the American custom, number over sixty, the most important being the Montreal and Toronto Boards of Trade and the Quebec Chamber of Commerce. The Canadian chambers have no association, but hold periodical conferences. There is, in addition, the Canadian Manufacturers' Association, with headquarters in Toronto and branches in all the provinces, which incorporates all the associations of manufacturers in the Dominion. The Australian chambers of commerce, which number some thirty, have joined into an association called the General Council of the Chambers of Commerce of the Commonwealth of Australia. In New Zealand, South Africa, India and many British colonies there are chambers of commerce in all the more important towns. 6. Associations Representing Particular Trades. — Associations representative of particular trades are almost innumerable. The London General Shipowners' Society, the Liverpool Shipowners' Association, the North of England Shipowners' and Steamship Owners' Associations may be mentioned as representative. The chambers of shipping and shipowners' associations joined forces in 1878 in order to establish the Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom, which does for them what the Association of Chambers of Commerce does for chambers of commerce. The Iron and Steel Institute affords a means of communication between members of the iron and steel trades, while the British Iron Trade Association is one of the most powerful. The nature of other associations is sufficiently indicated by their titles. In addition there are the Cotton Association, the Drapers' Chamber of Trade, the Fish Trade Association, the Sugar Refiners' Committee, various tea planters' associations, the Oil Seed Association, the Petroleum Defence Committee, the Mansion House Association on Railway and Canal Traffic, &c. c. Trade Protection Societies. — These seem to be, on the vhole, more ancient bodies than chambers of commerce. In the early part of the igth century they were already strongly organized, especially in the West Riding of Yorkshire. Outside of that district the Dublin Society was the most important. They number more than 100 throughout the United Kingdom. The Manchester Guardian Society, which dates from 1826, occupies a position of special prominence in the Midlands, and may be taken as the model of such associations. Its objects are-ythe making of private inquiries as to the respectability and credit of traders, the detection and exposure of swindlers; the collection of debts; the winding-up of insolvent estates; the issue of notices of bills of sale, judgments, bankruptcies, &c. ; and generally the im- provement of laws and regulations affecting trade. The society has over 6000 members, and its usefulness may be gauged by the fact that it answers an average of 40,000 credit inquiries every year. Trade protection societies formed themselves, as early as 1848, into an association, which was at first an association of secretaries, but in 1865 was transformed into an association of societies. The association issues a quarterly journal called the Trade Protection Journal. B — State Departmental Organizations. Although the British government allowed commercial organi- zations within its jurisdiction to grow independently of official control, it does not follow that it took no interest in the protec- tion and promotion of British trade and the dissemination of commercial intelligence. As long ago as the reign of Charles II. the body which is now the British equivalent of what is known in most countries as the ministry of commerce, viz. the board of trade, was established. The commercial jurisdiction of the Board of Trade does not extend beyond the limits of the United Kingdom, but the Foreign Office, through the negotiation of commercial treaties and by means of the consular body, came into touch with international trade. With the develop- ment of the colonies, the colonial and India offices also found themselves called upon to act, to a certain extent, as guardians of commercial rights and channels for the dissemination of commercial intelligence. But when competition began to displace British goods from foreign markets, and when the British trader noticed the efforts which were being made by foreign governments for the promotion of trade, he came to the conclusion that the British government was not doing anything for him. Complaints were especially loud against the consuls, who were accused of systematically disregarding commercial interests, whilst their American, German, French and Belgian colleagues _ . did not consider it below their dignity to take advantage servlc of their position, in order to promote the trade of the country they represented. British Consular Reports were also unfavourably compared with those issued by foreign consuls, notably the American. The result was that, in 1886, instructions were issued to the consular service which, for the completeness and fairness with which they deal with the subject, have frequently been quoted as models which might advantageously be followed (see Parlia- mentary Paper, Commercial, No. 16, 1886). The preparation of con- sular reports, however, continued to be most unfavourably criticised, and frequent instructions were issued by the foreign office in regard to them. The whole question was raised again in 1896, when, as the result of lengthy communications between the Foreign Office on the one hand, and the Association of Chambers of Commerce and the London chamber on the other, fresh instructions were sent to British consuls, reiterating the instructions of 1886. The consular service has of late years been supplemented by the appointment of commercial attachds. The pressure exercised by the chambers of commerce upon the government led to the appointment in 1897 of a departmental committee on the dissemination of commercial intelli- gence, which was charged with considering means of Commercial more adequately supplying traders with commercial Intelligence information, of improving consular and colonial reports, the Board ot and with reporting on the advisability of appointing fra(jei commercial agents to the colonies and establishing a com- mercial intelligence office. The chief result of the committee's recom- mendations was the establishment of the commercial intelligence branch of the Board of Trade. It publishes the Board of Trade Journal weekly. Attached to the branch is an advisory committee, composed of representatives of the various government departments and of the Association of Chambers of Commerce. The scope of the commercial intelligence branch was further increased, and its means of action strengthened, by the transfer of the Imperial Institute to the Board of Trade, which was effected in 1902 by the passing of a private act of parliament. The self-governing colonies are represented in London by agents- general (g.f.), while the commercial interests of the crown colonies are in the hands of the crown agents for the colonies. II. — UNITED STATES OF AMERICA A. — Commercial Associations. American trade organizations have been developed mainly on the lines of the British system. Of the associations which come within the scope of this article, the most important are the chambers of commerce, which in certain cases are called boards of trade. Theoretically there is a distinction between the two, chambers of commerce being entrusted with the protection of general commercial interests, especially in connexion with foreign trade, whilst boards of trade look after local commercial questions. But in practice the difference is of no importance, as chambers of commerce take cognisance of local as well as international trade matters, and the boards of trade in no way limit the sphere of their activity to purely American questions. The oldest American commercial organization is the New York Chamber of Commerce, which was founded in 1768, and incorporated by royal charter in 1770. In the words of its charter, its object was " to carry into execution, encourage and promote by just and lawful ways and means such measures as will tend to promote and TRADE ORGANIZATION extend just and lawful commerce." It was the prototype of all i the other chambers of commerce and boards of trade which have since been established in the United States, and which are said to exceed 1000 in number. American trade organizations are associated in a National Board of Trade, which corresponds to the Association of Chambers ot Commerce of the United Kingdom. The objects of this institution are to secure unity and harmony of action in reference to commercial questions, and to obtain, through its representative character, more satisfactory consideration of the matters which it brings under the notice either of the Federal govern- ment or of the local state administrations. The expenses of the National Board of Trade are defrayed out of a fund formed by the subscriptions of the various associations belonging to it. The United Sytates has a number of chambers of commerce established in foreign countries. The first institution of this kind was started so long ago as 1801, when the American Chamber of Commerce in Liverpool \yas established. This chamber is the only one repre- senting American commercial interests in the United Kingdom, there being no association of this nature in London. The American Chamber of Commerce in Paris is one cf the most active, important and representative foreign associations on the continent of Europe. In some places where neither the American nor the British element is strong enough to maintain separate associations (notably in Brussels), they have joined hands to support an Anglo-American Chamber of Commerce, which is found to work fairly satisfactorily The American commercial museums, although of recent founda- tion, have attracted much notice owing to the practical and business- like manner in which they are conducted, and are considered to be among the best equipped institutions of this nature. Those in Philadelphia and at San Francisco are the best known. The Philadelphia museum, which came first and is better known, was established by an ordinance of the municipality in 1894, and is supported by subscriptions and by municipal subsidies, administered by a board of trustees, who are appointed for life and serve without remuneration. The work of the museum is supervised by an advisory board, composed of representatives of the principal commercial organizations in the United States. Its objects are to assist American manufacturers and merchants in securing wider foreign markets for their products, to aid them in forming connexions abroad, and to bring foreign buyers in touch with them. One of the chief ways in which this Is done is by means of an index file of foreign customers supplied to American manufacturers, and vice versa. In addition to the regular service to members, the museum also maintains abroad, in various cities, index files covering some sixty American trades or trade divisions, containing the names of American manufacturers of standing, with full particulars of their various lines of manufacture. These files are generally entrusted to chambers of commerce, or similar commercial institutions, and are placed gratuitously at the disposal of foreign manufacturers and merchants. The Philadelphia museum has also a most valuable library and a museum of samples. B. — Slate Departmental Organization. The American state organization for dealing with commercial matters lacks the theoretical completeness of the organization of most European states, but is nevertheless found to give satis- faction. Official control is exercised through various bureaus placed, for the most part, under the treasury department. The most important of these are: the interstate commerce commission, which deals with matters affecting the inland trade; the industrial commission, which looks chiefly after manufacturing; and the fishery bureau. Foreign commercial matters come within the cognisance of the bureau of foreign commerce, a section of the state department which also controls the consular body, and sees to the publication of their reports and to the dissemination of foreign commercial intelligence. The state department corresponds to the British foreign office. The Pan-American Union, until 1910 called the Bureau of Amer- ican Republics, was established in 1889, as a result of the Pan- American Conference called together in that year by the late James G. Elaine, secretary of state at that time. This bureau, which had its office in Washington, is supported by a contribution from all the republics of North, Central and South America, which is fixed at the rate of 1000 dollars a year per million inhabitants. Its object is the dissemination of trustworthy commercial information concerning the republics of the American continent, and in pursu- ance of this object it has issued a large variety of publications. The American consular service has been frequently pointed out as a model to be followed in connexion with commercial matters. Consular America, contrary to the European practice, has no Service. consuls de carriere. Her consular representatives are appointed for a period of, as a rule, four years, and are selected in preference from commercial circles. Their work, as compared with that of British consuls, is rather limited, and they have nothing to monopolize their time like the shipping interests with which the British consular body is entrusted in most countries. Since 1898 the bureau of foreign commerce issues consular reports daily, as fast as they are received, and circulates them in advance sheets, printed on one side of the paper only, like printers' proofs. They are afterwards republished in permanent form. The American consular body, which numbers some 400 members, and is exclusively composed of American citizens, is distributed according to the commercial importance of towns. III. — FRANCE A. — Commercial Associations. The French government was the- first to elaborate a regular system of trade organizations, which it endeavoured to make as complete as possible. This system comprises: — a. Chambers of commerce; b. Consultative chambers of arts and manufactures; and c. Syndical chambers of trade and industry. a. Chambers of Commerce. — Chambers of commerce owe their origin to the city of Marseilles, where, in 1599, the town council, which had hitherto looked after the commercial interests Q t . of the city, found it no longer possible to combine com- mercial with municipal functions, and established an association which it called the " Chamber of Commerce " to take up the com- mercial part of its duties. This seems to be the first time that the title was used. The new chamber soon became a most important body, and in 1650, during the minority of Louis XIV., lettres patentes were granted to it. It settled the law merchant and the customs of the port, was entrusted with the appointment of consuls and the control of French consulates in the Levant, fitted out expeditions against corsairs, owned fleets, sent embassies to the Barbaresque countries, organized commercial missions, &c. Its ordinary budget, at one time, amounted to over one million livres. Louis XIV. conceived the idea of a system of organizations which, whilst not being allowed to become so dangerously power- ful as that of Marseilles, would nevertheless be useful in other towns, and in 1700 he caused an arrete to be published, ordering the creation of chambers of commerce, which were entrusted with the nomination of deputies to the Royal Council of Commerce which had just been created in Paris. Chambers were consequently established in Lyons, Rouen, Toulouse, Montpellier, Bordeaux, La Rochelle, Lille, Bayonne, Amiens, &c. These bodies, however, did not exercise much influence under the monarchy. Including the Marseilles chamber, they were suppressed, with all trade gilds and other trade associations, in 1789. Napoleon re-established the chambers by decree of the 24th of December 1802, and endowed them with a constitution similar, in essential particulars, to the one they have at present, which has served as a model for chambers of commerce on the Continent, but he submitted them to a uni- form and narrow administrative jurisdiction which practically deprived them of all initiative. They are now regulated by the law of the gth of April 1898, which codified, altered and completed previous legislation on the subject. Under this law, chambers of commerce can only be established by a decree countersigned by the minister of commerce, upon the advice of the municipal council of the place where the chamber is to be, of the general council of the department, and of the existing chambers of com- merce of the district. The members of chambers of commerce used to be elected by the " Notables Commercants," who were a body of commercial electors selected by the prefects in accordance with the provisions of the Code of Commerce. They were abolished by law in 1871, but those who were then entitled to the designation still continue to use it, which explains the words " Notable Com- mercant," so puzzling to foreigners in French commercial directories and on French business cards. At present, commercial houses pay- ing patente — which is a special tax upon people engaged 'in trade — elect the members of the chamber, the number of whom is fixed for each chamber by the minister of commerce. Their functions, which are consultative and administrative, are set out in part ii. of the law of 1898. The government is bound to take their opinion regarding the regulation of com- Faacaons. mercial usages, the establishment of public institutions of a commercial or financial nature, and of tribunals of commerce, the improvement of transport and communications, the applica- tion of laws of a local character, the sale price of prison-made goods and the tariff for prison labour, and local public works, and loans or taxation in connexion therewith. On the other hand, they are allowed to submit observations to the government, with- out being asked, on proposed changes in the commercial or economic legislation of the country; on customs tariffs and regulations; on railway, canal and river rates; and on transport regulations. As regards their administrative functions, they may be authorized to establish and administer such institutions as bonded warehouses, public sale-rooms, fire-arm testing establishments, conditioning rooms for wool, silk, textiles, paper, &c., commercial, professional, or technical schools and museums, &c. They may be granted concessions for public works, and may undertake the carrying out of public services, especially in regard to the ports, docks, canals and navigable rivers in their district, and be authorized to issue loans for the purpose. Constitu- tion. 138 TRADE ORGANIZATION French Chambers of '. Commerce Abroad. Constitu- tion. Previous to 1898 it was illegal for chambers of commerce to hold joint meetings for the discussion of matters of public interest, and they were not even allowed to correspond or consult in any way, except through the medium of the minister of commerce. The new law relaxed to a certain extent this prohibition, by authorizing direct correspondence and permitting chambers in a district to meet for the joint consideration of questions affecting their district, but for no other purpose. Such a thing as an association of chambers of commerce is still illegal in France. When, in 1873, British merchants in Paris started a British chamber of commerce in the French capital, the French govern- ment looked rather askance at the new venture, and M. on Say, when minister of commerce, even threatened with forcible dissolution unless the title " Chamber of Commerce " was dropped. This demand was not ultimately pressed, and the services rendered by the British chamber soon opened the eyes of the French government to the advantages which they might derive from the formation of similar institutions to represent French commercial interests abroad. In 1883 the minister of commerce started the organization of such chambers, which endeavoured to combine to a certain extent the French and the British systems. Foreign commercial interests are represented in Paris by seven foreign chambers of commerce, of which the British Chamber is the oldest. The others are the American, Austro- . Hungarian, Belgian, Italian, Spanish and Russian £ „„/ chambers. In 1896 these chambers formed them- in'paris^ ' se'ves mto an Association of Foreign Chambers of Commerce, but the French government gave it to be understood that, as they did not allow associations of French chambers, they could not treat foreign bodies more favourably, and the association had to be dissolved. b. Consultative Chambers of Arts and Manufactures. — These institutions, organized somewhat after the model of chambers of commerce, represent manufacturing and industrial interests. They were established by Napoleon I. in 1803, and formed part of the complete system of commercial organizations which he intended to give France. They are now regulated by decrees of 1852 and 1863, and are composed of twelve members elected for six years by merchants and manu- facturers inscribed upon an electoral list specially drawn up by the prefects. These chambers, of which there are some fifty in existence, are placed under the control of the minister of commerce, but instead of being kept out of the patentes, like chambers of commerce, they are supported by the municipality of the town where they are situated, which has also to provide them with offices rent free, and with clerical assistance. In addition to giving „ .. advice in connexion with manufacturing and industrial "**" matters, they have to look after and report upon im- provements in manufactures and machinery, new industrial pro- cesses, &c. They are especially useful in the preparation of local and international exhibitions. They are also entrusted with the nomination of the Consultative Committee of Arts and Manufactures, a body whose functions are to advise the ministers of commerce and finance, as well as those of the interior and of public works, as regards the regulation of dangerous trades and industries, patents and trade marks legislation, and the interpretation of customs regulations. c. Syndical Chambers^ of Trade and Industry. — By the side of the official trade organizations other associations have grown up, which, although regulated by law, are in the nature of voluntary and self-supporting bodies, viz. the syndical chambers of trade and industry. The repeal in 1884 of the law of 1791, which pro- hibited the formation of trade or professional association, was the signal for the formation of those chambers, which soon acquired great influence. A few syndical chambers existed before that date, the oldest, the Chamber of Master Builders, dating back as far as 1809, but they were only tolerated, and their existence, being illegal, was most precarious. The syndical chambers, which are divided into chambers of employers and chambers of employed, are the official organs and r tu representatives of the trade and professional syndicates authorized by the law of the list of March 1884, which was the work of M. Waldeck-Rousseau. Each syndicate has its separate chamber. They may be established without government authorization, but a copy of their rules and a list of their officials must be sent to the prefect. Membership is strictly limited to persons of French nationality. The only way in which the government can dissolve them is by application to the courts of justice for an order of dissolution on the ground of infringement of the provisions of the law. In Paris, most of the syndical chambers have formed an association . called the Union Nationale du Commerce et de 1'Industrie — Alliance des Chambres Syndicales. Another association, intended to take up the defence of the interests and rights of syndical chambers, has been formed under the title of Syndicat du Commerce et de 1'Industrie — Syndicat des Chambres Syndicales. The syndical chambers are kept up by the subscrip- tions of their members, and have the right to hold real property, as have also the associations of chambers, which are kept up by subscriptions from the constituent chambers. According to the law which authorized their formation, the objects of the syndical chambers are exclusively " the study and defence of economic, industrial, commercial and _ .. agricultural interests," and for this purpose they have ^unctions. complete freedom of intercommunication and can hold congresses. They are authorized to establish for their members mutual benefit societies and pension and relief funds, to open employment agencies, to give legal advice to, and in certain cases to bring actions on behalf of their members, and to organize the settlement of disputes by arbitration. They take part in the election of judges of the tri- bunals of commerce and of the Conseils de Prud'hommes. B. — State Departmental Organization. The state commercial departments and offices are chiefly centred round the ministry of commerce, to which is assigned the commercial part of the duties fulfilled in England by the board of trade. A ministry of commerce existed for short periods in 1811 and in 1828, but it was ultimately suppressed in 1829, and from that date until 1886, when the department received its present form and separate existence, commerce was only represented in the French govern- ment by a subsidiary bureau attached sometimes to one ministry, sometimes to another. The ministry is divided into three main bureaus — the first entrusted with all matters connected with the home trade and industry, the second with foreign and colonial relations, and the third with the compilation of statistics. Attached to the ministry of commerce is a body called the Conseil Superieur du Commerce et de 1'Industrie, which acts as an advisory council to the minister. Its origin goes back to the council of commerce established by Louis XIV., but it is now regu- lated by a decree of 1882. The Office National du Commerce Exterieur was established by a law of the 4th of March 1898, and is carried on jointly by the ministry of commerce and the chamber of commerce of Paris, the latter having provided it with an in- „?/. " , stallation at a cost of over 1,200,000 francs. The * office, which has been founded for the promotion of Tr'd*" French trade with foreign countries and the dis- semination of commercial intelligence, fulfils duties similar to those of the commercial intelligence branch of the board of trade. It also publishes the weekly Moniteur officiel du commerce. The Office Colonial, whose duties are especially to furnish in- formation concerning the French colonies, to promote emigration thither, and to foster a demand in France for the produce of her colonies, was established by a decree of the I4th of March 1899. It is entrusted, in addition, with a permanent exhibition of colonial produce and a museum of samples of goods supplied by or required in the colonies. The office is also in charge of a colonial garden at Vincennes, where experiments are made for the acclimatization of colonial plants and produce in France, and the cultivation of French produce in the colonies. The office publishes a monthly bulletin of miscel- laneous colonial information, and issues yearly commercial and other reports dealing with the colonies. It is a dependency of the ministry of the colonies. French consuls are instructed to transmit to their government all information which they may consider useful for the prosperity of French trade. It is also their duty to spread, in the country where they reside, a knowledge of such French commercial and financial matters as they may consider most useful in the interests of their own country. The close relations which they are recommended to cultivate with the French commercial community within their jurisdiction through the local French chamber of commerce and the councillors of foreign trade are intended to enable them to keep in better touch with commercial questions. They have had, however, to be frequently reminded of their commercial duties, and the French chambers of commerce have criticized them almost as much as the British chambers have British consuls. The most important instructions issued to consuls were contained in circulars from the minister for foreign affairs dated the I5th of March and the 24th of April 1883. French consuls have to make a return to their government every fortnight — every month if the district is not of great commer- cial importance^showing, upon forms specially provided, the nature, quantity, origin or destination, prices wholesale and retail, and chief trade marks of the goods imported into and exported from the district, the results of public sales of produce, the conditions of transport, contemplated public works and tenders advertised, state of the labour market, artistic enterprises, commercial failures and rumours concerning important local firms, effect of foreign competition, imitation of French trade marks, &c. These returns are mostly of a confidential nature, and are not intended for publica- tion, but whenever the minister considers it advisable he causes information to be conveyed through the chambers of commerce, or other channels, to the parties chiefly interested. The ordinary consular reports are published in weekly instalments in the Moni- teur officiel du commerce. nfflce a TRADE ORGANIZATION IV. GERMANY A. — Commercial Associations. German trade organizations are of three kinds, viz.: — a. Official organizations established by law, and called Handels- kammern, or chamber of commerce; b. Semi-official associations; and c. Voluntary or " free " associations. a. Chambers of Commerce. — Contrary to the idea prevalent in England, official trade organizations in Germany are in a somewhat chaotic state. They have been established under more or less different conditions and systems in each state of the empire, and in certain districts still bear the imprint of foreign origin. They are under the control of the local state governments and lack the homogeneity and unity of direction of the French official system. Before proceeding to a general examination of the German regime, special mention must be made of the chambers of com- H tic merce °f tne o'd Hanseatic Confederacy which stand o /,. apart, and whose duties, as well as constitution, differ tfoa ' from those of trade organizations in the rest of Ger- many. The chambers of commerce in Hamburg, Bremen and Liibeck are not only the successors of, but (con- trary to what happened in Germany as well as in other countries) have been evolved out of the old corporations which looked after the interests of the Hans traders in the olden days, and which, in the case of the Hamburg " Commerz-Deputation," tor instance, dated as far back as 1665. The Hamburg Chamber of Commerce, whose present constitution dates from 1860, is composed of twenty-four members elected for six years by the ancient " Versammlung eines ehrbaren Kauf- mannes," that is to say, the merchants and commercial men whose names appear on the register of the " Honest Merchants " of the city. Its income is chiefly derived from special taxation, to which are added the proceeds of the sale of contract and transfer stamps, and also the amount paid every year for the re-registration of each " Honest Merchant." This latter source of income amounts to about 70,000 marks per annum. The chamber has to submit its accounts for approval to the Senate of the Republic. In addition to the general duties of chambers of commerce in connexion with trade matters, the Hamburg chamber — the same may also be said of the other Hanseatic chambers — fulfils the combined functions of a chamber of shipping and of a port and docks board. It has the right of proposing judges and of nominat- ing experts attached to the courts. The exchanges and public sale rooms of the city are under its control, and it publishes the official quotations, as well as a weekly price list of goods and pro- duce at the port of Hamburg. It is entitled to elect members to the " Biirgerschaft " or lower house of representatives, who are especially competent to deal with trade and shipping questions, customs duties and emigration. The chamber must be consulted by the " Biirgerschaft " with reference to all proposals affecting trade and navigation. In Bremen the chamber is composed of twenty-four members elected by the " Ausschuss des Kaufmanns-Konvents, "which com- prises all the important commercial houses of the city. Two members go out every year, and no one can remain a member for more than eighteen years. The Bremen chamber is intimately con- nected with the Senate of the Republic, a standing committee of both being in existence to settle questions affecting trade and navigation. The Liibeck chamber is composed of twenty members elected for six years by the associations representing the wholesale and retail trades. The president must be approved by the senate, and is sworn in as a state official. He holds office for two years, and is not paid for his services, but when he goes out of office is pre- sented with a sum of money subscribed by the townspeople. The Liibeck chamber is probably the wealthiest organization of its kind in Germany, and is entrusted with the administration of the property of the old corporation of the " Vorstand der Kaufmann- schaft, ' which is very important. The senate must consult it not only in trade and navigation matters, but also with reference to all contracts entered into on behalf of the state. Chambers of commerce in other parts of the German Empire are not so important, nor are their duties so varied, as in the Hanseatic r/i.™fc.«n» towns- The oldest ones were established by Napoleon C/7i)/nOtT.S O/ . . „ , *~tri)Ai ~ 11 Commerce. m l8°2 m Cologne, Crefeld, Aachen, btolberg and other towns which were then under the control of France, and they were submitted to the legislation which regu- lated the chambers organized in France at the same time. The model set up by the French was more or less closely followed in the subsequent establishment of institutions of this nature in other German states. The Berlin chamber was only constituted on the 1st of April 1902. A trade corporation called the " Aelteste der Kaufmannschaft " previously fulfilled, to a certain extent, the duties of a chamber of commerce. The new chamber rests on a broader basis than the old corporation, which, however, remains intact, though the sphere of its action has been restricted. Broadly speaking, the German chambers are elected by the registered tradespeople and the merchants. Throughout the whole of Germany chambers are under the strict supervision of the state minister of commerce, and cannot be established except with his permission. He fixes the number of members as well as the amount of the state allocation to the chamber. In Prussia and Bavaria the government is entitled to dissolve chambers whenever it considers it advisable to do so, and there is always a government commissioner in attendance at all meetings. In most cases the local government allows a fixed sum for the expenses of chambers of commerce, and if this amount is exceeded the electors who are on the commercial register have to make good the excess by the striking of a special rate. In some states, e.g. Brunswick, Wurttemberg and Baden, the electors cannot be called upon to pay for deficiencies more than an amount fixed by law. In Bavaria chambers^get a subvention from the district and central funds. The duties and powers of the German chambers are practically the same as those of the French chambers. The German government did not, like the French, interfere with the liberty of association of chambers of commerce, and as a result German chambers have united, together with other trade corporations, in an association called the " Deutsche Handelstag," founded in 1861, and carried on in its present form since 1886. The German government is understood to be opposed to the forma- tion of German chambers of commerce abroad, and as a German matter of fact there are no German chambers in Europe Chambers outside of Germany. A few have been established Abroad and in South America, but they are purely voluntary Foreign associations. No foreign chambers of commerce exist Chamberstn in Germany. Germany. b. Semi-Official Corporations. — Besides the chambers of com- merce, there exist, chiefly in Prussia, various old-established and quasi-official corporations, whose views receive as careful con- sideration from the government as do those of chambers of com- merce. The Berliner Aelteste der Kaufmannschaft is one of the most important of these corporations, but the Gewerbekammer of Memel, the Kaufmiinnische Verein of Breslau, the Vorsteher Amt der Kaufmannschaft of Koenigsberg also deserve mention. Others exist in Elbing, Stettin, Danzig, Tilsit and Magdeburg. They originated for the most part in ancient gilds or associations of commercial firms, and were organized in their present form between 1820 and 1825. c. Voluntary Associations. — Germany possesses also a large number of influential commercial associations of a voluntary character called the " Freie Vereine," which, especially in recent years, have greatly contributed to the commercial development of the empire. B. — State Departmental Organization. The German Empire has no ministry of commerce. As in the United States, commercial matters form only a department of the ministry of state. Most of the states of the empire have, how- ever, their own ministries of commerce, the oldest being the Prussian ministry of commerce and industry, which dates from 1848. In Prussia, the minister of commerce is advised by the Volks- • wirthschaftsrath, or council of national economy, an official body constituted in 1880 by the Emperor William I. The functions of this council, which assembles periodic- ally under the presidency of the minister of commerce, are also similar to those fulfilled in France by the C? Conseil SupeVieur du Commerce et de 1'Industrie. The German government has taken steps to facilitate the dis- semination of commercial intelligence by the establishment of commercial museums, which are variously called _ " Handelsmuseen, " " Ausfuhrmusterlager " or " Ex .c°n""e™'*> portmusterlager. " The first of these, which are on the model of the Vienna Handelsmuseum, was opened in Berlin in 1883. Others followed in Munich, Karlsruhe, Frankfort, Cologne, Dresden, Leipzig, Weimar, &c. They perform, to a certain extent, much the same functions as those performed in England by the com- mercial intelligence branch of the board of trade. A perusal of the instructions given to German consuls with regard to commercial matters shows that the German consular body is in this respect very much in the same position as the British consular body. If German consuls as a Consu/ar whole have been especially active and successful in promoting German commercial interests, it is not on account of the nature of the instructions received from their government, these instructions being to all intents and purposes similar to those issued to British consuls, but because particular care was taken to select consuls from a class of men imbued with the desire of increasing the greatness of their country by the promotion of German trade. Of distinctly commercial attaches, like those of Great Britain and Russia, Germany has none; but in addition to the consular body she is represented in foreign countries by five attaches or experts, whose duties are to study the movements of agricultural produce, and interest themselves in agri- cultural matters generally. They cover Great Britain, France, Russia, the Danube district and the United States. . 140 TRADE UNIONS V. — BELGIUM A. — Commercial Associations. The important place which Belgium has taken in international trade has directed much attention to her commercial organization, which comes nearer to the British model than that of any other European country. Belgian chambers of commerce were on the French system until 1875, when all official ties between them and the government were broken, and full liberty was given to com- mercial associations to establish and govern themselves in their own way. The Belgian chambers have now no administrative functions of any kind, but the Belgian government never fails to consult them in matters likely to interest the commercial com- munity. The most important chambers are those of Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Liege, Charlcroi, Verviers and Namur. Mention should also be made of the federations of industrial and com- mercial associations at Antwerp and at Brussels, and of the syndical union of Brussels. In some places there are Liberal and Conservative chambers of commerce. In addition to institutions representative of the general interests of commerce and industry, the principal trades have also in the larger cities separate associations or syndicates. There are a large number of associations for the promotion of colonial trade, which have grown up since the establishment of the Congo Free State. A number of Belgian chambers of commerce also exist abroad, the first of which was established in New York in 1867. B. — State Departmental Organization. The Belgian ministry of commerce, under whose control com- mercial matters are placed, dates only from 1895, previous to which time the department of commerce at the ministry for foreign affairs fulfilled the same functions. The ministry has established in Brussels a Commercial Museum, similar to those of Germany and Austria, to centralize commercial intelligence and facilitate its dissemination. VI. — OTHER COUNTRIES Austria-Hungary. — The control exercised by the government over commercial organizations in Austria and in Hungary is very close. The only institutions of this kind of any importance within the dual monarchy are the chambers of commerce. They are official bodies, regulated by the law of the agth of June 1868, which is, as regards the functions of chambers, almost similar to the French law. But the Austrian chambers, in certain cases, have the right to elect members of parliament, which right depends upon taxation. Within the -Trieste district one-third of the members of chambers of commerce may be foreigners. Austria and Hungary have each a ministry of commerce, the former since 1853 a.nd tne latter since 1867, whose jurisdiction is strictly confined to internal trade matters in each country. When- ever important questions arise affecting common interests the Gemeinsame Zoll-Conferenz, or Common Customs Conference, is summoned. This conference is made up of representatives of the various ministries of both countries. Matters arising out of com- mercial relations with foreign countries are under the control of the commercial department of the imperial foreign office. The Vienna commercial museum was the prototype of similar institutions. It was established in 1875, as a consequence of the Vienna International Exhibition of 1873, and was followed shortly afterwards by the establishment of a similar one in Budapest. Italy. — The chambers of commerce and arts, which are regu- lated by the law of 1862, are official bodies. They are instituted, and may be dissolved, by royal decree, and their functions are almost similar to those performed by the French chambers. They are, however, at liberty to unite for the consideration of commercial and industrial questions of common interest, and are entitled to own property and to levy taxes for their maintenance. An advisory council is attached to the ministry of commerce, which dates from 1878. This council is called upon to give an opinion with reference to all matters connected with trade and industry. There are also two commercial museums, one in Rome and one in Milan. Spain. — Spanish chambers of commerce were organized by a royal decree of 1886, which places them under the control of the Ministro de Fomento. They are self-supporting bodies with un- limited membership, but have also an official standing. In order to belong to them one must be of Spanish nationality, be engaged in trade, have paid direct taxes to the state for at least five years for the business in connexion with which membership of the chamber is sought, and pay annualjy the amount of the subscription pro- vided by the regulations. The government must consult chambers of commerce upon treaties of commerce and navigation, tariff changes, the creation of commercial exchanges and the organization of commercial education. Owing to the peculiarity of their con- stitution the Spanish chambers are much more representative of the feelings of the commercial community, and much less under the strict control of the government, than similar institutions in other continental countries. Spain has no ministry of commerce proper, the duties of this office being performed by the commercial sub-department of the Ministro de Fomento, which dates from 1847. Portugal. — In Portugal the organizations corresponding to chambers of commerce, which are called " commercial associa- tions, " are voluntary associations kept up by the subscriptions of their members. The associations at Lisbon and Oporto are the only ones of importance. Russia. — Attached to the department of trade and manufactures of the ministry of Finance, which in Russia does duty for the ministry of commerce, there is an official council of trade and manufactures which sits in St Petersburg, and is presided over by a representative of the ministry. A similar council is also in existence at Moscow. In addition to these there are six local bodies, called the " local committees of trade and manufactures, " entrusted with the care of commercial interests in Archangel, Odessa, Rostov-on-the-Don, Tver, Tikhvin and Ivanovo-Voznesensk. At Warsaw there is a " committee of manufactures. " The committees are purely consultative bodies. Closer to what we know as chambers of commerce are the in- stitutions called " exchange committees. " They are voluntary associations, chosen by a council elected for the purpose by the commercial community; they generally consist of twelve members elected for five years, and the president is appointed by the minister of finance. Two important commercial societies, although un- official, are recognized and frequently consulted by the govern- ment, viz. the Society for the Encouragement of Russian Trade and Industry, of St Petersburg, and the Society for the Encouragement of Navigation, of Moscow. The Russian government is represented abroad by commercial attaches, who are known as " agents of the Russian ministry of finance. " The duties of these attaches are almost similar to those of the British commercial attaches, but they are entrusted with the promotion of Russian financial as well as commercial interests. Japan. — Commercial matters in Japan come within the cogniz- ance of the minister of state for agriculture and commerce. The chief commercial associations are the chambers of commerce, which are under the direct control of the minister. They are official bodies, with a constitution somewhat resembling that of the French chambers. The members must be Japanese subjects. AUTHORITIES. — Correspondence respecting diplomatic and con- sular assistance to British trade abroad. Parliamentary Papers, No. 16, 1886, and No. 5, 1897; Report of the Departmental Committee on the Dissemination of Commercial Intelligence (2 vols., c. 8962, 8963, 1898); Reports on the constitution and functions of ministries of commerce and analogous branches of foreign administrations. Parliamentary Paper, No. 12 (1889). Reports, rules, by-laws and articles of association of the various chambers mentioned. W. H. Schoff , American Commercial Institutions (New York, 1900) ; Foreign Trade Policies; American Consular Report, No. 307 (Dec. 24, 1898). The Bureau of American Republics Annual Reports (Washington). The Chambers of Commerce Year Book (York, 1909). TRADE UNIONS, combinations for regulating the relations between workmen and masters, workmen and workmen, or masters and masters, or for imposing restrictive conditions on the conduct of any industry or business. I. — THE UNITED KINGDOM By the English common law such combinations were, with certain unimportant exceptions, regarded as illegal. They were considered to be contrary to public policy, and were History ot treated as conspiracies in restraint of trade. Those British who were concerned in them were liable to be Legislation. criminally prosecuted by indictment or information, and to be punished on conviction by fine and imprisonment. The offence was the same whether it was committed by masters or by workmen. But although the common law applied mutatis mutandis to both of them alike, it was, practically speaking, in reference rather to the latter than to the former that its effects were developed and ascertained. Although workmen, as indi- viduals, might lawfully consent or refuse to labour for any remuneration or for any time they pleased, the hostility of the common law to combinations effected the result that when two or more of them joined together, and agreed to labour only on certain stipulated terms, their agreements were not only null and void, but were criminal offences subject to punishment. It was immaterial whether the end they had in view was to deter- mine wages or to limit work; or whether the means they adopted for promoting its attainment was a simultaneous withdrawal from employment, an endeavour to prevent other workmen from resuming or taking employment, or an attempt to control the masters in the management of their trade, the engagement of journeymen or apprentices, or the use of machinery or industrial processes; or whether in seeking to enforce their demands they UNITED KINGDOM] TRADE UNIONS 141 relied merely on advice and solicitation, or resorted to reproach and menace, or proceeded to actual violence. In any event their combination in itself constituted a criminal conspiracy, and rendered them amenable to prosecution and punishment. From the reign of Edward I. to the reign of George IV. the operation of the common law was enforced and enlarged by between thirty and forty acts of parliament, all of which were more or less explicitly designed to prohibit and prevent the organization of labour. But the rise of the manufacturing system towards the end of the i8th century, and the revolution which accompanied it in the industrial arrangements of the country, were attended by a vast and unexpected extension of the movement which the legislature had for so long essayed to suppress. Among the multitudes of workmen who then began to be employed in factories, trade unions in the form of secret societies speedily became numerous and active, and to meet the situation a more summary procedure than that which had hitherto been available was provided by an act passed in 1800. Act of 1800. ^v tms statute it was enacted that all persons ' combining with others to advance their wages or decrease the quantity of their work, or in any way to affect or control those who carried on any manufacture or trade in the conduct and management thereof, might be convicted before one justice of the peace, and might be committed to the common gaol for any time not exceeding three calendar months, or be kept to hard labour in the house of correction for a term of two calendar months. The discontent and disorder consequent upon the introduction of steam and improved appliances into British manufactures in the first quarter of the igth century, in conjunction with a state of commercial depression and national distress, led to the nomination of a select committee by the House of Commons, to inquire into the whole question of what were comprehensively designated the " combination laws," in the session of 1824. The committee reported to the House that " those laws had not only not been efficient to prevent combinations either of masters Act of 1824. or workmen, but on the contrary had, in the opinion 'of many of both parties, had a tendency to produce mutual irritation and distrust and to give a violent character to the combinations, and to render them highly dan- gerous to the peace of the community." They further reported that in their judgment " masters and workmen should be freed from such restrictions as regards the rate of wages and the hours of working, and be left at perfect liberty to make such agreements as they mutually think proper." They therefore recommended that " the statute laws which interfered in these particulars between masters and workmen should be repealed," and also that " the common law under which a peaceable meeting of masters or workmen might be prosecuted should be altered." In pursuance of their report, an act, 5 Geo. IV. c. 95, was at once brought in and passed. But the immediate results of the change which it effected were regarded as so inconvenient, formidable and alarming, that in the session of 1825 the House of Commons appointed another select committee to re-examine the various problems, and review and reconsider the evidence submitted to their predecessors. They reported without delay in favour of the total repeal of the act of 1824, and the restora- tion of those provisions of the combination laws, whether statu- tory or customary, which it had been more particularly intended to abrogate. The consequence was an act passed in 1825 of Act ot 1825. which the preamble declares that the act of 1824 had not been found effectual, and that combinations such as it had legalized were " injurious to trade and com- merce, dangerous to the tranquillity of the country, and especially prejudicial to the interests of all who were concerned in them." The effect of this act was to leave the common law of conspiracy in full force against all combinations in restraint of trade, except such as it expressly exempted from its operation, as it had been before the act of 1824 was passed. It comprised, however, within itself the whole of the statute law relating to the subject, and under it no persons were liable to punishment for. meeting together for the sole purpose of consulting upon and determining the rate of wages or prices which they, being present, would require for their work or pay to their workmen, or the hours for which they would work or require work in any trade or business, or for entering into any agreement, verbal or written, for the purpose of fixing the rate of wages or prices which the parties to it should so receive or pay. But all persons were subjected to a maximum punishment of three months' imprison- ment with hard labour who should by violence, threats or intimi- dation, molestation, or obstruction, do, or endeavour to do, or aid, abet or assist in doing or endeavouring to do, any of a series of things inconsistent with freedom of contract which the act enumerated and defined. In 1859, in order to remove certain doubts which had arisen as to the true import and meaning of the undefined words "molestation" and "obstruction," it was provided Act otl8S9 by an amending act that " no person, by reason merely of his endeavouring peaceably and in a reasonable manner, and without threat or intimidation, direct or indirect, to persuade others to cease or abstain from work, in order to obtain the rate of wages or the altered hours of labour agreed to by him and others, should be deemed to have been guilty of ' molestation ' or ' obstruction.' " In spite of the partial recognition which trade unions had thus received, they continued to be unlawful, although not necessarily criminal, associations. In certain cases, they were by statute exempted from penal con- sequences, and their members were empowered to combine for specified purposes, and to collect funds by volun- tary contributions for carrying them into effect. But in the estimation of the common law the special privileges which had been accorded to them under particular circumstances did not confer any general character of legality upon them, and where their rules were held to be in restraint of trade, as in the prohibition of piece-work or the limitation of the number of apprentices, they were still regarded as conspiracies. In this condition the law was when what became notorious as the " Sheffield and Manchester outrages " suggested the appoint- ment of the royal commission on trade unions, which investi- gated the subject from 1867 to 1869. The outcome was, first, a temporary measure for the more effectual protection of the funds of trade unions, passed in 1869, and, secondly, the two measures which, as amended and amending, are cited together as the " Trade Union Acts 1871 and 1876." Under these statutes, construed with the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875, the law relating to combi- nations, whether of workmen or of masters, entered upon a new phase. In connexion with .. ... effects. trade disputes no person can be prosecuted for conspiracy to commit an act which would not be criminal if committed by him singly. The purposes of a trade union are not to be deemed illegal merely because they are in restraint of trade, and the circumstance that they are in restraint of trade is not to render any member of it liable to prosecution, nor is it to avoid or make voidable any agree- ment or trust relating to it. No court, however, can enter- tain legal proceedings with the object of directly enforcing or recovering damages for the breach of an agreement between the members of a trade union as such, concerning the con- ditions on which the members for the time being shall or shall not sell their goods, transact their business, employ or be employed, or the payment by any person of any subscrip- tion or penalty to a trade union, or for the application of the funds of a trade union to provide benefits or to furnish contributions to any employer or workman not a member of such trade union in consideration of such employer or workman acting in conformity with the rules or resolutions of such trade union, or to discharge any fine imposed upon any person by any court of justice or any agreement made between one trade union and another, or any bond to secure such agreement. But such incapacity to sue on such agree- ments is not to be taken as constituting any of them illegal. Every person, however, commits a misdemeanour, and on 142 TRADE UNIONS [UNITED KINGDOM conviction is liable to a maximum fine of £20, or to a maximum imprisonment of three months with hard labour, who wilfully and maliciously breaks a contract of service or hiring, knowing or having reasonable cause to believe that the probable consequence of his so doing, either alone or in combination with others, will be to endanger human life or cause serious bodily injury, or to expose valuable property, whether real or personal, to destruction or serious injury; or, who, being employed by a municipal authority or by any company or contractor on whom is imposed by act of parliament, or who have otherwise assumed, the duty of supplying any place with gas or water, wilfully and maliciously breaks a contract of service or hiring, knowing, or having reasonable cause to believe, that the probable consequence of his so doing, alone or in combination with others, will be to deprive the inhabitants of that place, wholly or in part, of their supply of gas or water; or who, with a view to compel any other person to do or to abstain from doing any act which such other person has a right to abstain from doing or to do, wrongfully and without legal authority uses violence to or intimidates such other person or his wife or children, or injures his property, or who per- sistently follows such person about from place to place, or who hides any tools, clothes or other property owned or used by such other person, or deprives him of or hinders him in the use thereof, or who watches or besets the house or other place where such person resides or works or carries on business or happens to be, or the approach to such house or place, or who follows such other person with two or more other persons in a disorderly manner in or through any street or road. Attending at or near the house or place where a person resides or works or carries on business, in order merely to obtain or communicate infor- mation was not watching or besetting within the statute, but this proviso has since been repealed. In regard to registration, trade unions are placed on a similar footing with friendly and provident and industrial societies, and they enjoy all the privileges, advantages and facilities which those associations possess and command, except in so far as they differ by the fact that there is no legally enforceable contract between a trade union and its members, and that the right of a registered trade union to invest funds with the National Debt Commissioners is limited, and in a few other matters. On their side, how- ever, they have to comply with the same conditions, are sub- ject to the same liabilities, and are compelled to make the same periodical returns. During the years following 1876 several important amend- ments of the law, other than special trade union legislation, and the decisions of the courts in various cases, led Legisiatioa.uP *-° *-ne important act of 1906. These affected principally the liability of trade union funds to be taken in execution for the wrongful acts of agents of the union, the statute law relating to picketing and other incidents of strikes, and the law of conspiracy as affecting trade unions. The two latter points are dealt with in the article on STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS, and it may suffice here to say that the clauses in the act of 1875 prescribing punishment for watching and beset- ting a house, &c., with the view of compelling any other person in the manner set forth, have been amended by the repeal of the proviso that " Attending at or near the house or place where a person resides, cr works, or carries on business, or happens to be, or the approach to such house or place, in order merely to obtain or communicate information, shall not be deemed a watching or besetting within the meaning of this section " by the enact- ment in the act of 1906 that : " It shall be lawful for one or more persons, acting on their own behalf or on behalf of a trade union or of an individual employer or firm in con- templation or furtherance of a trade dispute, to attend at or near a house or place where a person resides or works or carries on business or happens to be, if they so attend merely for the purpose of peacefully obtaining or communicating information, or of peacefully persuading any person to work or abstain from working." The object was to include the right of peaceful persuasion which had been supposed by parliament to be implied in the terms of the act of 1875. Further, the law of conspiracy has been amended by enactments in the act of 1906 that: " An act done in pursuance of an agreement or combination by two or more persons shall, if done in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute, not be actionable unless the act if done without any such agreement or combination would be action- able," and " An act done by a person in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute shall not be actionable on the ground only that it induces some other person to break a con- tract of employment or that it is an interference with the trade, business or employment of some other person, or with the right, of some other person to dispose of his capital or his labour as he wills." The act of 1875, in the words of Lord Cairns, was framed on the principle that " the offences in relation to trade disputes should be thoroughly known and understood, and Leading that persons should not be subjected to the indirect Cases la the and deluding action of the old law of conspiracy," Law-courts. but no one during the discussion of the bill was thinking of the civil action. This matter became important when the dicta of various judges in the House of Lords in the case of Quinn v. Leathern showed that there might be an action for damages based on any conspiracy to injure or do harm, particularly when it is considered that the very essence of a strike is in one sense injury to those against whom it is directed, and these opinions became of the utmost import to trade unions when the Taff Vale case showed that the fact of procuring to strike might also involve trade union funds in liability, even where there had been no procuring to break contracts. This important decision arose through the amendment of general procedure under the Judicature Acts in 1881. The distinction was abolished between legal and equitable rules as regards parties to sue and be sued, and in 1883 there was issued a General Order No. xvi. of the supreme court, rule 9 of which prescribed that where there are numerous parties having the same interest in one cause or matter, one or more of such persons may sue or be sued, or may be authorized by a court or judge to defend in such cause or matter, on behalf or for the benefit of all persons so interested. It was decided in Temperton v. Russell in 1893 where three trade unions were made defendants to represent all the members, and the order did not apply in the case of a trade union, because the words of the order " numerous parties having the same interest in one cause or matter " could only be satisfied by parties who had, or claimed to have, a beneficial proprietary right which they were asserting or de- fending, from which it was inferred that they could not be sued at all, and in the report of the Royal Commission on Labour in 1894 the opinion was either assumed or expressly stated that they could not be sued in tort. In 1901 the House of Lords overruled Temperton v. Russell in the case of the Duke of Bedford v. Ellis, holding that the General Order No. xvi. rule 9, was universal in its application. In the same year the Taff Vale case came before the House of Lords. In the first place, expounding the Trade Union Act 1871, they held unanimously that from the provisions in that act concerning registered trade unions there is to be legally in- ferred an intention of parliament that a trade union might be sued in tort in its registered name, with the conse- nvaie quence that trade union funds would be liable case. for any damages that might be awarded. Secondly — apart from the Trade Union Act — Lord Macnaghten and Lord Lindley expressed an unhesitating opinion that under the General Order No. xvi. as interpreted in Duke of Bedford v. Ellis, any trade union, whether registered or not, could be sued in tort by means of a representative action. Trade unionists protested against the result as a decision of judges making a practically new law against trade unions and nullifying the settlement of their status made by the legislature in 1871, and in June 1903 a royal commission was again ap- pointed to inquire into the subject of trade disputes and trade UNITED KINGDOM] TRADE UNIONS combinations and as to the law affecting them, and to report on the law applicable to the same and the effect of any modifi- cations thereof. The majority of the commission reported in January 1906 in favour of an alteration in the law relating to picketing and conspiracy, but against any alteration of the law *906. as la'd down in the Taff Vale judgment. A different view was, however, expressed in the Trade Disputes Act passed in the same year, whereby it was enacted with reference to trades union funds that " an action against a trade union, whether of workmen or masters, or against any members or officials thereof on behalf of them- selves and all other members of the trade union in respect of any tortious act alleged to have been committed by or on behalf of the trade union, shall not be entertained by any court, " although " nothing in this section shall affect the liability of the trustees of a trade union to be sued in the events provided for by the Trades Union Act 1871, section 9, except in respect of any tortious act committed by or on behalf of the union in contemplation or in further- ance of a trade dispute. " This act and the two previous acts are cited together as the Trade Union Acts 1871 to 1906, and form the present statutory enactments upon the subject. In December 1909 one of the most important judgments in connexion with trade unions was delivered in the case of Osborne v. Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. The litigation had extended over two years, ending in the House of Lords (December 21, 1909) upholding the decision of the court of appeal (L.R. 1909, ch. 163). The plaintiff, who had been a member of the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants since 1892, sued his trade union to have it declared that one of its current rules, which provided, amongst other things, for parliamentary representation and the enforced levy of contributions from him and other members of the society, towards the payment of salaries or maintenance allowance to members of parliament pledged to observe and fulfil the conditions imposed by the Labour Party, was ultra vires and void. It was decided in the King's Bench against the plaintiff, but the judgment was reversed by the court of appeal, whose decision was upheld by the House of Lords. This meant that the Labour Party in the House of Commons would have to find other ways and means than contributions from trade unionists to maintain their members in parliament. A voluntary levy was attempted, but did not meet with any success, and in 1910 agitation was set on foot by the Labour Party for the reversal of the " Osborne judgment. " They also announced in September their intention of making a change in the constitution of their party by elimin- ating the necessity of each member signing an acceptance of certain conditions, on the ground that the party had arrived at a state when it could trust to ordinary party loyalty to keep their members' action in accordance with the policy of the party. It was also hoped that it would meet many objections raised against their agitation for the reversal of the Osborne judgment. The agitation had the result of in- creasing the force of the movement for payment of members, not only in the Liberal party but also among the more pro- gressive Conservatives. Trade unions, in the sense in which the term is now under- stood, appear to be almost exclusively of modern growth. Though combinations among various classes of n workmen to improve their position have doubt- ' less been formed from time to time from an early period, such combinations, up to comparatively recent years, were mostly ephemeral, almost the only class among whom permanent associations of journeymen are known to have existed in the middle ages being the masons, whose con- federacies were prohibited by law in 1425. With this doubtful exception, there is little or no trace of permanent combinations corresponding to the modern trade union before the i8th century. During the period when wages and conditions of employment were the subject of State regulation (e.g. under the Statute of Apprentices of Elizabeth), combina- tions to exact higher rates or other conditions than those so fixed were naturally regarded as illegal conspiracies. The craft gilds of the middle ages have sometimes been regarded as the true predecessors of trade unions, but the analogy must not be pressed too far. The structure, con- stitution and functions of a gild of craftsmen, aiming at the protection and regulation of the craft as a whole, were essen- tially different from those of a trade union, formed to protect one class of persons engaged in an industry against another. Nor is there any trace of direct continuity between gilds and trade unions, for the claim of certain Irish trade unions to be descended from gilds will not-bear scrutiny (see Webb, History of Trade Unionism, appendix). The only true sense in which it can be said that there is a certain indirect historical filiation between gilds and trade unions is that, as pointed out by Brentano, some of the earliest trade unions had for their original object the enforcement of the decaying Elizabethan legislation, which in its turn had taken the place of the obsolete regulation of industry by the craft gilds, so that among the rules and objects of such unions would naturally be some bearing a likeness to gild regulations. The actual way in which trade unions first came into being probably varied very greatly. In some cases, as stated above, their origin can be definitely traced to associations for en- forcing the legal regulation of industry against the opposition of employers; in others, the meetings of journeymen belonging to the same trade for such purposes as sick or burial clubs became naturally the nucleus of secret combinations to raise wages. The growth of the " capitalistic " system of industry, under which the workman no longer owned the materials or instruments with which he worked, was one of the most potent causes of the development of workmen's combinations. The efforts of trade unions to revive the enforcement of the Eliza- bethan'legislation not only failed, but led to its repeal (1813- 1814); but the laws against combinations, which had been made more stringent and more general by the acts of 1799-1800, remained unaltered until 1824. In spite of these acts, which made all combinations illegal, there is evidence that trade clubs of journeymen existed and were tolerated in many trades and districts during the first quarter of the igth century, though they were always subject to the fear of prosecution if they took hostile action against employers; and in many cases strikes were suppressed by the conviction of their leaders under these acts or under the common law of conspiracy. The partial protection accorded to societies for the purpose of regulating wages and hours of labour by the law of 1825 led to a rapid multiplication and expansion of trade unions, and to an outburst of strikes, in which, however, partly owing to the widespread commercial depres- sion, the workmen were mostly unsuccessful. Thus the first impetus given to trade unions by the modification of the combination laws was followed by a collapse, which in its turn was followed (in the third decade of the century) by a succession of attempts on the part of workmen to establish a federal or universal combination, to embrace members not of one but of several trades. To this new form of combination, which excited a good deal of alarm among employers, the term " trades union, " as distinct from trade union, was applied. All these general movements, however, proved short-lived, and the most extensive of them, the " Grand National Con- solidated Trades Union," which was formed in 1834 and claimed half a million adherents, only had an active existence for a few months, its break-up being hastened by the con- viction and transportation of six Dorchester labourers for the administration of unlawful oaths. In the years of depressed trade which followed, trade unionism' once more declined, and the interest of workmen was largely diverted from trade combinations to more general political movements, e.g. Chartism, the Anti-Corn-Law agitation and Robert Owen's schemes of co-operation. From 1845 we trace another revival of trade unions, the 144 TRADE UNIONS [UNITED KINGDOM characteristic tendency of this period being the amalgamation of local trade clubs to form societies, national in scope, but confined to single or kindred trades. High rates of contri- bution, and the provision of friendly as well as trade benefits, were among the features of the new type of union, of which the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, formed in 1851, was the most important example. The growth of unions of the new type was followed by a development of employers' associations in the 'sixties, and by a number of widespread strikes and lock-outs, and also by various efforts to promote arbitration and conciliation by the establishment of joint boards of employers and employed. (See ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION and STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS.) A series of outrages at Sheffield and Manchester in 1865- 1866, in which officials of some local trade societies were impli- cated, led to the appointment in 1867 of a Royal Commission on Trade Unions, whose report was followed by the passage of the Trade Union Act of 1871, which as amended in 1876 and 1906 now governs the legal position of trade unions. Conferences of trade union representatives held in 1866 and 1867 to deter- mine their policy with respect to the royal commission of in- quiry, led to the gatherings of the trade union congress which are still held annually. The period of inflated trade which began in 1871 caused, as usual, another rapid growth of trade combinations, of which the most characteristic feature was their extension to agricultural and general labourers. To meet this new development of com- bination, the National Federation of Associated Employers of Labour was formed in 1873. The years of depression, 1875- 1880, were marked by a series of unsuccessful strikes against reductions of wages, and by a general decline of trade unions, which did not again revive until nearly ten years later, when the new wave of prosperous trade brought with it an outburst of strikes, chiefly among unskilled labourers, for improved conditions, of which the most notable was the strike 'of the London dock labourers in 1889. These trade movements were accompanied by the formation of a large number of unions of a type more akin to those of 1830-1834 than to the more modern trade-friendly society with its high contributions and benefits. The " new unions " were chiefly among unskilled labourers; their rates of contributions were from id. to 3d. a week, and as a rule they only offered strike benefit. Another characteristic was the extent to which their leaders were per- meated with the Socialistic doctrines which had then recently taken root in Great Britain, and which led them to advocate positive state interference with industry in the interests of the labourers (e.g. the legal limitation of hours of labour). The reports of the Royal Commission on Labour, which sat from 1891 to 1894, contain much valuable information on the state of facts and on the opinions of employers and workmen at this period. From 1892 onwards the progress of trade unionism can be traced statistically. The depression of trade, 1892-1895, brought with it, as usual, some decline in trade unionism; but though many of the " new unions" collapsed, some of the more im- portant have survived to the present time. The revival of trade which began in 1896 was naturally accompanied by an increase in the strength of trade unions; but the most marked characteristic of this period was the extension and consolidation of employers' associations, of which perhaps the most notable is the Engineering Employers' Federation, which was originally formed on the Clyde, but gradually extended to other districts and became a national organiza- tion of great strength during its successful struggle with the Amalgamated Society of Engineers in 1897-1898. Among the other more important employers' associations and federations of a national character may be mentioned the Ship- ping Federation, the Federated Coal Owners, the Ship-building Federation, the Federation of Master Cotton-Spinners' Associations, the National Federation of Building Trade Em- ployers, and the Incorporated Federated Associations of Boot and Shoe Manufacturers. In 1899 a general federation of trade unions was established which had in 1907 a membership of 650,000 in 117 affiliated societies. This federation links the trade unions of the United Kingdom with those of other countries by its affiliation with the international federation of trade unions, which em- braces the national federations of the principal European countries. During recent years there has been a noticeable tendency towards the creation of federations of trade unions, and the absorption of the smaller by the larger societies. Trade unions, both in their historical development and their present organization, present a very great variety of constitutions. The oldest type is that of the local trade club, con- sisting of a comparatively small number of men c°astltu- following the same occupation in the same locality. A large number of unions have never progressed beyond this primitive form of organization. The government is of the simplest kind, by a general assembly of all the members, while such officers as are required to carry on the necessary routine business of the society are chosen by rotation or even by lot. Indisposition to concentrate power in the hands of per- manent officers and a tendency to divide the business of manage- ment equally among all the members, instead of delegating authority to a few chosen representatives, are leading character- istics of trade unions in this primitive form. The organization here described, even if adequate for ordinary current require- ments, is ill suited for conducting a contest with employers, and accordingly in times of strife an improvised " strike com- mittee " often comes into existence and practically governs the conduct of the dispute. No doubt this double constitution of the old trade club as a loosely organized friendly society, converting itself at times into a more or less secret strike combination ruled by an irresponsible committee, is to be traced to the time when trade unions as such were illegal com- binations and had to carry out their objects under the guise of friendly societies. The Friendly Society of Ironfounders (established in 1809), though it has to a great extent out- grown its primitive constitution, retains in its name the mark of its origin, while the government of the London Society of Bookbinders, by mass meeting of its members, offers an example of the persistence of traditional methods under wholly changed conditions. The Sheffield trade clubs, responsible for the outrages which led to the appointment of the Trade Union Commission in 1867, and subsequently to the passage of the Trade Union Acts, conformed as a rule to the primitive type. At the present time over 750 trade unions are known to exist which are purely local in character, with no branches. The next step in trade union evolution seems to have generally been an alliance or federation of two or more local clubs be- longing to the same trade. This federation would make it necessary to provide some machinery for common management, the simplest and crudest expedient being for each of the allied clubs to act in rotation as the governing branch. Thus the government of the federation or " amalgamated society " was at any given time confided to the members of a single locality, and the seat of government was periodically shifted. Some federal societies (e.g. the Mutual Association of Journeymen Coopers) still retain this primitive form of government. As the tendency developed for local clubs to unite, the necessity of permanent officials to cope with the growing business of the amalgamation caused the institution of a paid secretary (usually elected by the whole body of members), and this led naturally to the fixing of the seat of administration at a particular centre instead of rotating among the branches. Some continuity of policy and of office tradition was thus made possible, but the executive committee almost invariably continued to consist of the local committee of the district where the seat of government happened to be. Thus up to 1892 the business of the Amalga- mated Society of Engineers, a society with hundreds of branches all over the United Kingdom and even abroad, was conducted by a committee elected by the London branches. The Boilermakers continued a somewhat similar form of government up 10.1895; and many great societies, e.g. the Amalgamated Society of UNITED KINGDOM] TRADE UNIONS Carpenters and Joiners, continue a somewhat similar system to the present day. The plan of entrusting the government of a national society to a local executive has obvious conveniences, where the society consists of a body of working men scattered over a large area and with no leisure for travelling. But the control exercised by a locally-elected committee over a general secretary deriving his authority not from them but from the vote of a much wider constituency, could hardly be expected to be very effective; while the expedients of referring all important questions to a vote of the whole body of members, and of summoning at periodical intervals special delegate meetings to revise the rules, have proved in practice but clumsy substitutes for the permanent control and direction of the executive officers by a representative council. Quite as ineffective in some cases has been the authority of a mere local executive over the committees of other districts. Accordingly, some of the largest " amalgamated " unions have now adopted a representative system of government. Thus in 1892 the Engineers revised their rules so as to provide for the election of the executive council by vote of all the members divided into eight equal electoral districts. The members of council so elected are permanent paid officials, devoting all their time to the work of the society. The general secretary, however, con- tinues to be chosen by the whole body of members, while the responsibility of the council is also weakened by the institution of " district delegates " nominally responsible to them, but chosen by direct election in the various districts. (This division of authority and consequent weakness of responsibility was one of the causes of the state of things which led to the great engineer- ing dispute of 1807, and it also led to a deadlock in negotiations on the north-east coast in 1908, the executive being powerless to enforce its views.) The Boilermakers adopted the system of a permanent executive in 1895. In the case of certain highly-localized industries, such as cotton and coal, the conditions have admitted of a somewhat different form of constitution from that described above. Thus the Amalgamated Association of Operative Cotton-Spinners is a federal organization, consisting of a number of local associations, all, however, situated within a comparatively small area. The governing bodies of the association are — (i) a quarterly meeting of about a hundred representatives of the districts; (2) an executive committee of thirteen chosen by the above represen- tative meeting, of whom seven must be working spinners and the other six are usually permanent district officials; (3) a sub- council to transact the ordinary daily work of the association, consisting of the six official members referred to above. The secretary is chosen by the representative meeting, and engages his own office assistants. Here we have the familiar features of representative institutions — a large legislative body, a small executive chosen by and responsible to this body, and a still smaller group of permanent officials to transact ordinary business. Lastly, there are some large societies constituted not by the aggregation of local clubs or the federation of neighbouring associations, but originally founded as " national societies " divided into districts and branches for administrative conveni- ence. An example is the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, founded in 1872. Besides the tendency of the national society with branches to swallow up the local trade club, there is a further tendency among the larger societies to form federations for certain common pur- poses. Such federations are to be distinguished from national trade unions, inasmuch as their members are societies and not individuals, and as a rule their powers over their constituent organizations are limited to certain specific objects. On the other hand, they are more than merely consultative bodies (such as local trades councils). Some federations consist of unions in the same industry in different districts (e.g. the Miners' Federation). " Single trade" federations like this have usually considerable powers, including that of imposing levies. In the cotton-spinning trade, the trade union organization has a federal character, and the Amalgamated Association of Operative Cotton-Spinners, in spite of its name, is, strictly speaking, a federation. Other federations (e.g. in the building trade) are formed of allied trades in the same locah'ty, and usually have little executive power. The Federation of Engineering and Shipbuilding Trades has among its objects the settlement of disputes between members of its constituent societies as to the limits of their work. Some federations aim at embracing societies in all kinds of industries, but as a rule such organizations have not proved long-lived. The most recent example is the " General Federation of Trade Unions," formed in 1899, referred to above. Since 1866 a congress of delegates from trade unions has met annually for discussion, and a parliamentary committee elected by this congress watches over matters in which trade unions are interested during the ensuing year. The principal object of every trade union is to protect the trade interests of its members, and to strengthen their position in bargaining with their employers with regard to the conditions under which they work. The chief means by which they seek to attain these objects (apart from political methods such as the promotion of legislation or of administrative action by public authorities) are twofold: viz. the support of members when engaged in a collective dispute with employers by the payment of " dispute " benefit, and the insur- ance of members against loss from want of work by the payment of " unemployed " benefit, so as to enable them to refuse any terms of employment inferior to those recognized by the trade union. All trade unions in one form or another provide " dis- pute " benefit, but a separate " unemployed " benefit is by no means universal, though, except in certain groups of trades, it is usual among more powerful and well established societies. Thus in the mining, clothing, and even many branches of the building trade, comparatively little is spent by trade unions on " un- employed " benefit, while, on the other hand, in the metal, engineering, shipbuilding, printing and other trades a large proportion of the total expenditure is devoted to this object (see Statistics below). In some important societies, such as the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, " unemployed " and " dispute " benefits are mixed up together, members engaged in a dispute receiving an addition of 55. per week (known as " contingent " benefit) to the ordinary out-of-work pay (known as " donation "). Unemployed benefit may, of course, be regarded as a " friendly " benefit, i.e. a provision against one class of the casualties to which a workman is exposed — the loss of employment through slackness of trade. But in practice it also operates as a method of maintaining the " standard " rate of wages, members being entitled to it who could obtain employment, but only on con- ditions disapproved by the society or branch. The conditions under which the members of a union are entitled to financial support in a strike vary in different societies, and are prescribed in the rules. Usually, though the initiative may come from the localities, the central executive must approve of the strike before it takes place, and may at any time declare it to be closed, though in some societies the central authority is often unwilling to take the responsibility of curbing its members by exercising its powers in this respect. " Dispute " and " unemployed " benefits are the only ones which are specially characteristic of trade unions, and as regards the latter benefit, it may be said that trade unions have hitherto been the only form of organization capable of meeting the difficulties arising from " malingering." Most of the more firmly established unions, however, add to their trade functions those of friendly societies, providing sick, accident, superannua- tion, and funeral benefits, or some of these. The position of a trade union, however, with regard to these benefits differs very materially from that of a friendly society. The trade union is under no legally enforceable contract with its members to provide the stipulated benefits: it can change their scale, or even abolish them, by vote of its members, and a member who has contributed for years in hope of receiving them has no legal redress. Again, a member excluded from the society for some " trade " reason 146 TRADE UNIONS [UNITED KINGDOM incidentally loses all claim to friendly benefits. The funds of a trade union applicable to trade and friendly purposes are never kept distinct (in the few cases in which some distinction is attempted, the society may " borrow " from the one fund in aid of the other in case of emergency); and a prolonged strike or depression of trade may so deplete the funds as to make it impossible for the society to meet its engagements as regards sickness or superannuation. Thus the friendly society operations of trade unions have strictly no actuarial basis, and in some cases the scale of contribution and benefit have been fixed with little regard to ultimate solvency. On the other hand, the power of levying and varying the scale of contributions adds to some extent to the financial stability of the funds, and the provision of " friendly " as well as " trade " benefits by a trade union undoubtedly gives strength and continuity to the society, and increases its power of discipline over its members. Societies that only provide " dispute " pay are exposed to violent oscillations of membership, and also to a dangerous temptation to rush into an ill-considered strike owing to the mere accumulation of funds which can be used for no other purpose. The statistics of trade union expenditure on benefits of various classes are given below. Of the 100 principal unions, all provide dispute benefit; 79 in the year 1905 provided unemployed benefit (including in some cases travelling pay); 79, sick or accident benefit; 37, superannuation benefit; and 87, funeral benefit; 32 unions providing all four classes of benefit. One of the most important functions of trade unions in many industries is the negotiation of agreements with employers and employers' associations for the regulation of the conditions of employment in those industries. While undoubtedly the power of withdrawing its members from employment in the last resort adds to the power of a trade union in such negotiations, many of the most important agreements by which the conditions of labour of large bodies of workmen are governed are habitually con- cluded, and from time to time revised, by conferences of repre- sentatives of the trade union and employers without any strike taking place. To the functions of trade unions as fighting organizations and as friendly benefit societies should therefore be added that of providing the necessary machinery and basis for the conclusion of industrial agreements between bodies of workpeople and their employers (see ARBITRATION AND CONCILIA- TION, and STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS). While the broad objects of trade union policy are generally similar, their methods and features vary greatly in detail. Among the objects most frequently met with (besides those of raising wages and shortening hours, which may be said to be universal) are the enforcement of a " minimum " wage; the limitation of overtime; the restriction of numbers in the trade through the limitation of apprentices, or the regulation of the age of entrance; the restriction or regulation of piecework (in trades accustomed to " time " work) ; the preservation for members of the trade of the exclusive right to perform certain classes of work claimed by other trades (leading to so-called " demarcation " disputes) ; resistance to the encroachment of labourers on work considered to be " skilled " (leading to disputes as to the class of persons to be employed on machines, &c.) ; and the securing of a monopoly of employment for members of the union by a refusal to work with non-unionists. Year. Number of Unions. Membership of Unions.1 1897 1292 ,622,713 1898 1261 ,659,480 1899 1255 ,820,755 1900 1244 ,928,035 1901 1238 ,939,585 1902 1203 ,925,800 1903 1187 ,903,596 1904 1153 ,864,374 1905 1136 ,887,823 1906 I IOI 2,106,283 Groups of Unions. Number of Unions. Membership in 1905. Number. Percentage of Total. Mining and quarrying .... Metal engineering and shipbuilding Textile Building 68 222 253 IOI 55 48 40 35 IOO 18 196 495,968 339,282 239,539 205,383 162,563 72,182 62,368 60,407 40,115 96,094 113,922 26 18 13 II 9 4 3 3 2 5 6 Railway, dock and other transport Public employment Printing, bookbinding and paper . Clothing Wood-working and furnishing General labour All other unions Total . . . 1136 1,887,823 100 Includes a small number of members abroad. The statistics of trade unions are very complete for recent years, but for earlier years the records are so fragmentary that it is im- possible to give exact figures showing the total growth statlstks of trade unions over a long period. The table at ' foot of preceding column, based on the statistics published by the board of trade, shows the number and membership of all trade unions in the United Kingdom making continuous returns for each of the ten years 1897 to 1906. The fluctuations in membership correspond in the main to the oscillations of trade, membership declining in the years of depression and increasing with the revival of trade. The decline in the number of separate unions is chiefly due to the growing tendency to amalga- mate into large societies. The following table shows the distribution of trade unions among the various groups of trades in 1905 : — This table shows that the strength of trade unionism lies in the five first-named groups of trades — mining; metal engineering and shipbuilding; textile; building; and railway, dock and other trans- port— which among them account for over three-quarters of the total membership. In agriculture, trade unionism is at present practically non- existent, but in 1875 there were important unions of agricultural labourers, though at no time did they include any considerable proportion of the total agricultural population. Taking the men belonging to all trade unions together, we find that their number does not amount to more than about one in five of the adult men who belong to the classes from which trade unionists are drawn. . Only in a few groups do trade unionists form a high percentage of the total working population, e.g. coal-mining and cotton manufacture. The number of women belonging to trade unions at the end of 1906 was 162,453, distributed among 156 unions, of which, however, only 28 consisted exclusively of women. The great bulk of women trade unionists are found in the cotton trade, in which they actually outnumber the male members. Of all the women employed in factories and workshops, about one in twelve belongs to a trade union. The available statistics with regard to the financial resources of trade unions, and their expenditure on various objects, are not so complete as those of membership, as the board of trade figures only relate to 100 of the principal unions. As, however, these unions include nearly two-thirds of the total membership, the figures snowing their financial position may be accepted as being representative of the whole number of societies. In 1906 the income of these 100 societies was £2,344,157 or 363. gjd. per head; and their expenditure £1,958,676 or 303. gd. per head; and at the end of the year the funds in hand amounted to £5,198,536 or 8is. 7jd. per head. The actual rates of contribution per member vary greatly among the unions — from 75. up to £4 per annum. Generally speaking, the highest income per member is found among the unions in the metal, engineering and shipbuilding group, where in 1905 it averaged £3, 5s- 7id., while the average in the mining unions was only £l, 43. lid., and among dock labourers still lower. The metal trades and the textile unions appear to hold the highest amount of funds compared with their membership, the amounts at the end of 1905 being £6, 33. 8 Jd. and £6, os. 3d. per head respectively in these groups, while in the building trade unions it was only 1 8s. 8|d. and in some societies of unskilled labourers far less than this. The main items of expenditure of trade unions are " dispute " benefit, " unemployed " benefit, various friendly benefits (including sick and accident, superannuation and funeral), and working ex- penses. The proportions of expenditure on these various objects naturally vary greatly in different groups of unions, and also in different years, some of the items being affected largely by the general state of employment, and the occurrence or absence of im- portant disputes. On the basis, however, of an average of the ten years 1897-1906, the following analysis of the proportionate expendi- ture of the 100 principal unions on various classes of objects has been made: on disputes, 13-4%; on unemployed 22-1 %; on friendly FOREIGN AND COLONIAL] TRADE UNIONS benefits (other than " unemployed "). 42*5%; on working expenses 22%. The 42-570 of expenditure on friendly benefits is made up of 19-1 % on sick and accident, 12-4% on superannuation and n % on funeral and other benefits. The mining unions devoted 28-6% of their expenditure to the support of disputes (friendly benefits in this industry being largely provided by other agencies), while the unions in the printing and bookbinding trades only used 3'9% for this object, over three- quarters of their expenditure going to unemployed or friendly benefits. As illustrations of the variation in the expenditure by the same group of unions on a particular object from year to year, it may be stated that within the ten years' period referred to the annual expenditure of the metal, engineering and shipbuilding group on disputes varied from £514,637 in 1897, the year of the great engineering dispute, to £13,266 in 1899. Again, the expenditure of the same group of unions on unemployed benefit varied from £80,512 in 1899 to £303,749 in 1904. The burden of superannuation payments by the 100 unions has steadily increased during the ten years from £137,813 in 1896 to £306,089 in 1906. At the end of 1906 there were 89 federations, including societies with a gross membership of over a million and three-quarters, but a considerable deduction must be made from this total on account of duplication. In the same year 231 " trades councils " were known to exist, with an affiliated membership of over 895,000. The number of employers' associations and federations known to exist in the United Kingdom in 1906 was 953, including 60 federations and national associations. Of the total number of associations 398 are in the building trades. II. — FOREIGN AND COLONIAL Modern trade unionism has had its chief development in Eng- lish-speaking countries, and especially in the United Kingdom, where the conditions necessary for its growth have been present to the fullest extent. With some exceptions, such unions as are found elsewhere are either derived or copied from English organizations, or are associations with political objects. It is therefore unnecessary to give more than a brief summary of the position of trade unions in some of the principal countries and colonies outside the United Kingdom (for United States see IV. below). Germany. — In Germany the majority of trade unions are of a political character, being closely connected with the Social Democratic party. These Socialist trade unions, termed " Gewerkschaften, " were started by a congress held at Berlin in 1868, under the auspices of Fritscher and Schweitzer, two fol- lowers of Lassalle. In 1878 many of them were dissolved under the law prohibiting socialistic organizations, but shortly after their place was taken by local unions termed " Fachvereine," which ostensibly abstained from politics, but which in various ways succeeded in evading the law and carrying on the work of the Gewerkschaften. In 1887 a general committee of the German Gewerkschaften was formed, and in 1890 the General Commission of Trade Unions in Germany was established. Later years of prosperous trade have been marked by a rapid growth in the strength of trade unions in Germany. The Social Democratic (Gewerkschaften) trade unions included in 1907 a membership of 1,886,147 as compared with 743,296 in 1902 and 419,162 in 1897. Of the total number of members in 1907, 1 ,865,506 belonged to branches affiliated to central federations ; the membership of non-federated local unions being returned as only 20,641. The income of the federated trade unions in 1907 was £2,569,839, or over 275. per member as compared with £554,887 (or about 153. per member) in 1902 and £204,185 (or about los. per member) in 1897, and the expenditure in the same years to £2,156,126, £500,276 and £177,140 respectively. Of the 61 federa- tions in existence in 1907, 43 paid travelling benefit, 42 paid unem- ployed benefit, 47 paid sick benefit and 57 paid funeral, removal and special allowance. Another group of trade unions in Germany, less important as regards number and membership than the above, are the " Gewerk- vereine," or non-political trade unions, sometimes known as " Hirsch- Duncker " unions, from the names of their founders. These unions were first formed in 1868, immediately after the Berlin congress referred to above. They were directly modelled on British trade unions. Since 1876 Social Democrats have been excluded. In their earlier years these unions suffered in membership from a series of unsuccessful strikes, and of late years they have been mostly benefit societies. In 1907 the Gewerkvereine embraced 108,889 members. Their income amounted to £77,068 in 1907 and their expenditure to £71,717. Another group of unions, the Christian trade unions (Christliche Gewerkvereine), was formed in 1894. In 1907 the membership of this group was 354,760. The income of these unions in 1907 was £225,821, and the expenditure £167,867. Besides these groups of unions there were a number of independent societies with a membership of 96,684 in 1907. It will be seen that German trade unions of one type or another included a membership of nearly two and a half millions in 1907, their membership having more than doubled in the last five years. France. — In France combinations of workmen as well as of employers were prohibited by the laws of the I4th of June and the 28th of September 1792, which overthrew the old gild or corpora- tion system. They were also penalized under various articles of the Penal Code, and it was not till 1864 that the prohibition was modified by law. At present the status of trade unions in France is regulated by the law of 1884, which repealed that of 1791 and modified the articles of the Penal Code so far as regards professional syndicates of employers or workmen. Since then there has been a considerable growth of workmen's unions, which in 1906 numbered 5322 with a membership of 896,012. Of the unions in existence in 1906, 3675 with a membership of 752,362 belonged to 187 federations. There is, however, some dupli- cation owing to the fact that some unions belong to more than one federation. In 1906 there were 260,869 members of unions in the transport, warehousing, &c., groups of trades, 103,835 in the metal, 73,126 in the mining and quarrying, 78,854 in the textile, 66,678 in the building, 51,407 in the agricultural, forestry, fishing and cattle breeding, 48,353 in the food preparation trades and the remainder in various other trades. Austria. — Apart from the Austrian gilds, membership of which is compulsory for persons engaged in non-factory handicrafts and trades (under a law of 1883) and in mining (under a law of 1896), there are a certain number of trade unions in Austria, though freedom of combined action among workmen is less complete than in many other European countries. Such right of combina- tion as exists rests on the law of 1870, which removed the restric- tions imposed by the Penal Code on combinations for influencing the conditions of labour. The impulse given to the formation of unions by this law, and by the advantages gained for the work- men during the years of prosperous trade that immediately followed, received a severe check during the succeeding depres- sion of trade, when these advantages were mostly lost. Trade unionism did not revive until 1888, from which time the unions formed have mostly been on a Social Democratic basis, the majority being affiliated to a central organization in Vienna. Since 1901 statistics relating to the trade unions of Austria have been published annually by the Central Trade Union Commission (Gewerkschafts-Kommission) at Vienna. In 1907 there were 5156 trade unions in particular trades, with a membership of 501,094, affiliated to the Social Democratic trade unions (Gewerkschaften). Of the total number of unions, 49 were central unions, 77 were district unions and 5030 were local unions. Of the total number of members 454,693 were males and 46,401 were females. The greatest member- ship, 84^,085 in 1907, is shown to have been in the metal engineering and shipbuilding group of industries, the building trades coming next with 68,543 members. The transport trades showed a member- ship of 61,744, and the textile trades, 51,632. The chemical, glass and pottery trades included 54,469 members and the wood-working and furnishing group included 36,502 members. Food and tobacco trades accounted for 32,679, and mining and quarrying for 30,715 members. The total receipts of the trade unions in 1907 amounted to £338,365 and the total expenditure to £297,822, excluding receipts and ex- penditure for disputes. The expenditure on account of disputes, for which £136,822 was collected by special free organizations of the branch unions, amounted to £76,066 in 1907. There are besides these unions a number of general unions not confined to one trade, and trade-clubs — educational associations discharging to a greater or less extent trade union functions. These associations have, however, been excluded from the statistics published by the Gewerkschafts Kommission as not being trade unions proper. Hungary. — The trade union movement in Hungary is of very recent growth. The membership of unions affiliated to the Central Federation at the end of 1907 is given in the Volkwirtschaftliche Mitteilungen aus Ungarn as 130,192, compared with 129,332 at the end of 1906. Independent local unions had a membership of 11,838 at the end of 1907. The largest groups of organized workers are :n the building trade (35,630), metal workers (27,732), railway employees (17,192) and wood-workers (14,665). Italy. — The Bolletino of the bureau of labour for August 1908 states that the membership of trade unions at the beginning of 1908 numbered 191,599 (in 2550 local unions). Included in the 148 TRADE UNIONS [ECONOMIC EFFECTS membership of 1908 are 48,877 building trades workers, 40,000 railway employes and 17,110 metal-trade workers. The agricul- tural labourers' trade unions were stated to have a membership of 425,983 at the beginning of 1908 as compared with 273,698 at the beginning of 1907. Denmark. — In 1907 there were 99,052 members of 1249 trade unions in Denmark, and of these 78,081 were in unions affiliated to the National Federation. The largest unions in the Federation are those of the general labourers with 22,660 members; black- smiths and machinists with 8000 members; masons, 5300 members; railway employ6s, 4990 members; carpenters, 3855 members ; textile workers, 3700 members; and cabinet-makers, 3590 members. Sweden, — In Sweden there were, in 1906, 126,272 members of 1596 trade unions, and of these 30,645 were factory workers (trades not specified), 24,485 were in unions connected with the metal trades, 10,706 were in the transport trades, 17,862 were in the wood- working trades, 7132 were in the food, &c., trades, 6602 were in the building trades, and 6005 were in the clothing trades. Norway. — -The trade union movement in Norway dates practically from 1884. At the end of 1906 there were 25,339 members of trade unions, as compared with 16,087 at the end of 1905. Of the member- ship in 1905, 5277 were iron and metal workers, 4910 journeymen (factory workers), and 1117 printers. Holland. — In 1893 a National Labour Secretariat was formed, to which, in 1899, 45 societies with 13,050 members were said to be affiliated. After a general strike in April 1903 the membership of trade unions in Holland decreased considerably, the Secretariat losing half its members and several trade unions dissolving. In 1906 it was stated in the International Report of the Trade Union Movement that a new national centre of unions had been formed with trade unions affiliated to it, having a membership of 26,227, while the old centre still continued with a membership of 5000. The Diamond Workers' Federation, with a membership of over 8000, was affiliated with the new national centre. The total number of members of trade unions at the end of 1906 is given as 128,845, 33.125 °f these belonging to Christian organiza- tions, while 95,720 belonged to other organizations. Belgium. — The status of trade unions in Belgium is regulated by the law of 1898, under which they can be incorporated, provided that their objects are non-political and are confined to the further- ance of the interests of particular trades. Belgian trade unions, nevertheless, are mostly political in character, the majority being connected either with the Socialist-Labour, Catholic or Liberal parties. The membership of the Socialist-Labour group of unions in 1905 was 94,151, of the Catholic unions 17,814, of the free trade unions 34,833 and of the Liberal unions 1685, making a grand total of 148,483. Of the 94,000 members of the Socialist-Labour unions, 60,000 are employed in mining, 11,500 in the textile industry and 7800 in the metal industry. Of the 17,800 in the Catholic trade unions, 5300 are in the textile trades, and 3200 in the building trades. Of the 35,000 in the free trade unions, 1 1,000 are in the textile industry, 6000 in the glass industry, 3600 in the applied art trades and 3300 in the printing and bookbinding trades. Several organizations, e.g. the diamond workers, the printers' federation of Brussels, &c., are affiliated with the trade union com- mittee without, however, joining the political organization. The Catholic and Liberal associations also do not affiliate with the other organizations. British Dominions and Colonies. — Trade unionism has only developed to any considerable extent in a few of the industrial centres of the self-governing dominions. A great number of the unions in Canada are branches of organizations having their head- quarters in the United States or in England. In July 1907 the Canadian Labour Gazette stated that of the 1593 local trade unions known to be in existence, 1346 were affiliated with central organizations of an international character. Besides these 1593 local trade unions, there were 8 congresses and national associa- tions of labour, 49 trade and labour councils and 31 federations of trade unions known to be in existence. Between 1876 and 1890 all the principal Australian states passed statutes more or less resembling the Trade Union Acts of the United Kingdom. A similar law was passed in New Zealand in 1878, but in this dominion and in some of the Australian states trade unions can now become incorporated and acquire a special legal status by registration as industrial unions under the laws relating to industrial conciliation and arbitration. In New Zealand there were, in 1906, 261 unions of workers with a member- ship of 29,869 and 133 unions of employers with a membership of 3276. In the years immediately preceding 1890 certain Australian unions, especially among the shearers and the seamen and wharf labourers, acquired great strength, and their determined attempts to secure a monopoly of employment for members of their organizations led to prolonged labour disputes in 1890 and 1891 (see STRIKES AND LocK-Ouxs), which resulted in the defeat of the unions and a consequent diminution of their membership and influence. More recently the unions have revived. They are encouraged by the laws relating to arbitration and concilia- tion, which (inter alia) permit preference for employment to be awarded to members of trade unions in certain circumstances. AUTHORITIES. — For statistics of recent progress of trade unions, see reports on trade unions published by the board of trade (from 1887 onwards). Much information respecting trade unions is contained in the reports of the royal commission on trade unions (1867) and of the royal commission on labour (1891-1894). See also report of royal commission on trade disputes and trade combinations (1903—1906). The reports of the chief registrar of friendly societies give information with regard to trade unions registered under the Trade Union Acts. On the history and con- stitution of trade unions the fullest information is given in Webb's History of Trade Unionism and Industrial Democracy, both of which contain valuable bibliographical appendices which may be consulted as regards other sources of information respecting British trade unions. On trade unions abroad (besides the reports on for.eign countries and the colonies of the royal commission on labour), see Kulemann's Die Cewerkschaftsbewegung (Jena, 1900), dealing with trade unions in all countries, and the board of trade " Abstract of Foreign Labour Statistics " and Labour Gazette, both of which give numerous references to the foreign official sources of information on trade unions, together with a summary of the statistics which they contain. III. — ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF TRADE UNIONISM There is no general consensus of opinion as to the extent to which trade unions can attain success in achieving the objects which they set before themselves, or as to how far their action is beneficial or otherwise to the general community. One of the principal objects of trade unions being to maintain and increase the rates of wages paid to their members, the first question would be practically solved if statistical evidence were available to connect the course of wages with the action of combinations. Such evidence, however, is inconclusive. The period of growth of trade unionism in Great Britain has certainly been on the whole a period of rising wages. But many other causes tending to raise wages have been operative over the same period, and some of the facts might be explained as much by the tendency of rising wages to strengthen combinations as by that of combinations to raise wages. Again, the observed fact that the rise has not been confined to industries in which organizations are strong might be explained either by the supposition that the rise brought about by trade unions has benefited a wider circle than their membership, or that the rise both within and outside the ranks of trade unions is due to causes other than their action. Perhaps the strongest statistical evidence of the power of trade unions to affect wages in particular districts is afforded by the local differences of wages in the same trade, which, it is contended, cannot be wholly explained by local differences of cost of living or industrial conditions, but which often correspond closely to differences of strength of trade union organization. This argument, however, does not touch the question of the effect of combination on the general level of wages. Hardly more conclusive than the reasoning founded on statistics have been the attempts to solve the question by pure economic theory. During the prevalence of the old view of wages known as the " wage-fund " theory, combinations were usually held to be powerless to affect the general rate of wages, because they could not alter the proportion between capital and popula- tion, on which wages were thought to depend. The question however, was reopened by the change in theory which led econo- mists to regard wages as depending primarily on the productivity of industry, and secondarily (and within comparatively narrow limits) on the relative power of bargaining as between the labourers or groups of labourers and the organizers of labour. According to this view, the effect of combinations on the rate of wages will ultimately depend, so far as the first and most important factor in the problem is concerned, on their effect on the general pro- ductiveness of industry. Prima facie, we might expect that trade unionism would, on the whole, restrict productiveness, and this ECONOMIC EFFECTS] TRADE UNIONS 149 is undoubtedly a view widely held among employers. Strictly professional associations tend generally to become conservative so far as methods of work are concerned; and even trade unions which may not " officially " oppose the introduction of new pro- cesses and the use of machinery may nevertheless serve to focus and make effective the hostility felt by the artisan towards methods of business organization which seem to him likely to decrease the demand for his services or to alter the conditions of work to his detriment. In some trades also trade unions are charged with encouraging or permitting their members to restrict the amount of work performed by them in a given time, with the short-sighted object of making more work for others. Many unions have attempted also with varying degrees of success to keep up the value of their labour by creating an artificial scarcity by restricting the numbers entering the trade, and have in various ways sought to control the management of business to a degree which must restrict the freedom of experiment on which the attainment of the maximum productiveness of industry must depend. By the resort to strikes — an essentially wasteful method of settling differences with employers — they have also to some extent restricted production, though the loss directly due to this cause is often exaggerated (see STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS). Moreover, by their insistence on the payment to all workmen of a fixed " minimum " wage they have diminished the field for the profitable employment of the old and less capable, and may to some extent have discouraged the expert workman from earning and receiving the full reward of his extra ability. On the other hand, it is claimed that trade unions have in many cases acted in the interests of industrial peace by restrain- ing their members from ill-considered strikes, and that, by provid- ing a recognized channel through which the workmen's grievances may find expression, they have often assisted in adjusting differences which would otherwise have led to the interruption of production. In particular they have frequently formed a convenient basis on which to build a system of conciliation or arbitration boards by which strikes are prevented (see ARBITRA- TION). It is also claimed that by protecting the " standard of life" of their members through the policy of securing a " minimum " rate of wages, trade unions may tend in the long run to build up a physically and industrially superior class of workmen, and thus ultimately increase the efficiency of industry. The comparative weight of the above considerations differs according to the point of view from which the question is regarded. At any given time an individual employer may tend to feel most strongly the disadvantages of the restrictions under which he is placed by the action of a particular trade union, and may attach but little importance to the general effects, in the long run, on the national output of the pressure which such combinations exercise — which from the point of view of the general well-being of the community is by far the most important consideration. Generally speaking, any action of trade unions tending to diminish the efficiency and industry of the individual workman is as injurious to the com- munity as to the individual employer, except in so far as such restriction may conceivably affect the health of the working community from over-strain. But the policy of " levelling up " the standard rate of wages, which may mean loss or ruin to a particular employer, may nevertheless act quite otherwise with respect to the national well-being, in so far as it tends to eliminate the " unfit" employer and to concentrate the industry in the hands of the more capable and more enterprising of the employ- ing class, and in the localities most suited for the purpose. The pressure of rising wages has undoubtedly acted as a stimulus to the invention of labour-saving devices and the adoption of economical methods, as is shown in America, where the highest wages are often seen concurrently with the lowest labour cost. Advocates of trade unionism sometimes lay much stress on this aspect of their operation. On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that competition, both as between different grades of employing ability and of local advantages, is now international, and that the concentration of an industry in the most suitable localities and in the hands of the most capable organizers, which is claimed as a beneficial result of trade union action, may for any particular country mean the transference of the industry abroad; and this transference, especially in the case of indus- tries dependent on export to neutral markets, may involve a considerable national loss. Apart from the effect of trade unions on the total amount of the " national dividend," their supporters claim that they are able to alter the mode of distribution of this dividend. It is not usually claimed that they are able to affect the proportion of the total product which is paid as rent or interest for the use of the instruments of production, but that they can alter the pro- portions in which the residue is shared between the organizers of labour and the manual labouring class, to the advantage of the latter. The methods by which trade unions seek to achieve this result require separate examination. The first group of methods are those which aim at creating a scarcity of some particular kind of labour so as to alter the relation of demand and supply. The particular methods em- ployed for this purpose have been already sufficiently described. \\ ith regard to all of them it may be remarked that they are ineffective as regards the raising of the general rate of wages throughout the country (i.e. the average income per head of the manual labour classes), seeing that an artificial scarcity of one sort of labour implies a redundancy of some other kind. As regards the rate of wages in particular occupations there is no doubt but that at least for a time such methods may cause a considerable rise of wages, only limited at first by the imperfec- tion of the control exercised by the union over the number com- peting in the labour market and by the extent to which the rise in the cost of production so caused is checked by the competition of goods imported from abroad, or of alternative commodities, or by the loss of foreign markets, or the diminution of home demand. But as time goes on other forces of a more subtle kind tend to come into play which further limit the power of the combination to keep up wages through restricting the supply of labour. Besides the substitution of alternative com- modities, alternative processes of production may be invented, diminishing the demand for the services of the members of the exclusive trade union, while the artificial rise of wages is also likely to attract labour into the trade. Generally speaking, it may be said that while the artificial restriction of the supply of workmen in a trade may raise wages for a time, it calls into play forces tending to restore the equili- brium of demand and supply by diminishing demand, and that these forces grow progressively stronger as time goes on, while the restrictive capacity of the combination usually tends to diminish. This is apart from the fact that restriction of the supply of labour entering a trade almost always involves the narrowing of the field of ability from which the trade can be recruited, and thus a lowering of the general standard of efficiency. The other group of trade union methods which requires exami- nation is that which aims at strengthening the economic position of the labourer by substituting collective for individual negotia- tions as regards wages, supported by a common reserve fund out of which the labourer may be maintained while waiting for his terms to be accepted. Undoubtedly these methods of mutual insurance and collective bargaining afford a powerful instrument for preventing " sweating " and for enabling the whole body of workmen to exact at the earliest moment and retain to the latest moment the full amount of the wages which a given state of trade and prices will enable the industry to support. The establish- ment of general working rules and standards of time or piece wages throughout a trade or district may also serve to protect the better and more capable employers against their more inefficient or unscrupulous competitors, and thus tend towards the survival of the " fittest" among the employing class. It is always to be remembered that the effect of collective bargaining is not in the long run one-sided. Combinations of workmen beget counter- combinations of employers, and the conditions of important industries tend to be settled more and more by " treaties " con- cluded between powerful bodies of employers and employed. TRADE UNIONS [UNITED STATES Were the combinations on both sides which enter into these agreements conterminous with the entire trades which they represent, and especially if the trades were protected from foreign competition, the interests of the general unorganized mass of consumers might conceivably suffer from these agreements. As regards the future prospects of trade unions in Great Britain it is difficult to prophesy. The hopes of those who look for a universal expansion of these organizations so as to include the whole or the majority of the members of the manual-labour classes are probably extravagant. Not less chimerical is the expectation of the opponents of trade unions that a few defeats at the hands of determined employers or employers' organizations will permanently cripple them and lead to their decay and extinc- tion. Probably for many years trade unions will include, as now, in their membership a powerful minority of the working classes, wielding an influence out of all proportion to their actual numbers. It is to be expected that experience and the spread of education may cause them gradually to abandon the rules and methods which interfere most with the economical application of labour and capital to industry. Lastly, it may be pointed out that trade unionism has been the result of the growth of a class of manual workmen working for wages for employers who provide the materials and instru- ments of industry, and into whose ranks it is relatively difficult for the average workman to rise. It remains to be proved whether the class feeling which enables powerful trade unions to flourish can permanently be fostered and maintained except among workmen who expect to remain workmen most of their lives. If these conditions should be materially altered, trade unionism in its present form must decay or undergo a profound alteration. (X.) IV. — UNITED STATES Trade unions in the United States are best treated from the broad standpoint of labour organizations generally, i.e. associa- tions of wage-earners having for their general purpose the improvement of their members, either through a lessened working day, increased wages, or more satisfactory rules and conditions of employment. They may or may not admit employers, but as a rule they do not admit them. Sometimes they are formed for a specific purpose, like the Eight-Hours League, but generally they have platforms comprehending all the demands which labour Labour usually makes. Labour organizations in the United Organiza- States cannot be given a definite birthday. Prior to float. jg2^ there were very few of them. In colonial days we have hints of their existence, but their purpose was partly political, and their membership often consisted of politicians. The purpose of the Caulkers' Club, in the early days of Massa- chusetts, was " to lay plans for introducing certain persons into places of trust and power." Tradition has it that the word " caucus " was derived from this club. It is also said that Samuel Adams's father, as early as 1724, was active in the club's work. There was probably a union of journeymen bakers in the city of New York in 1741 and of shoemakers in Philadelphia in 1792. The shipwrights of New York City were incorporated on the 3rd of April 1803, and the tailors and carpenters of that city were organized in 1806. The New York Typographical Society was in existence in 1817, and was probably organized in the early years of the igth century. Peter Force was its president for a time, and Thurlow Weed was a member. A strike occurred in Mr Weed's office in 1821 on account of the employment of a non-union man, who was then designated a " rat." In 1823 was organized the Columbian Charitable Society of Shipwrights and Caulkers of Boston and Charlestown. The period from 1825 to 1860 may be called the formative period. About 1825, and for some years afterwards, there was a general discussion of socialistic theories, growing out Robert Owen's experiments at New Lanark, in Scotland, and out of his communistic attempt at New Harmony, Indiana, in 1825. The wave of philosophic transcen- dentalism also, which swept over the country between 1825 and 1840, affected not only social but industrial life. Labour papers began to be established. The Working Man's Advocate, published VB in New York City in 1825, was probably the very first American labour journal. Soon afterwards there appeared the Daily Sentinel and Young America, projected by two Englishmen, George Henry Evans and Frederick W. Evans. The chief demands advocated by these journals were the freedom of public lands, the breaking up of monopolies, the adoption of a general bankruptcy law, a lien for the labourer upon his work for his wages, the abolition of imprisonment for debt, equal rights for women with men, and the abolition of chattel and wage slavery. These demands were endorsed by over 600 newspapers. In 1830 a Working-man's Convention was held in Syracuse, New York, the outcome of which was the nomination of Ezekiel Williams for governor. In 1832 a delegated convention which met in the state house at Boston initiated the lo-hours movement. The Tribune (New York), under the leadership of Horace Greeley, was opened to the advocacy of Fourierism, and so on all hands the movement towards organization was helped. In 1845 the New England Working Man's Association was organized, and such men as Charles A. Dana, George Ripley, Albert Brisbane, Wendell Phillips, William Lloyd Garrison, Theodore Parker, and others participated in its meetings. The first industrial congress of the United States was convened in the city of New York on the 1 2th of October 1845, but little came of it. Other and more important labour congresses were held in that city and in Chicago in 1847 and 1850 respectively. During the latter part of the formative period, that is, from 1825 to 1860, most of the great national trade unions that are now influential were projected and organ- ized, though their great and rapid growth has been since the Civil War. The National Typographical Union was organized in 1852, its name being changed to International in 1862 in order to admit Canadian members; the National Union of Hat Finishers in 1854; the Iron Moulders' Union of North America on the sth of July 1859; and in the same year the Machinists' and Blacksmiths' Union of North America. By 1860 the national unions already formed numbered 26. During the next few years, among other important organiza- tions, were instituted what are known as the group of railway brotherhoods, the oldest and largest of which is the Railway International Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers. Brother- The grand division was founded at Detroit, Michigan, hoods. on the 1 7th of August 1863, under the name of the Brotherhood of the Footboard. The society was reorganized under its present title at Indianapolis, Ind. , on thei7th of August 1864. Thesecond national association of railway employes that was organized was the Conductors' Brotherhood, formed at Mendota, Illinois, on the 6th of July 1868, by the conductors from various railways in the United States. This brotherhood was recognized, and a general governing board established, on the i5th of December of the same year. Ten years later the name of the organization was changed from the Conductors' Brotherhood to the Order of Railroad Conductors of America. The Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen was organized at Port Jervis, N.Y., on the ist of December 1873. The Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen was organized at Oneonta, N.Y., on the 23rd of September 1883. It was called the Brotherhood of Railroad Brakemen until the ist of January 1890, when the present name was adopted. The Brotherhood of Railroad Trackmen is one of the younger and smaller organizations. The first efforts to found it were made in the spring of 1887, but its permanent organization took place a year later. The Brotherhood o/ Railroad Carmen of America was founded on the gth of September 1890, by the consolidation of the Carmen's Mutual Aid Association, the Brotherhood of Railroad Car Repairers, the Car Inspectors, Repairers and Oilers' Protective Association and the Brotherhood of Railroad Carmen of Canada. The Switchmen's Union of North America is the outgrowth of the Switchmen's Mutual Aid Association, the present organization dating from 1897. Several of these railway brotherhoods suffered materially in their membership and influence through the organization of the American Railway Union in 1893. The Cigar-Makers' National Union dates from 1864, the Bricklayers' and Masons' International Union from the I7th of UNITED STATES] TRADE UNIONS October 1865, the United States Wool Hat Finishers' Association from 1869 and the National Union of Horseshoers of the United States from 1875. The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers resulted, as its name signifies, from the consolida- tion of various other orders and societies, the present order being organized at Pittsburg in August 1876. The consolidated societies were known previously to the new order unions' of things as the United Sons of Vulcan, the Associated Brotherhood of Iron and Steel Heaters, Rollers and Roughers of the United States, and the Iron and Steel Roll Hands' Union. The oldest was the United Sons of Vulcan, originating in Pittsburg on the 1 7th of April 1858, and afterwards called the Iron City Forge. The organization is now known as the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers. The Granite Cutters' National Union was organized in 1877, the Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners in 1881 and the Journey- men Bakers' National Union in 1886. There have also been attempts to organize labour on a general or universal plan. The first of these was the Inter- national Association of Working-men, known as the " Inter- national," which was organized in London in the autumn of 1864. This society sought to associate working-men wherever manufacturing has been extended. The International grew for a while, but never at any time had a member- rhe later- snjp exceeciing 100,000 and probably never over 50,000. It did not extend to the United States with much force; certainly no large number of the working-men of the country were involved in it, and branches were not organized in the union until 1870 or 1871. The second attempt was the Noble Order of Knights of Labour of America, which was founded in Philadelphia on Thanks- giving Day 1860,- through the efforts of Uriah S. lLabouf°t Stephens and six associates, all garment-cutters. For several years the garment-cutters of Philadelphia had been organized as a trade union, but failed to maintain satisfactory rates of wages. Dissatisfaction prevailed, and resulted in the autumn of 1869 in the disbandment of the union. Stephens, who was a far-seeing man, and anticipated the dis- ruption of his union, had prepared the outlines of a plan for an organization embracing, as he said, " all branches of honourable toil." He advocated education, co-operation and an intelligent use of the ballot as the proper means for gradually abolishing the present wage-system. The order had a varied career. Mr Stephens, himself a Mason, brought into the ritual of the new order many of the features of speculative Masonry. The obligations were in the nature of oaths, taken with much solemnity upon the Bible, and the members were sworn to the strictest secrecy. The order was known for a long time as " Five Stars," that designation being used in printing and writing. Many expressions taken from Greek literature were introduced into the ceremonies. The instructions given to every person admitted into the order are perhaps the best exponent of the nature of the ritual : — • Labour is noble and holy. To defend it from degradation; to divest it of the evils to body, mind and estate which ignorance and greed have imposed ; to rescue the toiler from the grasp of the selfish — is a work worthy of the noblest and best of our race. In all the multifarious branches of trade capital has its combinations; and, whether intended or not, they crush the manly hopes of labour and trample poor humanity in the dust. We mean no conflict with legitimate enterprise, no antagonism to necessary capital, but men, in their haste and greed, blinded by self-interests, overlook the interests of others and sometimes violate the rights of those they deem helpless. We mean to uphold the dignity of labour, to affirm the nobility of all who earn their bread by the sweat of their brows. We mean to create a healthy public opinion on the subject of labour (the only creator of values), and the justice of its receiving a full, just share of the values or capital it has created. We shall, with all our strength, support laws made to harmonize the interests of labour and capital, and also those laws which tend to lighten the exhaustivcness of toil. To pause in his toil, to devote to his own interests [sic], to gather a knowledge of the world's commerce, to unite, combine and co-operate in the great army of peace and industry, to nourish and cherish, build and develop, the temple he lives in, is the highest and noblest duty of man to himself, to his fellow men and to his Creator. The ritual was neither printed nor written, and in all probability there is not now in existence a copy of it. So long as the utmost secrecy was retained the order did not grow rapidly; gradually it lost its secrecy and worked on more general plans. From the best evidence that can be secured it is probable that the first local assembly of the Knights of Labour was organized as early as 1873 in Philadelphia. Attempts at outside organiza- tion had been unsuccessful. The second assembly consisted of ship carpenters and caulkers employed in Cramp's shipyard. After this the order spread quite rapidly, 20 assemblies being organized in Philadelphia during 1873. A district assembly, consisting of delegates from local assemblies in Philadelphia, met in that city on Christmas Day 1873 and organized District Assembly No. i. The order increased during the years follow- ing this action, and in 1877 delegates were chosen to organize a general assembly. These delegates met at Reading, Pennsylvania, on the ist of January 1878, and organized the first general assembly, Mr Stephens, t.he founder, presiding as temporary chairman. Seven states were represented. General assemblies have been held each year since that time, and changes in the constitution or work of the order have been the subject of warm discussion. At the meeting of the first general assembly the membership must have been small, probably only a few thousand. It did not reach 50,000 till five years later. The general assembly of 1880, at Pittsburg, denounced strikes as injurious and not worthy of support except in extreme cases. At the fifth session, at Detroit, in 1881, the most important actions in the history of the order were taken, and from this session the rapid growth of the order may be dated. The assembly then declared that on and after the ist of January 1882 the name and objects of the order should be made public. It also declared that women should be admitted upon an equal footing with men, and a strong committee was appointed to revise the constitution and the ritual. At the next general assembly, September 1882, in New York, the revised constitu- tion was adopted, as well as laws and regulations for support- ing strikes. After this the order began to grow rapidly. It antagonized the trade unions, the contention being that the order embraced higher and grander principles than those underlying the organization of the former. The trade unions in existence at that time struggled to preserve their organiza- tions against what they considered the encroachment of the Knights of Labour. The high-water mark of the order was probably during 1883, 1884, 1885 and 1886, when, accord- ing to the very best information, it numbered not less than 1,000,000 members. In 1900 its membership was estimated at about 130,000. The order of the Knights of Labour is based on the federal plan, and has a hierarchy of assemblies — the local assembly, the district assembly, the state and the general assembly. The .. • . officers of the local assembly consist of a master ,f^' workman, worthy foreman, venerable sage, recording secretary, financial secretary, treasurer, worthy inspector, almoner, statistician and some minor officers. These are elected semi-annually by ballot or by acclamation. The district assembly is composed of duly accredited delegates from at least five local assemblies, and is the highest tribunal of the Knights of Labour within its jurisdiction under the general laws of the order. It has the power to levy assessments for its maintenance upon all locals, and has also the power to establish locals in the territory governed by it. The officers and their duties are similar to those of the local assembly, except that the master workman is called the district master workman. The constitution of the general assembly is a very imposing document, containing twenty articles. The assembly consists of representatives chosen by the district assemblies, and has full and final jurisdiction, being the highest tribunal of the order. It alone possesses the power and authority to make, amend or repeal the fundamental and general laws of the order, to decide finally all controversies arising, and to issue charters to state, district and local assemblies. The officers are elected at each annual session, and their titles correspond almost completely with those of the local and district assemblies, with the exception that the word " general " takes the place of " dis- trict," as " general master workman," &c. The general master workmen have been Uriah S. Stephens (the founder of the order), Terence V. Powderly, James R. Sovereign, John N. Parsons and Henry A. Hicks. The order has a publication known as the Journal of the Knights of Labour, published at Washington, D.C. 152 TRADE UNIONS [UNITED STATES The third attempt to bring into one order men employed in different vocations was the American Railway Union, American organized in Chicago on the zoth of June 1893. Railway It included all railway employes born of white Union. parents. It was organized for the protection of members in all matters relating to wages and their rights as employes, and affirmed that such employes were entitled to a voice in fixing wages and in determining conditions of employ- ment. The union won a great victory on the North-Western railway in April 1894, but its action in the great strikes in Chicago in 1894 cost it its life. Its membership reached at one time 150,000. The separate unions found that the co-operation of other unions was needed to perfect and extend their work, and attempts were made from time to time to organize a of Labour federated body. The initial steps were taken in 1866, when the trades assemblies of New York City and Baltimore called a national labour congress, the 100 delegates sent by 60 secret and open organizations from different trade unions meeting on the aoth of August. In 1867 a second con- vention was called to meet in Chicago, the aim being to form a Trades Union Congress like that existing in Great Britain. The National Labour Union held two conventions in 1868, the first in May and the other in September; it met again in Chicago in 1869, in Boston in 1870, in Philadelphia in 1871 and in Columbus, Ohio, in 1872. This closed the experience of the National Labour Union. During 1873, owing to the industrial depression, many of the trade unions were suspended. An industrial congress met in Rochester, N.Y., in April 1874, consisting of some of the leading trade unionists of the United States, and on the I4th of that month a convention was held representing the Sovereigns of Industry. The expectation was that the old National Labour Union should be taken up. The Industrial Brotherhood of the United States, another secret order, partaking largely of the character of the Knights of Labour, was represented in that convention. As might have been expected, the two ideas — that on which the Knights of Labour was organized and the trade union idea — immediately became antagonistic, yet a platform containing most of the principles of the Knights of Labour was adopted. The movement ended with the Rochester meeting. The years 1875 and 1876 saw other attempts; but they were chiefly political in their character and the temporary orders then organized were disbanded. Be- tween 1876 and 1881 other attempts were made at federation. A call issued jointly by the Knights of Industry and a body known as the Amalgamated Labour Union, consisting of some dissatisfied members of the Knights of Labour, resulted in a convention held at Terre Haute, Ind., on the 2nd of August 1881. The chief purpose was to supplant the Knights of Labour by the creation of a new secret order. The membership of the convention, however, had trade union proclivities and did not believe in multiplying labour societies. The secret organization was not effected. Another convention was held in Pittsburg, on the igth of November 1881, as the result of the following statement : — We have numberless trades unions, trades assemblies or councils, Knights of Labour, and various other local, national and international labour unions, all engaged in the noble task of elevat- ing and improving the condition of the working classes. But great as has been the work done by these bodies, there is vastly more that can be done by a combination of all these organizations in a federa- tion of trades and labour unions. It is claimed that the 107 delegates represented 262,000 workmen. Their deliberations resulted in the Federation of Organized Trades and Labour Unions of the United States and Canada. Its platform differed but very little from that of the Knights of Labour, although it was in some respects more comprehensive. It demanded eight hours as a day's work; called for national and state incorporation of trade unions; favoured obligatory education of all children, and the prohibition of their employ- ment under the age of fourteen; favoured the enactment of uniform apprentice laws; opposed bitterly all contract convict labour and the truck system for payment of wages; demanded laws giving to working men a first lien on property upon which their labour had been expended; insisted upon the abrogation of all so-called conspiracy laws; advocated the establishment of a national bureau of labour statistics; urged the prohibition of the importation of foreign labour; opposed government contracts on public work; fay cured the adoption by states of an employers' liability act; and urged all other labour bodies to vote only for labour legislators. The second convention was held at Cleveland, O., on the 2ist of November 1882. The American Federation of Labour is the largest labour organization in the United States. It was organized at Columbus, O., on the 8th of December 1886, under the name it now bears. In 1888 it was declared that it owed its existence to the Federa- tion of Organized Trades. &c., founded in i8Si at Pittsburg, and that the American Federation meetings or conventions should date from that year; hence it is generally stated that the Federation was founded in 1881. From the start in 1881 the Federation had a constitution, but it revised it at the convention held in Baltimore on the i6th of December 1887, under the name of the American Federation of Labour. The order is not secret, nor do individual members, through local trades unions or otherwise, owe any allegiance to it. Its object is the encourage- ment and formation of local trades and labour unions and the closer federation of such societies through the organization of central trades and labour unions in every state, and the combination of such bodies into state, territorial or provincial organizations for the purpose of securing general harmony not only in the interests of the working masses, but of legislation. While it is a federation, it cannot be called a federal body, like the Knights of Labour, although there are local trade unions, trade assemblies in cities and state federations; nevertheless, there is not the hierarchical character of the other body. Most of the trade unions in the United States are affiliated with the American Federation. The great railway brotherhoods are not so affiliated, except the Amalgamated Association of Rail- road Employes of America, the Order of Railroad Telegraphers and the Brotherhood of Railroad Trackmen. The federation has affiliated with it 117 international unions, 37 state federations, 574 city central bodies and 661 local trade and federal labour unions. The international unions are made up of approximately 28,500 local unions. The average membership on which dues have been paid was 264,825 in 1897, and ten years later the number was 1,538,970. The chief officers of the federation are a president, first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth vice-presidents, treasurer and secretary. Samuel Gpmpers of New York was the first president, holding that position till 1894, when he was defeated through the endeavours of the Socialist Labour Party, and John M'Bride elected. At the next session, however, he was re-elected. The numerical strength of the American Federation of Labour is probably not far from 1,600,000. It maintains a journal called the A merican Federalionist, published at Washington, D.C. The doctrine of the federation relative to strikes is that each affiliated society has its own government, distinct from the government of the national con- vention, which has no power to order strikes, such matters being left to the affiliated societies, but is advisory and not conclusive in its action. Unions are often organized for temporary purposes, their existence ceasing as soon as the purposes succeed or fail. The total number of members of all kinds of labour , j m Estimated organizations cannot be stated. There are many strength. local societies and associations other than those belonging to the Knights of Labour or those affiliated with the American Federation of Labour, but which are distinctly labour bodies. According to the best possible classification there are 20,000,000 wage-earners in the United States, including men, women and children. The most liberal estimate of the membership of all labour organizations places the total at 2,000,000. This would be about 10% of the whole body of wage- workers; but in some occupations, like that of the printing trade, the organization probably includes from 75 to 90%. The law relating to trade unions varies somewhat in the different states. Both the federal legislature and several of the states (Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Maryland, Iowa, Kansas and Louisiana) have passed laws permitting the incorporation of unions. Michigan, Wyoming TRADE WINDS— TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF 153 and Nebraska have specially provided for incorporating assem- blies of the Knights of Labour. Hardly any advantage, however, has been taken of these statutes. Some states have passed laws excepting trade unions from restrictions on combinations and conspiracies imposed by other statutes or the common law (e.g. New York), and especially from the operation of anti-trust laws (Michigan, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Montana, North Carolina and Texas). The Texas law, however, has been held uncon- stitutional. A number of states have passed laws, some of doubtful validity, prohibiting employers from making it a condition of employment that labourers should not belong to a union. Most states have adopted statutes legalizing union labels to indicate the products of members of trade unions. By act of Congress, associations of the nature of labour organizations, having branches in several states or territories, may, on filing articles of association for record in Washington, become corporations. American legislation generally is friendly to trade unions. Their purposes are regarded as lawful by the courts, but if they use unlawful means for their accomplish- ments, a remedy will be applied. Injury to property, intimida- tion by threats, personal violence, or boycotts enforced by terrorism, are such unlawful means. The liberty of action thus secured to organizations of labour is equally the right of the employer. Therefore, a statute making it an offence for one to require those whom he employs to withdraw from a trade union is unconstitutional and void (see Reports of American Bar Association, xxi. 367, 372). The courts recognize that membership in trade unions is a species of property, of which no one can be deprived except through a formal procedure in conformity with the rules of the organization. Some of the States, notably New York, have a statute pro- hibiting trade unions from making any discrimination in con- nexion with their admission requirements on account of membership in the state militia or national guard. AUTHORITIES. — Ely, The Labour Movement in America (New York, N.Y., 1886); M'Neill, The Labour Movement (Boston, Mass., 1887); Powderly, Thirty Years of Labour (Columbus, O., 1889); Simonds, The Story of Manual Labour in all Lands and Ages (Chicago, 1886) ; Bliss, The New Encyclopaedia o/ Social Reform (New York, 1908) ; Aldrich, "The American Federation of Labour," Economic Studies (August 1898); Wright, Industrial Evolution of the United States (Meadville, Pa., 1895); "Historical Sketch of the Knights of Labour," Quart. Journ. of Economics (January 1887); " The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, ' Quart. Journ. of Economics (July 1893 and November 1901); J. R. Commons, Trade Unionism and Labor Problems; Hollander and Barnett, Studies in American Trade Unionism; Barnett, A Trial Bibliography of American Trade Union Publications. (C. D. W.) TRADE WINDS, the name given to the winds which blow from the tropical belts of high pressure towards the equatorial belt of low pressure, from the north-east in the northern hemi- sphere and from the south-east in the southern. They are exceedingly regular, especially over the oceans, where there is no disturbing influence from the great land masses. They receive their name from this feature, the term " trade " being used in the otherwise obsolete sense of " direction " or " course " (cf. " tread ")• The area of their greatest influence may be taken to extend from about 3° to 35° N., and from the equator to 28° S., though these belts are actually somewhat narrower at any given season, as the whole system of surface winds over the globe moves north and south following the sun. The westerly winds prevalent in the belts respectively north of the northern tropical belt of high pressure, and south of the southern, are sometimes known as anti-trades, their direction being opposite to that of the trade winds. TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF. The British victory over the French off Cape Trafalgar, fought on the 2ist of October 1805, was a sequel of the breakdown of Napoleon's great scheme for the invasion of the British Isles (See NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS: Naval). When Villeneuve gave up in despair the attempt to enter the Channel, he steered for Cadiz, and anchored in that port on the 2Oth of August 1805. He found three British ships of the line, under the command of Vice-Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood, on the watch. Collingwood, resolved that the allies should not drive him through the Straits of Gibraltar without being compelled to follow, retired slowly, and at a short distance ahead of the ships sent to pursue him. They, not being willing to be drawn into the Mediterranean, gave up the pursuit. The British officer then resumed his watch off Cadiz. On the 22nd of August he was joined by Rear- Admiral Sir Richard Bickerton with four ships of the line, and on the 3oth by Vice-Admiral Sir Robert Calder with 18. The allied fleet, consisting of 29 sail of the line which had come with Villeneuve, and five already at Cadiz, 34 in all, remained quiescent. The use to be made of it, or the measures to be taken for its destruction, were matters of urgent consideration to Napoleon and to the British government. On the I4th of September Napoleon gave orders that the French and Spanish ships at Cadiz should put to sea at the first favourable opportunity, join seven Spanish ships of the line then at Cartagena, go to Naples, and land the soldiers they carried to reinforce his troops then in that king- dom, and should fight a decisive action if they met a British fleet of inferior numbers. Two Spanish ships of the line were to be counted as equal to one French. Their final destination was to be Toulon. On the isth he decided that Villeneuve, whose " excessive pusillanimity " rendered him incapable of vigorous action, must be replaced by Admiral Rosily. Rosily received his orders on the i7th and left for Cadiz. The British government, determined to confine the allies to Cadiz, or beat them if they came out, sent Nelson to take command and prepared to despatch reinforcements. Nelson left Portsmouth on the isth of September, and reached Cadiz on the 28th, bringing three ships of the line with him. He gave orders that no salute should be fired for him lest the enemy should learn that reinforcements had arrived. The bulk of the fleet— 23 sail — was kept well out at sea, and five ships of the line under Rear-Admiral Louis were appointed to cruise close to Cadiz as an inshore squadron. On the 5th of October Louis was sent to Gibraltar to renew his provisions and water, and the watch was left to two frigates. Between the 7th and the I3th of October Nelson was joined by six ships of the line, making a total of 34. But Admiral Calder, having been summoned home to stand a court-martial, took his flagship with him on the I4th, and on the 1 7th another line-of-battle ship had to be detached to renew her stores. As Admiral Louis could not return before the battle of the 2ist, Nelson had at his disposal 27 ships of the line in all. Napoleon's order of the i4th of September reached Villeneuve on the 28th. He learnt also that Rosily was coming, but not that he himself was to be superseded. On the sth of October he held a council of war of French and Spanish officers. They decided that the condition of their ships did not justify them in hoping for victory over the British fleet, but Napoleon's orders were peremptory, and they agreed that a sortie must be made. Easterly winds were needed to facilitate the sailing of a large and awkward fleet from Cadiz, and till the i4th the wind was hard from the west. Even when it fell the allies lingered. On the i8th of October Villeneuve heard that Rosily had reached Madrid, and of his own supersession. Stung by the prospect of being disgraced before the fleet, he resolved to go to sea before his successor could reach Cadiz. The allies, aided by a light land breeze which blew from the east, though the wind at sea was westerly, began to leave Cadiz Bay on the igth. Their movements were at once known to the British look-out frigates, and were transmitted by signal to Nelson, who was cruising some thirty miles to the west. During the period of blockade he had instructed his captains as to how he meant to fight the approaching battle. The memorandum in which his instructions were embodied was dated the pth of October. It was drawn up in view of the circumstances which did not arise — that the enemy would come to sea with a strong easterly wind which would give him the weather gage; that he might be reinforced to a strength of over 50 ships of the line from Brest, Rochefort and Cartagena; that the British fleet might be raised by reinforcements to 40 ships. But the governing principles of the memorandum were independent of such details. They were that the order of sailing in which the TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF fleet was when the enemy was seen was to be the order of battle; that no time was to be wasted in forming a precise line; that the attack was to be made in two bodies, of which one, to be led by the second in command, Collingwood, was to be thrown on the rear of the enemy, while the other, led by Nelson himself, was to take care that the centre and van should not come to the assistance of the ships cut off. Nelson was careful to point out that " Something must be left to chance. Nothing is sure in a sea fight beyond all others "; and he left his captains free from all hampering rules by telling them that " No captain can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside that of the enemy." In short the execution was to be as circumstances should dictate, subject to the guiding rule that the enemy's rear was to be cut off and a concentration of superior force on an inferior sought for. The uncertainties of naval warfare in the days of sailing ships were fully shown at Trafalgar. The allies, having left Cadiz on the 2oth of October, were 33 sail of the line strong, one of the fleet having been left behind. They sailed in five squadrons. Three were nearer the land than the other two. The leading squadron of the three was commanded by the Spanish admiral, Alava; Villeneuve followed; and the French admiral, Dumanoir, commanded the rear. The other two squadrons of six ships of the line each, commanded by the Spanish admiral, Gravina, and the French admiral, Magon, were parallel with, and outside of the three. All headed for the Straits of Gibraltar in the westerly breezes, which had become very light. The British fleet of 27 sail in two divisions also headed for the Mediterranean. During the night of the 2oth-2ist of October several movements were made to gain position, and there was an inevitable tendency to straggle among vessels which did not all sail equally well and were moving in light winds. On the early morning of the 2ist the allies were some twelve miles off Cape Trafalgar. The British fleet was some ten or twelve miles out at sea to the west of them. Seeing that a battle would now be forced on him, Villeneuve ordered his whole fleet to turn so as to bring their heads on Cadiz. He was painfully aware that the incomparably more expert British fleet would not be content to attack him in the old-fashioned way, coming down in a parallel line and engaging from van to rear. He knew that they would endeavour to concentrate on a part of his line. But Villeneuve was too conscious of the inexperience of his officers and men to think it possible to make counter movements with them. It has been said that the French and Spanish ships which had taken part in the late cruise to the West Indies and back must be considered as trained in the same sense as the British. But apart from the fact that these vessels formed little more than a half of the allied fleet, the comparison is childish. It could only have occurred to writers who, wishing to exalt the glory of Trafalgar, forget that the superior quality of the British fleet, the fruit of foresight, of good sense, and the strenuous work of a people, was itself the best of all claims to honour. A hasty cruise across the Atlantic and back was no equivalent for years of training. The blockades maintained by the British fleet had made it difficult for the allies to obtain stores and their ships were ill fitted. Their crews contained a minute proportion of men bred to the sea, and as they had to be taught the elements of seamanship on the few occasions when they got to sea, their gunnery was neglected. There was valour in the allied fleet, but there was neither skill nor confidence. Moreover the very light wind then blowing rendered manoeuvring all but im- possible for the most expert crews. Villeneuve could do nothing more than order his fleet to turn so as to bring the ships' heads on Cadiz, to form the line, and await the enemy's attack. He, however, left his captains free to act for the best when the battle had begun, by telling them that whoever was not under fire was not at his post. The movement of conversion ordered at 6 o'clock a.m. was not executed till about 10 o'clock, and it was ill done. The three squadrons nearest the shore turned first, the rear beginning, to leave room for the others. Thus Dumanoir now led the van and Alava followed Villeneuve. The two squadrons of Gravina and Magon, which had been outside, fell in behind Alava. No accurate line was formed. The allies drifted rather than sailed into a curve of some five miles long, stretching from north to south, concave on the west side, and more pronounced at the southern than at the northern end. Their ships did not follow one another, but were in many cases two, and in some cases three, abreast in groups. To some extent this was to their advantage, as the effective range of fire of the artillery of the day was barely 1200 yds., and as the power of concentrating the fire of guns out of ports was limited, the danger to an assailant bearing down was not great during his approach. The peril was that he would be engaged with two or three enemies when he had broken into the line, and this risk was increased by the accidental group formation of the allies. The confidence and promptitude of the British fleet presented a marked contrast to the passivity of the allies. When in the early morning the enemy was seen to the east, Nelson's fleet was in two divisions, somewhat scattered — his own of 12 sail of the line being to the westward and windward in the light breeze from W.N.W.; Collingwood's of 15 sail being to leeward and east. At 6.40 the signal was made to form the order of sailing and prepare for battle. The enemy's movement of conversion was already seen, and it was obvious that unless he were rapidly stopped he might reach Cadiz Bay in safety. A few minutes before 7 o'clock the signal to bear up, No. 76, was made by Nelson. Much discussion has arisen as to whether this was an order to bear up together, or in succession; the first if exactly executed would have caused the British ships to approach the enemy in a line abreast (side by side) since alJ would have turned at once; the second would have caused them to approach in a line ahead (one after the other) since they would have turned successively. The discussion is in reality futile, because the want of wind rendered it impossible to arrange exact formations, because it had been decided that no time should be wasted in dressing the line, and because Nelson's flagship, the " Victory " (100), and Collingwood's flagship, the " Royal Sovereign " (i°°)> were quick-sailing vessels, and both admirals moved at the best attainable speed. The slow ships could not keep up with them. The two squadrons went down heading to north of east, Collingwood to the right and leeward, Nelson to the north and windward, in two bodies without exact formation, according to the speed of the ships. Collingwood headed for the centre, and the pronounced curve at the south end of the allied line caused the ships of his division to come into action in a close approach to a parallel with the enemy. The " Royal Sovereign " was the first British ship to break into the enemy's line, which she did about midday and astern of Alava's flagship the " Santa Ana." She was alone for a few minutes, but the ships of Collingwood's division, as they sailed into the curve, were mostly able, by steering to the right, to get into action very soon after their admiral. Nelson's division was headed by himself to cut through the enemy between his van and centre, and to bar his road to Cadiz. It was certainly in a nearer approach to a line ahead than Collingwood's. After making a demonstra- tion at the allied van, he broke into their line astern of the " Bucentaure " (100), the flagship of Villeneuve. The exact movements of all the ships engaged could only be given in a very detailed account of the battle, but the main lines of the action are already indicated. To the allies it appeared that the British fleet assailed them in two lines con- verging on their centre, and that it then carried out a concen- tration on this part of their line. Though this is too simple — or too bald — a statement of the case, it does not go far from the truth. The allied formation was broken in two, and though the rear part was kept well in play by Collingwood's division, the severest blows fell on the central sections. The battle, which began at midday, was terminated about fiver Eighteen of the allies were taken. Their van, after long remaining quiescent, made a futile demonstration, and then sailed away. The four van ships which escaped with TRAFFIC— TRAILL 155 Admiral Dumanoir were met and captured off Cape Ortegal on the 4th of November by a British squadron of five ships under Sir Richard Strachan. The stormy weather which followed the battle gave the enemy an opportunity to retake some of the prizes, and others were lost. Four only were carried into Gibraltar by the British fleet — three French and one Spanish. Only eleven of the allied fleet succeeded in finding safety in Cadiz. The fragment of the French squadron remained there under Admiral Rosily till he was forced to surrender to the Spaniards in 1808 on the breaking out of the Peninsular War. The loss of life of the allies cannot be stated with precision. In the British fleet the reported loss in killed and wounded was 1690, of whom 1452 belonged to 14 out of the 27 ships of the line present — the inequality of loss being mainly due to the fact that it was as a rule these vessels which came earliest into action. For the circumstances of Nelson's death see the article NELSON. AUTHORITIES. — Accounts of the battle of Trafalgar are to be found in all the naval, and most of the general, histories of the time. _ The most essential of the original authorities are collected by Sir N. Harris Nicolas in his Despatches and Letters of Vice-Admiral Lord Viscount Nelson, vol. vii. (London 1844-1846). The controversy as to the exact method on which the battle was fought, and the significance of the signal to bear down, is fully worked out with many references to authorities in The Times from the I4th of July to the 2 1st of October 1905, both in a general correspondence and in a series of articles on " Trafalgar and the Nelson Touch," i6th, igth, 22nd, 26th, 28th and 3Oth of September 1905; see also J. S. Corbett, The Campaign of Trafalgar (1910). (D. H.) TRAFFIC, properly the interchange or passing of goods or merchandise between persons, communities or countries, commerce or trade. The term in current usage is chiefly applied collectively to the goods, passengers, vehicles and vessels passing to and fro over the streets, roads, sea, rivers, canals, railways, &c. The origin of the word is obscure. It occurs in Fr. trafique, and trafiquer, Ital. traffico, trafficare, Sp. trafago, trafagar. I>u Cange (Gloss. Med. et Inf. Lai.) quotes the use of traffigare from a treaty between M ilan and Venice of 1 380, and gives other variants of the word in medieval Latin. There is a medieval Latin word transfegator, an explorer, spy, investigator (see Du Cange, op. cit., s.v.) which occurs as early as 1243, and is stated to be from transfegare, a corruption of transfrelare, to cross over the sea (trans, across, fretum, gulf, strait, channel). Diez (Etymologisches Worterbuch der romanischen Sprachen) connects the word with Port, trasfegar, to decant, which he traces to Late Lat. vicare, to exchange, Lat. vicis, change, turn. A suggestion (Athenaeum, app. 7, 1900) has been made that it is to be referred to a late Hebrew corruption (traffik) of Gr. Tpoirai'x6s, pertaining to a trophy, applied to a silver coin with the figure of victory upon it and termed in Latin victoriatiis. TRAHERNE, THOMAS (i637?-i674), English writer, was, according to Anthony a Wood, a " shoemaker's son of Hereford." He entered Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1652, and after receiving his degree in 1656 took holy orders. In the following year he was appointed rector of Credenhill, near Hereford, and in 1661 received his M.A. degree. He found a good patron in Sir Orlando Bridgeman, lord keeper of the seals from 1667 to 1672. Traherne became his domestic chaplain and also " minister " of Teddington. He died at Bridgeman's house at Teddington on or about the 27th of September 1674. He led, we are told, a simple and devout life, and was well read in primitive antiquity and the fathers. His prose works are Roman Forgeries (ibis), Christian Ethics (1675), and A Serious and Patheticall Contemplation of the Mercies of God (1699). His poems have a curious history. They were left in MS. and presumably passed with the rest of his library into the hands of his brother Philip. They then became appar- ently the possession of the Skipps of Ledbury, Herefordshire. When the property of this family was dispersed in 1888 the value of the MSS. was unrecognised, for in 1896 or 1897 they were discovered by Mr W. T. Brooke on a street bookstall. Dr Grosart bought them, and proposed to include them in his edition of the works of Henry Vaughan, to whom he was disposed to assign them. He left this task uncompleted, and Mr Bertram Dobell, who eventually secured the MSS., was able to establish the authorship of Thomas Traherne. The discovery included, beside the poems, four complete " Cen- turies of Meditation," short paragraphs embodying reflexions on religion and morals. Some of these, evidently autobio- graphical in character, describe a childhood from which the " glory and the dream " was slow to depart. Of the power of nature to inform the mind with beauty, and the ecstatic harmony of a child with the natural world, the earlier poems, which contain his best work, are full. In their manner, as in their matter, they remind the reader of Blake and Words- worth. Traherne has at his best an excellence all his own, but there can be no reasonable doubt that he was familiar both with the poems of Herbert and of Vaughan. The poems on childhood may well have been inspired by Vaughan's lines entitled The Retreat. His poetry is essentially metaphysical and his workmanship is uneven, but the collection contains passages of great beauty. See Bertram Dobell's editions of the Poetical Works (1906) and Centuries of Meditation (1908). TRAILL, HENRY DUFF (1842-1900), British author and journalist, was born at Blackheath on the i4th of August 1842. He belonged to an old Caithness family, the Traills of Rattar, and his father, James Traill, was stipendiary magistrate of Greenwich and Woolwich. H. D. Traill was sent to the Merchant Taylors' School. He rose to be head of the school and obtained a scholarship at St John's College, Oxford. He was destined for the profession of medicine and took his degree in natural sciences in 1865, but then read for the bar, being called in 1869. In 1871 he received an appointment in the education office which left him leisure to cultivate his gift for literature. In 1873 he became a contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette, then under the editorship of Frederick Greenwood. He followed Greenwood to the St James's Gazette when in 1880 the Pall Mall Gazette took for a time the Liberal side, and he continued to contribute to that paper up to 1895. In the meantime he had also joined the staff of the Saturday Review, to which he sent, amongst other writings, weekly verses upon subjects of the hour. Some of the best of these he republished in 1882 in a volume called Recaptured Rhymes, and others in a later collection of Saturday Songs (1890). He was also a leader-writer on the Daily Tele- graph, and acted for a time as editor of the (Sunday) Observer. In 1897 he became first editor of Literature, when that weekly paper (afterwards sold and incorporated with the Academy) was established by the proprietors of The Times, and directed its fortunes until his death. Traill's long connexion with journalism must not obscure the fact that he was a man of letters rather than a journalist. He wrote best when he wrote with least sense of the burden of responsibility. His playful humour and his ready wit were only given full scope when he was writing to please himself. One of his most brilliant jeux d'esprit was a pamphlet which was published without his name soon after he had begun to write for the newspapers. It was called The Israelitish Question and the Comments of the Canaan Journals thereon (1876). This told the story of the Exodus in articles which parodied very cleverly the style of all the leading journals of the day, and was at once recognized as the work of a born humorist. Traill sustained this reputation with The New Lucian, which appeared in 1884 (2nd ed., with several new dialogues, 1900); but for the rest his labours were upon more serious lines. He directed the production of a vast work on Social England in 1893-1898; he wrote, for several series of biographies, studies of Coleridge (1884), Sterne (1882), Wil- liam III. (1888), Shaftesbury (1886), Strafford (1889), and Lord Salisbury (1891); he compiled a biography of Sir John Franklin, the Arctic explorer (1896); and after a visit to Egypt he pub- lished a volume on the country, and in 1897 appeared his book on Lord Cromer, the man who had done so much to bring it back to prosperity. Of these the literary studies are the best, for Traill possessed great critical insight. He published two collections of essays: Number Twenty (1892), and The New Fiction (1897). In 1865 his Glaucus; a tale of a Fish, was produced at the Olympic Theatre with Miss Nellie Farren in the part of Glaucus. In conjunction with Mr Robert Hichens i56 TRAIN- -TRAJAN he wrote The Medicine Man, produced at the Lyceum in 1898. He died in London on the 2ist of February 1900. TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source), a general term applied to that which is drawn or trailed behind or after anything else, the hind part or rear of anything. It is thus used of the portion of a skirt, robe or cloak which is lengthened behind so that when allowed to fall it trails along the ground. In ceremonial pro- cessions and other state functions the duty of keeping raised the train of the sovereign's robes, or of the robes of great officials and dignitaries, is assigned to pages or to official train-bearers. The length of the train which ladies must wear at royal courts, drawing-rooms or other state functions is fixed by regulations from the lord chamberlain's office. The chief specific uses of the term are for the trail of a gun, that portion of the carriage which rests upon the ground when it is unlimbered, the line of gunpowder or other combustible material which is used to ignite a charge of explosives, and, figuratively, to an ordered series or sequence of events, thoughts, &c. The most familiar application is to a number of carriages, wagons or trucks coupled together and drawn by a locomotive engine on a railway (see RAILWAYS). A special use of the verb " to train," in the sense of to educate, to instruct, to bring into fit and proper con- dition, mental, moral or physical, is developed, as in " educate " (Lat. educare, literally, to draw out), from the sense of draw- ing or bringing out the good qualities aimed at in a course of instruction; a specific use is that of training for a race or other form of athletics, i.e. getting into fit physical condition. TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRA JANUS] (A. D. 53-117), Roman emperor, was born at Italica, in Spain, on the i8th of September 52 (or 53). The family to which he belonged was probably Italian and not Iberian by blood. His father began as a common legionary soldier, and fought his way up to the consulship and the governorship of Asia. The younger Trajan was rigorously trained by him, and imbued with the same principles and tastes. He was a soldier born and bred. No better representative of the true old hardy Roman type, little softened by either luxury or education, had come to the head of affairs since the days of Marius. His training was almost exclusively military, but his experience as an officer gave him an acquaintance with almost every important province of the empire, which was of priceless value to him when he came to the throne. For ten years he held a commission as military tribune, which took him to many lands far asunder; then he filled important posts in Syria and Spain. By the year 89 he had achieved a considerable military reputation. At that time L. Antonius Saturninus headed a rebellion in Germany, which threatened seriously to bring Domitian's rule to an end. Trajan was ordered in hot haste from Further Spain to the Rhine. Although he carried his troops over that long and arduous march with almost unexampled rapidity, he only arrived after the insurrection had been put down. But his promptitude raised him higher in the favour of Domitian, and he was advanced to the consulship in 91. Of the next five years of his life we know nothing definite. It is not unlikely that they were spent at Rome or in Italy in the fulfilment of some official duties. When ' the -revolution of 96 came, and Nerva replaced the murdered Domitian, one of the most important posts in the empire, that of consular legate of Upper Germany, was conferred upon Trajan. An officer whose nature, as the event showed, was interpenetrated with the spirit of legality was a fitting servant of a revolution whose aim it was to substitute legality for personal caprice as the dominant principle of affairs. The short reign of Nerva really did start the empire on a new career, which lasted more than three- quarters of a century. But it also demonstrated how impossible it was for any one to govern at all who had no claim, either personal or inherited, to the respect of the legions. Nerva saw that if he could not find an Augustus to control the army, the army would find another Domitian to trample the senate under foot. In his difficulties he took counsel with L. Licinius Sura, a lifelong friend of Trajan, and on the 27th of October in the year 97 he ascended the Capitol and proclaimed that he adopted Trajan as his son. The senate confirmed the choice and acknowledged the emperor's adopted son as his successor. After a little hesitation Trajan accepted the position, which was marked by the titles of imperator, Caesar and Germanicus, and by the tribunician authority. He immediately proceeded to Lower Germany, to assure himself of the fidelity of the troops in that province, and while at Cologne he received news of Nerva.'s death (Jan. 25, 98). The authority of the new emperor was recognized at once all over the empire. The novel fact that a master of the Romans should have been born on Spanish soil seems to have passed with little remark, and this absence of notice is significant. Trajan's first care as emperor was to write to the senate an assurance like that which had been given by Nerva, that he would neither kill nor degrade any senator. He ordered the establishment of a temple and cult in honour of his adoptive father, but he did not come to Rome. In his dealings with the mutinous praetorians the strength of the new emperor's hand was shown at once. He ordered a portion of the force to Germany. They did not venture to disobey, and were distributed among the legions there. Those who remained at Rome were easily overawed and reformed. It is still more surprising that the soldiers should have quietly submitted to a reduction in the amount of the donative or gift which it was customary for them to receive from a new emperor, though the civil population of the capital were paid their largess (congiarium) in full. By politic management Trajan was able to represent the diminution as a sort of discount for immediate payment, while the civilians had to wait a considerable time before their full due was handed to them. The secret of Trajan's power lay in his close personal relations with the officers and men of the army and in the soldierly qualities which commanded their esteem. He possessed courage, justice and frankness. Having a good title to military distinction himself, he could afford, as the unwarlike emperors could not, to be generous to his officers. The common soldiers, on the other hand, were fascinated by his personal prowess and his camaraderie. His features were firm and clearly cut; his figure was tall and soldierly. His hair was already grey before he came to the throne, though he was not more than forty-five years old. When on service he used the mean fare of the common private, dining on salt pork, cheese and sour wine. Nothing pleased him better than to take part with the centurion or the soldier in fencing or other military exercise, and he would applaud any shrewd blow which fell upon his own helmet. He loved to display his acquaintance with the career of dis- tinguished veterans, and to talk with them of their battles and their wounds. Probably he lost nothing of his popularity with the army by occasional indulgence in sensual pleasures. Ye*, every man felt and knew that no detail of military duty, how- ever minute, escaped the emperor's eye, and that any relaxation of discipline would be punished rigorously, yet with unwavering justice. Trajan emphasized at once his personal control and the constitutionality of his sway by bearing on his campaigns the actual title of " proconsul, " which no other emperor had done. All things considered, it is not surprising that he was able, without serious opposition from the army, entirely to remodel the military institutions of the empire, and to bring them into a shape from which there was comparatively little departure so long as the army lasted. In disciplinary matters no emperor since Augustus had been able to keep so strong a control over the troops. Pliny rightly praises Trajan as the lawgiver and the founder of discipline, and Vegetius classes Augustus, Trajan and Hadrian together as restorers of the morale of the army. The confidence which existed between Trajan and his army finds expression in some of the coins of his reign. For nearly two years after his election Trajan did not appear in Rome. He had decided already what the great task of his reign should be — the establishment of security upon the dangerous north-eastern frontier. Before visiting the capital he determined to put affairs in train for the attainment of this object. He made a thorough inspection of the great lines of defence between the Danube and the Rhine, and framed and partly carried out a vast scheme for strengthening and securing them. The policy of opposing uncivilized tribes by the construction of the limes, a raised embankment of earth or other material, inter- sected here and there by fortifications, was not his invention, but it owed in great measure its development to him. It is probable that the northernmost part of the great limes Germaniae, from the Rhine at Rheinbrohl, nearly midway between Coblenz and Bonn, to a point on the Main cast of Frankfort, where that river suddenly changes its course from north to west, was begun by Domitian. The extension of this great barrier southwards to the point at which it met the limes Raetiae was undertaken by Trajan, though we cannot say how far he carried the work, which was not entirely completed till long after his time. We may without hesitation follow the opinion of Mommsen, who maintains that the limes was not intended, like Hadrian's Wall between the Tyne and the Solway, and like the great wall of China, to oppose an absolute barrier against incursions From the outside. It was useful as marking definitely the boundary of the Roman sway, and as assuring the Romans that no inroad could be made without intelligence being had of it beforehand, while the limes itself and the system of roads behind it enabled troops to be directed rapidly to any threatened point, and the fortified positions could be held against large numbers till reinforcements arrived. Great importance was no doubt attached to the perfection of the lines of communication bearing on the limes. Among a people of roadmakers, Trajan was one of the greatest, and we have definite evidence from inscriptions that some of the military roads in this region were constructed by him. The more secure control which the Romans now maintained over the territory within the limes tended to its rapid civilization, and the Roman influence, if not the Roman arms, soon began to affect powerfully the regions beyond. After his careful survey of the Rhine end of the frontier defences, Trajan proceeded to strengthen them in the direction of the Danube. From the age of Tiberius onwards the Romans possessed the whole southern bank of the river from its source to the Euxine. But the precarious tenure of their possession had been deeply impressed on them by the disasters and humiliations they had undergone in these districts during the reign of Domitian. A prince had arisen among the Dacians, Decebalus by name, worthy to be placed at the head of all the great barbarian antagonists of Rome. Like Maroboduus, he was able to combine the forces of tribes commonly hostile to each other, and his military ability almost went the length of genius. Domitian attacked him but was compelled to make an ignominious peace. He agreed to pay to Decebalus an annual subsidy, and to supply him with engineers and craftsmen skilled in all kinds of construction, but particularly in the erection of fortifications and defensive works. During the nine or ten years which had elapsed since the conclusion of this remarkable treaty the Dacian prince had immensely strengthened the approaches to his kingdom from the Roman side. He had also equipped and drilled his formidable army after the Roman fashion. It was impossible for a soldier like Trajan to endure the conditions accepted by Domitian; but the conquest of Dacia had become one of the most formidable tasks that had ever confronted the empire. Trajan no doubt planned a war before he left the Danube for Rome late in 99. The arrival of the emperor had been awaited in the capital with an impatience which is expressed by Pliny and by Martial.1 As he entered the city and went on foot to the Capitol thS plaudits of the people were unmistakably genuine. During his stay in the city he riveted more firmly still the affections both of the senate and of the people. The reconciliation of the empire with liberty, inaugurated, as Tacitus says, by Nerva, seemed now to be securely achieved. Trajan was absolutely open and simple, and lived with men at Rome as he had lived with his soldiers while on service. He realized the senate's ideal of the citizen ruler. The assurance that no senator should suffer was renewed by oath. All the old republican formalities were most punctiliously observed — even those attendant on the emperor's election to the consulate, so far as they did not involve a restoration of the old order of voting at the comitia. The veneration for republican tradition is curiously attested by the reproduction of many republican types of coin struck 1 It has been conjectured, not improbably, that the Germania of Tacitus, written at this period, had for one of its aims the enlighten- ment of the Romans concerning the formidable character of the Germans, so that they might at once bear more readily with the emperor's prolonged absence and be prepared for the necessity of decisive action on the frontier. TRAJAN 157 by senatorial officers. Trajan seized every opportunity for emphasizing his view that the princeps was merely the greatest of the magistrates, and so was not above but under the laws. He was determined, he said, to be to his subjects such a ruler as he had desired for himself when a subject. Real power and influence were accorded to the senate, which had now, by the incorporation of members whose origin was provincial, become in a manner representative of the whole empire. Trajan associated with the senators on equal terms, and enjoyed in their company every kind of recreation. All pomp was dis- tasteful to him and discarded by him. There was practically no court, and no intrigues of any kind were possible. The approach to his house was free, and he loved to pass through the city unattended and to pay unexpected visits to his friends. He thirsted for no senator's blood, and used severity against the delatores alone. There was but one insignificant conspiracy against him during his whole reign. Though not literary himself, Trajan conciliated the literary men, who at all times had close relations with the senate. His intimate, M. Licinius, played an excellent Maecenas to his Augustus. In his efforts to win the affections of Roman society Trajan was aided by his wife Plotina, who was as simple as her husband, benevolent, pure in character, and entirely unambitious. The hold which Trajan acquired over the people was no less firm than that which he maintained upon the army and the senate. His largesses, his distributions of food, his public works, and his spectacles were all on a generous scale. The exhibitions in the arena were perhaps at their zenith during his tenure of power. Though, for some unexplained reason, he abolished the mimes, so beloved of the populace, at the outset of his reign, he availed himself of the occasion of his first triumph to restore them again. The people were delighted by the removal of the imperial exedra (a large chamber with open front) in the circus, whereby five thousand additional places were provided. Taxa- tion was in many directions reduced, and the financial exactions of the imperial officers controlled by the erection of a special court. Elaborate precautions were taken to save Italy from famine; it is said that corn for seven years' consumption at the capital was retained in the granaries. Special encourage- ment was given to merchants to import articles of food. The corporation of bakers was organized and made more effective for the service of the public. The internal trade of Italy was powerfully stimulated by the careful maintenance and extension of the different lines of road. But the most striking evidence of Trajan's solicitude for his people's welfare is found in his institution of the alimenta, whereby means were provided for the rearing of poor and orphan children in Italy. The method had been sketched out by Nerva, but its great development was due to Trajan. The moneys allotted by the emperor were in many cases supplemented by private benevolence. As a soldier, Trajan realized the need of men for the maintenance of the empire against the outer barbarians, and he preferred that these men should be of Italian birth. He was only carrying a step farther the policy of Augustus, who by a system of rewards and penalties had tried to encourage marriage and the nurture of children. The actual effect of Trajan's regulations is hard to measure; they were probably more effectual for their object than those of Augustus. The foundations were confiscated by Pertinax, after they had existed less than a century. On the ist of September in the year 100, when Trajan was consul for the third time, Pliny, who had been designated consul for a part of the year, was appointed to deliver the " Panegyric" which has come down to us, and forms a most important source of our knowledge concerning this emperor. Pliny's eulogy of Trajan and his denunciation of Domitian are alike couched in extravagant phrases, but the former perhaps rests more uniformly on a basis of truth and justice than the latter. The tone of the " Panegyric " certainly lends itself to the supposition of some historians that Trajan was inordinately vain. That the emperor had an honest and soldierly satisfaction in his own well-doing is clear; but if he .had had anything like the vanity of a Domitian, i58 TRAJAN the senate, ever eager to outrun a ruler's taste for flattery, would never have kept within such moderate bounds. On the 25th of March in the year 101 Trajan left Rome for the Danube. Pretexts for a Dacian war were not difficult to find. Although there was no lack of hard fighting, victory in this war depended largely on the work of the engineer. The great military road connecting the posts in Upper Germany with those on the Danube, which had been begun by Tiberius, was now extended along the right bank of the river as far as the modern Orsova. The campaign of 101 was devoted mainly to road-making and fortification. In the following campaign, after desperate fighting to the north of the Danube in the mountainous region of Transylvania, Sarmizegethusa, the capital of Decebalus, was taken, and he was forced to terms. He agreed to raze all fortresses, to surrender all weapons, prisoners and Roman deserters, and to become a dependent prince under the suzerainty of Rome. Trajan came back to Italy with Dacian envoys, who in ancient style begged the senate to confirm the conditions granted by the commander in the field. The emperor now enjoyed his first Dacian triumph, and assumed the title of Dacicus. At the same time he royally entertained the people and no less royally rewarded his brave officers. But the Dacian chief could not school his high spirit to endure the conditions of the treaty, and Trajan soon found it necessary to prepare for another war. A massive stone bridge was built across the Danube, near the modern Turn Severin, by Apollodorus, the gifted architect who afterwards designed the forum of Trajan. In 105 began the new struggle, which on the side of Decebalus could now only lead to victory or to destruction. The Dacians fought their ground inch by inch, and their army as a whole may be said to have bled to death. The prince put an end to his own life. His kingdom became an imperial pro- vince; in it many colonies were founded and peopled by settlers drawn from different parts of the empire. The work done by Trajan in the Danubian regions left a lasting mark upon their history. The emperor returned to the capital in 106, laden with captured treasure. His triumph outdid in splendour all those that went before it. Games are said to have been held continu- ously for four months. Ten thousand gladiators are said to have perished in the arena, and eleven thousand beasts were killed in the contests. Congratulatory embassies came from all lands, even from India. The grand and enduring monument of the Dacian wars is the noble pillar which still stands on the site of Trajan's forum at Rome. The end of the Dacian wars was followed by seven years of peace. During part of that time Pliny was imperial legate in the provinces cf Bithynia and Pontus, and in constant communi- cation with Trajan. The correspondence is extant and gives us the means of observing the principles and tendencies of the emperor as a civil governor. The provinces (hitherto senatorial) were in considerable disorder, which Pliny was sent to cure. It is clear from the emperor's letters that in regard to nine out of ten of the matters which his anxious and deferential legate referred to him for his decision he would have been better pleased if the legate had decided them for him- self. Trajan's notions of civil government were, like those of the duke of Wellington, strongly tinged with military prepossessions. He regarded the provincial ruler as a kind of officer in command, who ought to be able to discipline his province for himself and only to appeal to the commander-in-chief in a difficult case. In advising Pliny about the different free communities in the pro- vinces, Trajan showed the same regard for traditional rights and privileges which he had exhibited in face of the senate at Rome. At the same time, these letters bring home to us his conviction that, particularly in financial affairs, it was necessary that local self-government should be carried on under the vigilant super- vision of imperial officers. The control which he began in this way to exercise, both in Italy and in the provinces, over the " muni- cipia " and " liberae civitates," by means of agents entitled (then or later) " correctores civitatium liberarum," was carried continually farther and farther by his successors, and at last ended in the com- plete centralization of the government. On this account the reign of Trajan constitutes a turning-point in civil as in military history. In other directions, though we find many salutary civil measures, yet there were no far-reaching schemes of reform. Many details in the administration of the law, and particularly of the criminal law, were improved. To cure corruption in the senate the ballot was introduced at elections to magistracies. The finances' of the state were economically managed, and taxpayers were most carefully guarded from oppression. Trajan never lacked money to expend on great works of public utility; as a builder, he may fairly be compared with Augustus. His forum and its numerous appendages were constructed on a magnificent scale. Many regions of Italy and the provinces besides the city itself benefited by the care and munificence which the emperor, bestowed on such public improve- ments. His attitude towards religion was, like that of Augustus, moderate and conservative. The famous letter to Pliny about the Christians is, according to Roman ideas, merciful and considerate. It was impossible, however, for a Roman magistrate of the time to rid himself of the idea that all forms of religion must do homage to the civil power. Hence the conflict which made Trajan appear in the eyes of Christians like Tertullian the most infamous of monsters. On the whole, Trajan's civil administration was sound, careful and sensible, rather than brilliant. Late in 113 Trajan left Italy to make war in the East. The never-ending Parthian problem confronted him, and with it were more or less connected a number of minor difficulties. Already by 106 the position of Rome in the East had been materially improved by the peaceful annexation of districts bordering on the province of Syria. The region of Damascus, hitherto a dependency, and the last remaining fragment of the Jewish kingdom, were incorporated with Syria; Bostra and Petra were permanently occupied, and a great portion of the Naba- taean kingdom was organized as the Roman province of Arabia. Rome thus obtained mastery of the most important positions lying on the great trade routes between East and West. These changes could not but affect the relations of the Roman with the Parthian Empire, and the affairs of Armenia became in 114 the occasion of a war. Trajan's campaigns in the East ended in complete though brilliant failure. In the retreat from Ctesiphon (117) the old emperor tasted for almost the first time the bitter- ness of defeat in the field. He attacked the desert city of Hatra, westward of the Tigris, whose importance is still attested by grand ruins. The want of water made it impossible to maintain a large force near the city, and the brave Arabs routed the Roman cavalry. Trajan, who narrowly escaped being killed, was forced to withdraw. A more alarming difficulty lay before him. Taking advantage of the absence of the emperor in the Far East, and possibly by an understanding with the leaders of the rising in Armenia and the annexed portions of Parthia, the Jews all over the East had taken up arms at the same moment and at a given signal. The massacres they committed were portentous. In Cyprus 240,000 men are said to have been put to death, and at Cyrene 220,000. At Alexandria, on the other hand, many Jews were killed. The Romans punished massacre by massacre, and the complete suppression of the insurrection was long delayed, but the Jews made no great stand against disciplined troops. Trajan still thought of returning to Mesopotamia and of avenging his defeat at Hatra, but he was stricken with sickness and compelled to take ship for Italy. His illness increasing, he landed in Cilicia, and died at Selinus early in August 117. Trajan, who had no children, had continually delayed to settle the succession to the throne, though Pliny in the " Panegyric " had pointedly drawn his attention to the matter, and it must have caused the senate much anxiety. Whether Hadrian, the relative of Trajan (cousin's son), was actually adopted by him or not is impossible to determine; certainly Hadrian had not been advanced to any great honours by Trajan. Even his military service had not been distinguished. Plotina asserted the adoption, and it was readily and most fortunately accepted, if not believed, as a fact. The senate had decreed to Trajan as many triumphs as he chose to celebrate. For the first time a dead general triumphed. When Trajan was deified, he appropriately retained, alone among the emperors, a title he had won for himself in the field, that of " Par- thicus." He was a patient organizer of victory rather than a strategic genius. He laboriously perfected the military machine, which when once set in motion went on to victory. Much of the work he did was great and enduring, but the last year of his life forbade the Romans to attribute to him that felicitas which they regarded as an inborn duality of the highest generals. Each succeeding emperor was saluted with the wish that he might be " better than Trajan and more fortunate than Augustus." Yet the breach made in Trajan's Jelicitas by the failure in the East was no greater than that made in the felicitas of Augustus by his retirement from the right bank of the Rhine. The question whether Trajan's Oriental policy was wise is answered emphatically by Mommsen in the affirmative. TRALEE— TRAMWAY It was certainly wise if the means existed which were necessary to carry it out and sustain it. But succeeding history proved that those means did not exist. The assertion of Mommsen that the Tigris was a more defensible frontier than the desert line which separated the Parthian from the Roman Empire can hardly be accepted. The change would certainly have created a demand for more legions, which the resources of the Romans were not sufficient to meet without danger to their possessions on other frontiers. The records of Trajan's reign are miserably deficient. Our best authority is the 68th book of Dio Cassius; then comes the " Panegyric " of Pliny, with his correspondence. The facts to be gathered from other ancient writers are scattered and scanty. Fortunately the inscriptions of the time are abundant and important. Of modern histories which comprise the reign of Trajan the best in English is that of Merivale; but that in German by H. Schiller (Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, Gotha, 1883) is more on a level with recent inquiries. There are special works on Trajan by H. Francke (Gustrow, 1837), De la Berge (Paris, 1877), and Dierauer in M. Biidinger's Unlersuchungen zur romischen Kaisergeschichte, (Leipzig, 1868). A paper by Mommsen in Hermes, iii. pp. 30 seq., entitled " Zur Lebensgeschichte des jiingeren Plinius," is important for the chronology of Trajan's reign. The inscriptions of the reign, and the Dacian campaigns, have been much studied in recent years, in scattered articles and monographs. (J. S. R.) TRALEE, a market town and seaport, and the county town of Co. Kerry, Ireland, on the Ballymullen or Leigh River, about a mile from its mouth in Tralee Bay, and on the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. (1901), 9687. A ship canal, permitting the passage of ships of 200 tons burden, connects it with Tralee Bay. Large vessels discharge at Fenit, 8 m. westward, where there is a pier connected with Tralee by rail. Coal, iron and timber are imported, and there is a considerable export of grain. There is a large trade in butter. Railways serve the neighbouring seaside watering-places of Ballybunnion and Castlegregory, and the coast scenery of this part is grand and varied. Four miles north-west of Tralee is Ardfert, with its cathedral, one of the oldest foundations in Ireland, now united to the see of Limerick. St Brendan was its original founder, and it had once a university. A neighbouring round tower fell in 1870. Seven miles north of this again is the fine round tower of Rattoo. Tralee, anciently Traleigh, the " strand of the Leigh," owes its origin to the foundation of a Dominican monastery in 1213 by John Fitz-Thomas, of the Geraldine family. During the reign of Elizabeth it was in the possession of Earl Desmond, on whose forfeiture it came into possession of the Dennys. At the time of the rebellion in 1641 the English families in the neighbourhood asked to be placed in the castle under the charge of Sir Edward Denny, but during his absence a surrender was made. The town was incorporated by James I., and returned two members to the Irish parliament. Though disfranchised at the Union in 1800, it obtained the privilege of returning one member in 1832, but in 1885 it was merged in the county division. It is governed by an urban district council. TRALLES (mod. Giizel Hissar), an ancient town of Caria, Asia Minor, situated on the Eudon, a tributary of the Maeander. It was reputed an Argive and Thracian colony, and was long under Persian rule, of which we hear in the history of Dercyllidas' raid from Ephesus in 397 B.C. Fortified and increased by the Seleu- cids and Pergamenians, who renamed it successively Seleucia and Antiochia, it passed to Rome in 133. Though satirized in a famous line (Juv. Sat. iii. 70) as a remote provincial place, it had many wealthy inhabitants in the Roman period and, to judge by objects discovered there, contained many notable works of art. Two of the best marble heads in the Constantinople museum came from Tralles; and both in the excavations conducted for that museum by Edhem Bey (1904), and by chance discoveries, fine-art products have come to light on the site. Rebuilt by Andronicus II. about 1280, it was super- seded a few years later, after the Seljuk conquest, by a new town, founded by the amir Aidin in a lower situation (see AIDIN). (D. G. H.) TRAMORE, a market village and seaside resort of Co. Water- ford, Ireland, on the bay of the same name, 7 m. S. of the city of Waterford, and the terminus of the Waterford & Tramore railway. The situation is pleasant, and the neighbouring coast exhibits bold cliff scenery. The bay is open to the south, and is dangerous to navigators, as in foggy weather it has been frequently mistaken for the entrance to Waterford Harbour. On the cliffs to the west are three towers, one having a curious iron figure known as the " metal man," erected as a warning to sailors. The bay is divided into an outer part and an inner lagoon (the Back Strand) by a spit of sand, with a strait, crossed by a ferry at its eastern extremity. . A monu- ment commemorates the wreck of the troopship " Seahorse " in 1816. Four miles west is Dunhill Castle, well situated on a precipitous rock. TRAMP, a vagrant, one who " tramps " or walks the roads begging from house to house or ostensibly looking for work, but with no home and habitually sleeping out or moving on from the casual ward of one workhouse to that of another (see VAGRANCY) . The word is the shortened form of " tramper," one who tramps 01 walks with heavy tread. The term " tramp " is also used of a cargo steamer not running on a regular line but passing from port to port where freight may be picked up. TRAMWAY, a track or line of rails laid down in the public roads or streets (hence the American equivalent " street rail- way "), along which wheeled vehicles are run for the conveyance of passengers (and occasionally of goods) by animal or mechanical power; also a light roughly laid railway used for transporting coals, both underground and on the surface, and for other similar purposes. The word has been connected with the name of Benjamin Outram, an engineer who, at the beginning of the igth century, was concerned in the construction of tram roads, and has been explained as an abbreviation for " Outram way." But this is clearly wrong, since the word is found much earlier. It appears to be of Scandinavian origin and primarily to mean a beam of wood, cf. Old Swedish tr&m, trum, which have that sense. In a will dated 1555 reference is made to amending a "higheway or tram " in Bernard Castle, where a log road seems to be in question. In Lowland Scottish " tram " was used both of a beam of wood and specifically of such a beam employed as the. shaft of a cart, and the name is still often given in England to the wheeled vehicles used for carrying coal in mining. " Tram- way," therefore, is primarily either a way made with beams of wood or one intended for the use of " trams " containing coal (see RAILWAY). Construction. — The first tramway or street railway designed for passenger cars with flanged wheels was built in New York in 1832. The construction of this tramway does not appear to have been a success, and it was soon discontinued. In 1852 tramways were revived in New York by a French engineer named Loubat, who constructed the track of flat wrought-iron rails with a wide, deep groove in the upper surface, laid on longitudinal timbers. The groove, which was designed for wheel flanges similar to those employed on railways, proved dangerous to the light, narrow-tired vehicles of the American type. To meet this difficulty a step-rail consisting of a flat plate with a step at one side raised about J in. above the surface was designed and laid at Philadelphia in 1855. When tramways were first introduced into England by G. F. Train in 1860 a rail similar to that laid at Philadelphia was adopted. This rail (fig. i ) was made of wrought- iron and weighed 50 Ib per yard. It was 6 in. wide and had a step i in. above the sole. The rails were spiked to longitudinal timbers, which rested on transverse sleepers, and they were laid to a gauge of 4 ft. 85 in. Tramways of this type were laid at Birkenhead in 1860, at London in 1861, and in the Potteries (North Staffordshire) in 1863. The English public, however, would not tolerate the danger and obstruction caused by the steo-rail, with its large area of slippery iron surface, and the tram- way laid in London had to be removed, while those at Birkenhead and the Potteries were only saved by being relaid with grooved rails. Thus, while the step-rail became the standard form used in the United States, the grooved-rail became generally adopted in Europe. From the tramway point of view the step-rail has many advantages. A groove collects ice and dirt, and on curves binds the wheel flanges, increasing the resistance to trac- tion. A grooved rail is, however, far less of a nuisance to the i6o TRAMWAY ordinary vehicular traffic, and it has come to be largely used in the principal cities of America. After the passing of the Tramways Act of 1870 the construction of tramways proceeded rapidly in England. A flat grooved rail supported on a longitudinal timber and laid on a concrete bed was generally adopted. The paving consisted of stone setts from mm mm (Figs. 2 and 3 from D. K. Clarke's Tramways, their Construction and Working, by permission of Crosby Lockwood & Son.) FIG.I. FIG. 2. Early Tramway Rails. FIG. 3. 4 to 6 in. in depth, laid on a thin bed of sand and grouted with cement, mortar or a bituminous mixture. With the exception of the design of the rail and the manner of supporting it on the con- crete foundation, which has continually changed, this method of constructing the track has varied but little to the present day. The flat section of rail which was wanting in vertical stiffness soon proved unsatisfactory. A fillet or flange was then added to each side, which, bedding into the supporting timber, not only increased the vertical strength but also prevented horizontal displacement of the rail. With the addition of the side flanges a greatly improved method of fixing the rail to the sleepers was adopted. The old vertical spike, which was a crude fastening, was replaced by a " dog " or double-ended side spike, one end of which was driven through a hole in the flange of the rail (fig. 2). This fastening was very strong and proved a great improvement. The next change was the use of cast-iron chairs to support the rails, which were introduced by Kincaid in 1872. These led to a modification of the rail section, and instead of the two side flanges a rail with a central flange (fig. 3) which fitted into the cast-iron chairs was used. The chairs weighed about 75 ft each, and were spaced at intervals of about 3 ft. The Barker rail laid in Manchester in 1877 was somewhat similar to that shown in fig. 3, but a continuous cast-iron chair was used to support it. The introduction of steam traction about 1880, with its heavier axle loads and higher speeds, was a severe test of the permanent way. The flat section laid on timber sleepers and the built-up rails of the Kincaid and Barker types began to be discarded in favour of the solid girder rail rolled in one piece. The solidity and depth of this section gave it great vertical stiffness, and its introduction materially assisted in solving the problem of providing a smooth and serviceable joint. The merits of the girder rail soon caused it to be generally adopted, and although the design has been greatly improved it remains to-day the standard form of tramway rail used through- out the world. At first difficulty was experienced in rolling the heavier sections with thin webs and wide bases, but the introduc- tion of steel and improvements in the rolling mills overcame these troubles. The early girder rails laid about 1880 usually weighed from 70 to 80 Ib per lineal yard, and were 6 or 65 in. deep. The groove varied from i to i| in., and the tread was about i J in. in width. The fish-plates were not designed to give any vertical support, and were merely used to keep the rail ends in line. The girder rails were either bedded directly on the foundation or spiked to timber sleepers which were buried in the concrete. The form of head adopted for tramway rails in Europe has almost universally been one with the groove on one side. With this section the wheel flange forces out the dirt clear of the tread. In a few isolated cases a centre grooved rail has been used. As with railways, the adoption of many different gauges has led to much inconvenience. This want of uniformity in the gauge is in some parts of the country a great obstacle to the construction of inter-urban lines. London and the larger provincial towns adopted the standard gauge of 4 ft. 8| in., but in many towns narrow gauges of 3 ft. or 3 ft. 6 in. were laid. Glasgow and a few other towns adopted the gauge of 4 ft. 7! in. with a view of making the narrow grooved rail of the tramways available for railway wagons, but without any real success. With the introduction of electric traction the weight and speed of the cars greatly increased, and experience soon proved that only the most substantial form of permanent way was capable of withstanding the wear and tear of the traffic. The early electric lines were laid with girder rails weighing about 75 Ib per lineal yard. These proved to be too light, and, at the present time, rails weighing from 95 to no Ib per lineal yard are in general use. The large number of rail sections designed a few years ago gave considerable trouble to makers of rails. The issue in 1903 by the Engineering Standards Committee of a set of standard girder tramway rail sections was there- fore generally welcomed. The sections comprise rails of five different weights. Modified sections for use on curves were also published, together with a standard form of specification. Fig. 4 shows the section of the 100 Ib. B.S. rail (No. 3). Tramway rails are generally ordered in 45 ft. lengths. Rails 60 ft. long are sometimes used, but they are difficult to handle, especially in narrow streets. The rail joints still prove the weakest part of the track. Numerous patents have been taken out for fish- plates and sole-plates of special design, but none has proved quite satisfactory. The" Dicker "joint, in which the head of the rail on the '- «? -J - - 1 . --> "I !' -2* (Reproduced by permission of the Engineering Standards Committee.) FIG. 4. — British Standard Tramway Rail, No. 3. tread side is partly cut away and the fish-plate carried up so that the wheel runs on its top edge, and the " anchor " joint, in which a short piece of inverted rail is bolted or riveted to the undersides of the abutting rails, have been largely used. The latter makes a good stiff joint, but when buried in concrete it interferes with the bedding of the rail as a whole, often causing it to work loose in the centre. Various processes have also been introduced for uniting the ends of the rails by welding. Electric welding was first tried in the United States about 1893, and has since been considerably used in that country. In this process two specially prepared fish-plates are applied, one to each side of the joint. Each fish-plate has three bosses or projections, one in the centre opposite the joint and one near each end. By passing a heavy alternating current of low voltage between the opposite bosses the fish-plates are welded to the rail. The current is obtained from the line by means of a motor- generator and static transformer. Another process which has been used considerably in the United States, and at Coventry and Norwich in England, is the cast-welded joint. To make this joint the rail ends are enclosed in an iron mould filled with molten cast-iron, which makes a more or less perfect union with the steel rails. The TRAMWAY 161 great drawback to these two processes is the costly and cumbersome apparatus required. The " thermit " process (see WELDING) does not require any large initial outlay, and has been applied to welding the joints on both old and new tracks. The cost of making each joint is about £l. Points and crossings are used on a tramway to deflect a car from one road to another. In the days of horse traction no movable switch was used, the car being guided by making the horses pull the leading wheels in the required direction. With the introduction of mechanical traction a movable switch was fitted in one of the cast- ings to act as a guide to the wheel flanges. On modern tramways the points consist of a pair of steel castings, one being a fixed or dummy point, and the other containing a movable switch. On a single track at passing places the cars in Great Britain always take the left- hand road, and a spring is fitted to hold the movable switch to lead in that direction. The bottom of the grooves at open points and cross- ings are raised so that the car wheel runs on its flange over the break in the tread of the rail. Double switch points in which the two tongues are connected are sometimes laid. In recent years the size and weight of the castings and the length of the movable switches have considerably increased. Manganese steel is very generally used for the tongues and sometimes for the whole casting. Ordinary cast steel with manganese steel inset pieces at the parts which wear most quickly are a feature of the later designs. At some junctions the points are moved by electric power. While the form of concrete foundation remains the same as that laid at Liverpool in 1868, far greater care is now given to the bedding of the rails. After the excavation has been completed the rails are set up in the trench and carefully packed up to the finished level. The concrete is then laid and packed under the rail, generally for a depth of 6 in. When the surface is to be paved with stone setts bedded on sand the concrete may be left rough, but where wood is to be laid the surface must be floated with fine mortar and finished to a smooth surface. Both hard and soft wood blocks are used for paving. Wood should not be used unless the whole width of the carriage-way is paved. Many different qualities of stone setts have been laid. Hard granite such as that supplied from the quarries near Aberdeen is the most suitable. In urban districts the road authorities almost always require the tramway surface, i.e. between the rails and for 18 in. on either side, to be paved. In country districts many tramways- have been laid with only a sett edging along each rail, the remainder of the surface being completed with either ordinary or tarred macadam. This construction, however, is only suitable on roads with very light traffic. After a tramway is laid, especially in a macadanizea road, the heavy vehicular traffic use the track, and the wear is very much greater than on other parts of the carriage-way. Steam and Cable Tramways. — Horse traction, especially in hilly districts, has many limitations, and early in the history of tramways experiments were made both with steam cars and cable haulage. Although experimental steam cars were tried in England in 1873 the first tramways which regularly employed steam engines were French, though the engines were supplied by an English firm. About 1880 many improvements were made in the design of the engines employed, and this form of traction was adopted on several tramways in England. Beyond formed of concrete, with cast-iron yokes spaced at intervals of 4 ft. to support the slot beams. The conduit was 19 in. deep by 9 in. wide. The slot was £ in. wide. The running rails were of the ordinary girder type bedded in concrete. Fig. 5 shows a cross-section of the track at a yoke. This form of construction is very similar to that employed in forming the tube on a modern electric conduit tramway. At Edinburgh and other places where a shallow conduit is used the supporting pulleys are placed in pits sunk below the general level of the tube. On the Birming- ham cable tramway, where the tube is 2 ft. 8 in. deep, pits are not required at the supporting pulleys. This reduces the difficulty of draining the conduit. The yokes in this case are made of steel T-bars spaced 4 ft. apart. Electric Tramways. — Electricity is now the standard motive power for tramway service, and is applied in three main ways: (i) the overhead or trolley system; (2) the open conduit system; and (3) the surface contact or closed conduit system. (See also TRACTION.) On a tramway worked on the overhead principle current is supplied to the cars by two overhead conductors or wires. Round copper wires varying in size from o (0-324 in.) to oooo (0-40 in.) S.W. gauge are generally used. With feeding points °ve' at every mile, the o wire is electrically sufficient on most TroUey- roads, but from a mechanical point of view oo wire is the smallest it is desirable to erect. Wires having figure 8 or elliptical grooved sections have been employed, and have the advantage of allowing the use of a mechanical clip ear which is clear of the trolley wheel. The ordinary round wire is usually supported by a gun-metal or gun-metal and iron ear grooved to fit the wire, which is soldered or sweated to it. In Great Britain the overhead conductors are re- quired by the board of trade to be divided into half-mile sections. The wires on adjoining sections are connected by section insulators. These consist of gun-metal castings in two parts, insulated from each other. The line wires are clamped to the metal ends. The continuity of the path of the trolley wheel is provided for on the underside of the insulator by fixing a hardwood strip between the ends or by the ribs on the castings with air gaps. The trolley wires are supported by ears either from span wires which extend across the roadway between two poles or from bracket arms carried on a pole on one side only of the road. The span wires and short bracket suspension wires are also insulated, so that there is double insulation between the conductor and the pole. The overhead conductors are usually hung about 21 ft. above the rails. (For catenary suspensions see TRACTION.) The poles which carry the span wires and the bracket arms are placed not more than 40 yds. apart and are generally placed at the edge of the kerb. They are built up of three sections of steel tubes, one overlapping the other; the joints are shrunk together while hot. A cast-iron case is used to improve the appearance of the pole, and cast-iron collars hide the joints. Standard specifications for poles have been issued by the Engineering Standards Committee. When permission can be obtained the span wires are sometimes supported by rosettes attached to the walls of the houses on either side of the street. This method has been largely adopted in Germany, • 1 Yoke T. ArnaU's Permanent Way for Tramways and Slrtet Railways, by permission of The Railway Engineer.) FIG. 5. — Section Edinburgh Cable Conduit. requiring a better constructed track it does not necessitate any modifications in the general design of the permanent way. The first cable tramway was constructed at San Francisco in 1873. In England the first cable system was a short length at Highgate in 1884. Cable tramways were also laid down at Edinburgh, Birmingham, Matlock and Brixton (London). Cable traction, with the expensive track construction it necessitates, and the limited speed of haulage, belongs to the past. Only gradients too severe to be worked by ordinary adhesion will in the future justify its use. The construction of the conduit or tube in which the cable runs adds very considerably to the cost of the permanent way. On the Edinburgh system the conduit was xxvji. 6 and by dispensing with the poles in the roadway it improves the appearance of the street. Overhead conductors will not be tolerated in some cities, and to avoid the use of them open conduit and surface contact tramways have been introduced. In the conduit system the conductors are carried in a conduit or tube beneath the °pe ** surface of the track, and the electric current is picked up Conduit. by means of a plough carried by the cars. Modern conduit tramways are divided into two kinds : those which have the conduit at the side under one running rail, and those which have it under the centre of the track. The only example of the former to be found in England is at Bournemouth, but it is used at Vienna, Brussels, Paris, Berlin and Budapest. Centre conduit construction has been adopted in London, Nice, Bordeaux, New York, Washington, &c. The advan- tages of the side slot system are the reduction in the amount of metal TRAMWAY in the roadway, less breaking up of the pavement, and slightly cheaper cost of construction. Its chief disadvantage is the difficulty it introduces in connexion with pomts and crossings. It is also objected that if the side slot is made the same width as the rail groove h- •fH -jeSi- J-3 U t'a'A--- f (From Tlie Tramway and Railway World.) FlG. 6. — Section of Side Conduit. it becomes a danger to narrow-tired vehicles. The difficulty in regard to points and crossings is overcome by bringing the slot into the centre of the track at junctfons and turn-outs. Fig. 6 shows a section of the side slot track laid at Bournemouth. The width of (From The Tramway and Railway World.) • FIG. T. — Section of Centre Conduit (London County Council type), the slot is I in., which is the least width possible. In London J in. was first adopted as the width of the centre slot, but later this was increased to I in., so that in this particular there is not much to choose between the two systems. Fig. 7 shows a section of the London County Council track at one of the cast-iron yokes. These are spaced 3 ft. 9 in. apart, every second yoke being now continued out under the running rail which is fastened to it. There is no doubt that the extended yoke greatly increases the strength of the track. The slot beams weigh 60 Ib per yard. The conductor bars are of mild steel, T-shaped. They weigh 22 Ib per yard and are sup- ported on insulators at intervals of 15 ft. Each in- sulator is covered over in the roadway with a cast- iron frame and movable lid. There are two conductor rails — positive and negative — so that the whole circuit is insulated from earth. The conduit or tube is formed of cement concrete. The track between the rails is paved with granite setts in order that there may be no trouble with wood blocks swelling and closing the slot. American practice in conduit construction has become fairly well standardized (fig. 8). The con- duit is oval m shape, its major axis being vertical, and is formed of concrete. An excavation about •jo in. deep and 5 ft. wide is made, and in this are laid cast-iron yokes weighing 410 Ib each, and spaced 5 ft. apart centre to centre. Every third yoke contains bearings for a hand-hole plate, and weighs about 600 Ib. These yokes surround the conduit proper and are provided with extensions on each side for the attachment of the rails. In the older construction the rails were laid directly upon the iron of the yokes, steel wedges and shims being used under them for the final alinement of the rails. In the more recent construction, on the Third Avenue railroad in New York City, a wooden stringer, 6 in. by 4$ in. in size, is laid along from yoke to yoke on the bearing surfaces, and the rail laid upon this. The rail is held down on the yoke by means of two bolts at each bearing-point, these bolts having turned-up heads which embrace the foot of the rail. The slot rails, or Z bars forming the two jaws of the f in. slot, are bolted to the upper part of the yokes. The weights of the metal used per linear yard of construction of this type are : castiron, including both types of yokes, 500 ft ; track rails, 2 14 ft ; slot rails, 1 16 ft ; conductor rails, 42 ft ; and conduit plate, 16 ft — nearly 400 ft of rolled steel per yard. After the rails, which are of a high girder type, are fastened in place thin plates of sheet steel are bent into the oval holes in the yokes extending from yoke to yoke, and form the inner surface of the completed conduit. Around this is carefully laid a shell, 4 in. thick, of Portland cement concrete. • The yokes are furnished with lugs which serve to retain, temporarily, wooden boards forming a mould in which the concrete is rammed. Sectional wooden shapes serve to hold the thin steel lining in place while the concrete is hardening. Around this concrete tube, and on each side of it, to form a basis for the street pavement, is laid a mass of coarser concrete. In each side of the special yokes is placed an insulator of porcelain, protected by a cast-iron shell and carrying a support for the conductor rail, which is of T-shaped steel, weighing 21 ft per yard. It is in 30 ft. lengths and is supported every 15 ft. by the insulators, the ends of separate rails being matched at and held by an insulator support. This rail is, of course, bonded with copper bonds. Two such con- FIG. 8. — Cross-section of Open Conduit Road (American type). ductor rails are installed in the conduit 6 in. apart, the flat faces -corresponding to the upper surface of the T being placed towards each other. Elaborate provisions for drainage and inspection are also provided, depending upon the situation of the tracks and nature of the street. The current is fed to the conductor rails by heavy copper conductors of from 500,000 to 1,000,000 circular mils cross- section, insulated and lead-covered, laid in ducts alongside of or between the two tracks of double-track systems. Connexion is (From J. H. Rider's Electric Traction, by permission of Wbittaker & Co ) FIG. 9. — Cross-section of Stud, Skates and Magnets. Lorain System. TRAMWAY 163 made between the cars and the conductor rails by means of a " plough," carried by a hard steel plate, which is channelled to re- ceive the insulated wires leading up to the controller on the car. The plough carries two cast-iron rubbing-blocks, which are pressed out- ward into contact with the conductor rails by springs, the two being, of course, very carefully insulated from each other and from the other metal-work of the plough. It has been found expedient in practice to reverse the polarity of the current used on these conduit roads from time to time, since electrolytic deposits, formed by small leakage currents in the vicinity of insulators, &c., are thus dissolved before they become a source of trouble. Great difficulty is experienced with all conduits in keeping them clean and free from water. On the London tramways a sump has been formed at intervals of about 60 yds. into which the conduit drains. These sumps are connected with the sewers. The principal objection to the conduit system is its heavy first cost. The tracks alone in London are estimated to cost about £13,000 per mile of single track against about £8000 per mile for a track to be worked on the overhead system. This high cost of construction has caused considerable attention to be directed by inventors to devising surface contact systems. „ . Many of the designs which have been patented " fCBt appear excellent in theory, but have been found un- ac ' trustworthy under working conditions. Among those worked commercially in England are (l) the Lorain system in opera- tion at Wolverhampton ; (2) the Dolter system at Torquay, Hastings and Mexborough, and (3) the G.B. system at Lincoln. Of all these systems current is supplied from iron studs laid in the roadway be- tween the rails of the track to a skate carried on the car. The studs are placed 10 ft. to 15 ft. apart and contain a movable switch or contact, which is operated by the influence of a magnet carried under the car. In the Lorain system (fig. 9) connexion is made to the source of power through two carbon contact pieces. The lower carbon contact is carried on a soft iron strip which is connected to the supply cable by means of a flat copper ribbon spring. When the magnet passes from over a stud the iron armature and the lower carbon contact, which has been magnetically attracted, falls vertically, assisted by the copper ribbon spring. In the Dolter system the contact box (fig. 10) contains a bell crank lever with a carbon contact at its lower end. The upper arm of this lever is of soft iron, which is attracted by the magnet carried under the car. When the lever is moved the carbon block at the lower end is brought into contact with the fixed carbon contact in the side of the box which is perma- nently connected to the supply cable. In the G.B. contact box (fig. T i) contact is made direct to a bare feeder cable carried in a pipe (From The Tramway and Railway World.) FIG. ii.— G. B. Stud. objectionable feature — and the current is collected by a skate, suspended under the car, touching the projecting surface. In the G.B. system the stud heads are kept flush with the pavement, and the collector consists of iron links spring suspended. As the collector passes over the box the links are magnetically attracted, and move down, making contact with the stud. In all surface contact systems, short circuiting devices are provided to detect any studs which may remain live after the skate has passed, either by blowing a fuse or by ringing a bell, but it is questionable how much reliance can be placed on their efficiency under all conditions. The collecting skate and magnets carried by the cars on a surface, con- tact tramway are of considerable weight, and the skate requires re- newal at frequent intervals. An efficient system of street traction may be defined as one which, while giving a reasonable return on the capital invested, provides the public, without dis- figurement of the highway, with a quick and frequent service of comfortable cars. When tramways were first intro- duced the surface of the streets was often exceedingly rough. The tramcar running on rails was there- fore a great advance in comfort of travelling on the old stage carriage. Horse traction, however, limited the weight of the car and the speed of travelling. The sub- stitution of steam traction for horse traction was a great advance. Higher speeds and quicker acceleration were obtained, and larger and more comfortable cars A?v*°tage* ,, , _,. , of Different could be worked. The power, however, was limited, systems. and the locomotives, built as light as possible, were expensive in first cost and maintenance. Cable traction, owing to the heavy first cost of the track, requires a great density of traffic to make it pay. The speed is limited both up and down hill to that of the cable. It has the advantage that it can be safely worked on severe gradients, and once installed the working costs are low. Electric traction by accumulator cars was tried in Birmingham in 1890 and abandoned after some years of unsatisfactory working. The cars were costly to work and maintain. The storage batteries had to be re- charged at frequent intervals, and they rapidly dropped in capacity. There was little reserve of power, and the cells added considerably to the weight of the car. Those forms of electric traction in which the power is supplied to the cars from an outside source have many advantages. Only the weight of the motors has to be carried. These are efficient over a wide range of speed, accelerate quickly, have a large reserve of power and are clean and silent. The electric conduit and surface contact tramways do not require any disfiguring over- head wires. They have, however, troubles of their own. The construction of the electric conduit is so expensive that its choice must necessarily be limited to large cities. The conductors are easily short-circuited. Gaps in the conductors must be left at the points and crossings. The cost of keeping the conduit clean is considerable. It has the advantage, however, of having both the posi- tive and negative conductors insulated. Surface contact systems require studs or contact boxes to be placed (From J . H. Rider s Electric Traction, by permission of Whittaker & Co.) . * ,„ in the road. In most systems these project above the Cross-section of Stud, Skates and Magnets. Dolter System. sur{ace of the street- The switches. which they contain are hidden away from inspection. A failure of insulation or the sticking of a switch may allow a live stud to be unprotected in the roadway. The weight of the car and consequently the power required to move it is considerably increased by the skate, under the boxes. The switch, consisting of a piece of galvanized iron, is suspended freely by means of an insulated phosphor bronze spring. At the lower end of this moving piece a carbon contact piece is attached. When the magnet carried by the car passes over a stud, the moving piece is magnetically attracted to the cable against the pull of the spring. In the Lorain and the Dolter systems the studs are raised slightly above the road surface — which is an magnet and battery which have to be carried. For simplicity of working the overhead system easily comes 164 TRAMWAY first. The conductors are out of reach, they can easily be doubly or trebly insulated, and with their insulators are open to inspection. The poles and wiring can be erected without closing or obstructing the street. The supply of power is not interfered with by heavy rain, snow or other climatic causes. Duplicate conductors are used, and repairs can be rapidly executed. The only objection is that of unsightliness, which, however, can be greatly reduced by good design. The cost of establishing tramways to be worked on the various systems of traction mentioned above has varied considerably. The jocality and the amount of street widening have considerable influence on the total. Horse tramways in the larger cities cost in the past about £15,000' per track mile complete with horses, cars, &c., tramways worked by steam power about £18,000 2 per track mile including locomotives and cars. The Edinburgh Corporation cable tramways cost £23,316" to establish complete with power- house, cars, &c. Of this figure, the cost of the permanent way construction amounted to £14,^.31. 3 The construction and equipment of the South London conduit tramways cost £25,106' per mile of single line; the permanent way, its electrical equipment and the distributing cables cost £15,895* per track mile. More recent estimates appear to show that the average cost in London will be between £26,000 and £30,000 per track mile. In Glasgow the total cost of constructing and equipping the electric tramways on the overhead system, including the provision of a power station, cost £19,787* per track mile, and at Leeds £13,206. At Manchester, where current is provided by the lighting station, the complete cost works out at £i 2,498. 6 The cost of the permanent way, cables and electrical equipment per track mile vanes from £6575 at Man- chester to £9959 at Glasgow. The cost of laying down a surface contact electric tramway is about slightly more than that of con- structing and equipping a track with overhead conductors. The cost of the permanent way and its electrical equipment together with the cables at Wolverhampton on the Lorain surface contact principle amounted to £8601 per track mile. The working expenses of the various systems of traction are largely affected by the age of the tramway, the locality, and, in the case of electric lines, by the cost at which power is obtained. In Birmingham in 1890-1891 • horse traction cost 9479d. per car mile, steam traction io-99d. per mile, cable traction 6~33d. and electric accumulator traction g-god. per car mile. Modern electric trolley lines generating their own current work at from sd. to 6d. per car mile. Where current is purchased the costs vary from 6d. to 7jd. per car mile. The working costs of the London County Council conduit tramways worked on purchased current amounted to 8-O2d. per car mile in the year 1905-1906. Tramway Cars. — The modern tramway car is made up of two distinct parts, the body and the truck. The present type of double ended car with a platform at each end was first used on the American street railways about 1860. The car body was supported directly on axle-boxes through helical steel or rubber springs. When the early pioneers were experimenting in the United States with electric traction they attached the motor to the car body. This proved unsatisfactory, and resulted in the develop- ment of the modern truck. The truck may be described as a carriage or frame supported on the axle-boxes by springs and supporting by another set of springs the car body. The truck carries the motors and in itself resists all the strains of the driving mechanism. Modern car bodies are mounted either on a single four-wheeled truck, with a fixed or rigid wheel-base, or on two four-wheeled bogies or swivelling trucks. Four-wheeled radial trucks have been tried on several tramways, but they have not proved satis- factory. The wheel-base of the fixed or rigid truck usually varies from 6 to 7 ft. The length of the wheel-base should be determined by the radius of the sharpest curve. To obtain steady running it should be made as long as possible. Two motors are generally fitted on a car. Of the bogie or swivelling trucks the greater number now in use are of the " maximum traction " type. This truck is used to obtain the greatest tractive effect from two motors when fitted to a car supported on eight wheels. Each bogie is a small four-wheeled 'and4 See Tramways: Their Construction and Working, by D. K. Clarke. * Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. 156, p. 179. 4 Tramway Accounts, year ended March 31, 1906. 1 Ibid., year ended March 31, 1905. ' See Tramways: Their Construction and Working, by D. K. Clarke. truck in itself. It has one pair of its wheels driven by the single motor and of the standard size — about 30 in. — while the guiding or " pony " wheels are of small diameter. The weight of the car body is supported eccentrically on the truck, so that about 70% to 80% is available for adhesion under the driving-wheels. While this form of truck has many merits, it also has many disadvantages. The small wheels easily leave the rails, while the adhesion of the driving-wheels compared with a four-wheeled car is considerably reduced. Quick acceleration is difficult, and on a greasy rail much energy is lost in slipping. The use of equal-wheeled bogies with a motor on every axle gets over the difficulty of the loss of adhesion but at a greatly increased cost. The current consumption is increased, the first cost is greater, and there are four instead of two motors to be maintained. Steel-tired wheels have largely replaced the cast- iron chilled wheel for many years used on tramcars. While the various forms of trucks are common both to British and American practice, car body construction differs in many points. The single-deck car is universal outside the United Kingdom, where, although many single-deck cars are worked, the greater number are of the double-deck type. It is claimed that with small single-deck cars a quicker service can be maintained, as they are easier to load and unload and generally handier. On the other hand, the double-deck car seats more than double the number of passen- gers, requires the same number of men to work it, and takes but little more power to drive it. Experience has proved that the 58-passenger — 28 inside and 30 outside — double-deck car mounted on a four- wheeled truck is the type of rolling stock most suitable for British conditions. For heavy rush traffic or long distance travel the larger bogie cars are convenient. They are, however, slow to start and stop, and a 72-passenger car is too much for one conductor to work efficiently. Another difference is due to the width of the cars. In the United States car bodies vary from 8 ft. to 9 ft. 6 in. in width. In Great Britain the width is limited by the Tramways Act of 1870 to 1 1 in. beyond the outer edge of the wheels, which, on the standard gauge, allows the maximum width to be 6 ft. 10 in. This limit has governed the arrangement of the seating in the cars. Inside, the ordinary side seat is almost invariably adopted. Cross seats have been used, but they leave a very narrow gangway — a great disadvantage at times of overcrowding. On the top deck, where the available width is greater and standing is never permitted, cross seats are universally fitted. On the old horse cars a straight type of stairway was used. The reserved stairway, brought in about 1902, gave greater protection from accident and increased the seating accommodation on the top deck. It had, however, two great disadvantages. The stairway shut out the motorman's view on the left-hand side, and the stream of passengers descending met the stream of passengers leaving the inside of the car, causing delay. The reversed type of stairway has now been abandoned and the straight type, well protected by railings, is usually fitted. In addition to the ordinary single-deck and double-deck types af cars which are in general use many other designs are to be found. Single-deck open cars of the " toast-rack " type with transverse seats are popular on many holiday lines. They have the advantage of being quickly filled and emptied. Centre vestibule cars are now seldom seen. It is inconvenient not to have the conductor at the back of the car where he can look out for passengers, and, if necessary, " nurse " the trolley. There is also danger of a passenger being struck by the axle-boxes of the rear bogie truck when leaving the car. The Californian type of car body, with the central part closed in and one or two double-sided transverse seats at each end, has been used on routes where low bridges do not allow of the use of double- deck cars. The carrying capacity of this type in wet weather when the exposed seats cannot be used is small. A demi or one-man car lias been worked in some towns. It saves the wages of one man, but the average speed of the service is reduced. Top deck covers have in recent years been largely fitted. Their use practically doubles the covered seating capacity of the car and provides accommodation ror smokers, a difficult matter on a single-deck car. _In Great Britain the board of trade requires all cars to be fitted with an efficient form of lifeguard. The gate and tray pattern, n which anything striking the vertical gate drops the tray, is that principally employed. In addition to the ordinary hand-brake which operates shoes on all the wheels, and the electric reverse switch, a large number of cars are fitted with some form of electric Drake (see TRACTION). Legislative Conditions in Great Britain. — The first tramways constructed in Great Britain were promoted by private enter- prise under powers conferred by private acts of parliament, 'onsiderable opposition was offered to pioneer schemes, but after a few private acts had been passed, parliament, in 1870, passed a general act providing for the laying of rails upon roads, and specify- ng the procedure for tramway promotion and the main relations Between tramway undertakers and local authorities. The Tramways Act 1870, which is still in force, enabled promoters to apply to the board of trade for a provisional order which, when confirmed by parliament, possesses all the force of an act of TRAMWAY 165 parliament. The procedure is therefore simpler and cheaper than private bill procedure. Under this act promoters are obliged to obtain, as a condition precedent to making application for a provisional order, the consent of local authorities in whose areas the proposed tramways are to run. This provision is referred to as the " veto clause." Where a line is laid in two or more districts and two-thirds of the line are in districts where the local authorities do consent, the board of trade may dispense with the consent of the remainder. When procedure by private bill is adopted a similar " veto " provision is made by Standing Order 22, which requires the consent of the local authority (and of the road authority where there is one distinct from the local authority) before the bill goes to first reading; in this case also the consent of authorities for two-thirds of a continuous line are deemed sufficient. The powers granted under the Tramways Act are in perpetuity, subject to the right of the local authorities (under the 43rd section) to purchase, at the end of twenty-one years or each septennial period following (or within three months after the promoters have discontinued working the tramway or have become insolvent) , so much of the undertaking as lies within their areas, on paying the then value of the properties suitable to and used for the undertaking, exclusive of any allowance for past or future profits or compensation for compulsory sale or any other consideration whatsoever, such value to be determined by an arbitrator appointed by the board of trade. Another part of the arrangement specified between the local authorities and the undertakers is that the undertakers shall pave the tramway track between the outer rails and for 18 in. beyond each outer rail. Mr G. F. Shaw-Lefevre (afterwards Lord Eversley), when introducing the bill in 1870, said that it " would give powers to the local authorities to construct tramways, but not, of course, to work them." The idea apparently was that local authorities should retain full control of the roads by constructing the tram- ways, and would make arrangements with lessees on terms which would secure reasonable fares and other conditions for the benefit of the travelling public. It was not until 1896 that parliament permitted local authorities to work tramways as well as own them, except in cases where lessees could not be obtained. The precedents for municipal working were created by private acts at a time when public opinion was in favour of that policy; and after the first few bills for municipal tramway working had been successful, other municipalities found practically no diffi- culty in obtaining the desired powers, although parliament had never adequately discussed, as a specific reform, the departure from the principle laid down by Mr Shaw-Lefevre in 1870. The conditions in fact proved more favourable to municipal than company promoters, since the local authorities, as soon as they aspired to work tramways as well as own them, used the power of veto against the proposals of companies. The situation entered a more acute phase when electric traction was introduced on tramways. The Tramways Act provides, by section 34, that all carriages shall be moved by the power prescribed by the special acts or provisional order, and where no such power is prescribed, by animal power only. The mechanical power used must be by consent of the board of trade, and subject to board of trade regulations. Owing to the capital expenditure involved in electric traction, under- takings nearing the end of their twenty-one years' tenure found that it was not commercially feasible to carry out the change without an extension of tenure. The local authorities were reluctant to grant that extension, and they were also reluctant to give permission for the promotion of new lines. The difficulties of the altered conditions created by the advent of electric traction were met to some extent by the Light Railways Act 1896. This act contains no definition of a light railway, and it has been used largely for electric tramway purposes. Lord Morley , when piloting the bill through the Lords, said that " light railway " includes " not merely all tramways but any railway which the board of trade thinks may justly be brought within the scope." It certainly includes tramways in towns, and it might include large trunk lines throughout the country." Accordingly it has been used for the construction of many miles of tram lines on the public streets and also in some cases for extensions where the track leaves the public road, and is laid on land purchased for the purpose. These tracks are generally constructed with grooved girder rails, having a wide groove and a high check, so that the shallow flanged tramcar wheels can run on them with safety at high speeds. The rails are laid on cross sleepers and ballasted in the ordinary railway fashion. Fencing is erected, but level-crossing gates are often omitted, and cattle guards only are used to prevent animals straying on the track. These sleeper tracks on private ground are cheap to maintain if well constructed in the first instance. Speeds of 20 to 25 m. an hour have been sanctioned on electric lines of this character, worked by ordinary tramway rolling stock. There is no purchase clause in the Light Railways Act, but arrangements for purchase of the undertaking were usually made with the local authorities and the terms embodied in the order. The act contains no veto clause, section 7 stating that the commissioners are to " satisfy themselves that all reasonable steps have been taken for consulting the local authori- ties, including road authorities, through whose areas the rail- way is intended to pass, and the owners and occupiers of the land it is proposed to take." The Light Railway Commissioners, however, have interpreted the act in the spirit of the Tramways Act, so that for all practical purposes the veto remains. The new act differed from the Tramways Act in providing for the com- pulsory purchase of land under the Lands Clauses Acts — the Tramways Act expressly stating that the promoters should not be empowered to acquire land otherwise than by agreement. The board of trade has held that the act does not apply to tramways wholly within one borough. County, borough and district councils as well as individuals and companies are empowered to promote and work light railways. The passing of the act gave a great impetus to the construction of tramways worked by electric traction. But owing to the practical retention of the veto, there was not so much progress as was anticipated. Another cause of restriction was section g, sub-section 3, which provides that if the board of trade con- siders that " by reason of the magnitude of the proposed under- taking, or of the effect thereof on the undertaking of any railway company existing at the time, or for any other special reason relating to the undertaking, the proposals of the promoters ought to be submitted to parliament," they should not confirm the order. In many cases railway companies, by pleading the competitive influence of proposed tramways promoted under the Light Railways Act, were able to force the promoters to apply to parliament or to drop the scheme. The latter alternative was frequently adopted, owing to the costs of parliamentary procedure being too heavy for the undertaking. Commercial Results. — Interest in the commercial results of tram- way enterprise is practically limited to electric traction, since other forms of traction have been almost entirely superseded owing to their economical inferiority. The main advantages of electric traction over horse traction lie in the higher speed, greater carrying capacity of cars, and the saving in power over a system in which only a small proportion of the power source is available at one time. Steam, compressed air and gas traction possess the disadvantages that each car has to carry the dead weight of power-producing machinery capable of maintaining speed up to the maximum grade. Cable traction has the disadvantages that the speed of the cars is limited by the speed of the cable, that the range and complexity of the system are restricted, and that construction is expensive. The electric system, in which power is generated at a central source and distributed to cars which take power in proportion to the work being done, possesses a higher degree of flexibility, convenience and economy than any other system. Electric tramways in Great Britain are mostly equipped on the overhead trolley system, though the conduit and the surface contact systems have been installed in a few instances. Roughly the capital expenditure required for the three systems is in proportion of 2, ij and I, and both the conduit and the surface contact systems are more costly to maintain than the overhead system. A fourth system of electric traction, in which the cars are fitted with storage batteries charged at intervals, has been tried frequently and as frequently abandoned. The great weight of the batteries, the serious initial cost and high rate of deterioration prevented the attainment of financial success. The earliest development of electric road traction on a large scale took place in America and on the continent of Europe, and the i66 TRAMWAY estimates for British tramways were therefore prepared from American and continental results. The following figures summarize a number of estimates made at this period ; the first table gives the figures for capital cost, and the second for operating expenses. The receipts were estimated at lod per car mile. The financial results achieved by electric traction companies are summarized in the next table: — Permanent way, including bonding Overhead equipment . Feeder cables Cars at £700 each . . . Car sheds, sundries and contingencies . Total . Capital cost per mile of single track. - 5050 750 400 2IOO 1200 • £9500 Year. Number of companies. Aggregate capital. Average ordinary capital. Average preference capital. Average loan and debenture capital. Total average. I % % o/ /o % 1899-1900 24 9,056,332 3-87 5-56 4-64 4'37 1900-1901 37 15,021,137 4-27 5-53 4-57 • 4-65 1901-1902 62 28,322,117 4-07 4-44 4-53 4-29 1903 64 35479,296 4-31 5'" 4-47 4'57 1904 77 48,789,525 4-13 4-81 4'53 4-41 1905 90 61,273,986 3-79 4-92 4-39 4'33 1906 H7 77,202,373 3-47 4-81 4-18 4' 13 1907 118 99,315,028 2-87 4-25 4-38 3-78' Operating expenses per car mile. Electrical energy I'Sod Wages of drivers and conductors i-io Car shed expenses, wages and stores 0-55 General expenses 0-90 Repairs and maintenance 1-25 Total 5'3od. The estimates gave reason to expect that electric traction would mean cheaper fares and more frequent services at a higher speed, resulting in a considerable increase in traffic receipts per mile and a substantial reduction of working expenses. The result of pioneer undertakings in South Staffordshire, Bristol and Coventry supported this expectation. Later experience, however, showed that the estimates were top optimistic. Taking the actual figures realized for the undertakings included in the above tables, the capital expenditure per mile of single track was £12,000 and the working expenses per car mile 6-3d. The expectations as to gross revenue have been generally realized, but the increase in capital expenditure and working expenses over the estimates is typical of electric cram- ways in Great Britain. In the matter of wear and tear the estimates have also been top low. The reasons for the larger capital expendi- ture are (i) superior track construction, (2) more elaborate overhead equipment, (3) use of larger cars, (4) higher cost of road paving and other improvements imposed upon tramway undertakings. According to the official returns of tramways and light railways for the year 1905-1906, there were 312 tramway undertakings in the United Kingdom, and 175 of these belonged to local authorities. Out of the total of 1491 m. of line owned by local authorities, 1276 m. are worked by these authorities themselves, and the remaining 215 m. by leasing companies. Local authorities working as well as owning their tramways made a net profit of £2,529,752, applying £663,336 to the reduction of tramway debt and £205,981 to the relief of rates, while carrying £623,617 to reserve and renewal funds. The following table summarizes the amounts expended by local authorities on electric traction : — Year. Municipalities. £ 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 II 18 47 61 92 "5 131 131 1,169,429 2,748,873 10,519.543 14,644,126 21,295,771 27,876,320 31,147,824 35,965,920 The corresponding table for electric traction companies (including electric railways), detailing the amounts and proportions of ordinary preference and loan and debenture capital, is as follows: — The total expenditure on tramways and light railways (omitting railways — main, branch and suburban) was £15,195,993 in 1896 and £58,177-832 in 1906. One effect of the increased cost of expenditure per mile of track is to discourage extensions of rural and inter-urban lines where the traffic is not heavy. Proposals have been made to adopt the " rail- less trolley " (used in some places on the continent of Europe) for such extensions. In this system the cars run on ordinary wheels and take power from overhead trolley wires. But so far no such arrangement has been put into practice in Great Britain, and out- lying districts are generally dealt with by petrol or steam motor vehicles, running as feeders to the tramways and railways. The future commercial development of tramways lies more in the economics in working than in growth of track mileage. Owing to the enormous volume of traffic a very slight alteration in one of the items of expense or revenue produces a large result in the aggregate. The addition of id. per car mile to revenue or a corresponding reduction in expenses would, on the 240 millions of car miles run in 1905-1906, result in a gain of about £500,000 per annum, which is equal to nearly I % on the entire capital expenditure in respect of tramways and light railways. The tables given above show that the yield upon the capital invested in electric traction is not high. The effect of increased capital expenditure has been accentuated by reductions in fares. In 1886 the average fare per passenger was i-6id. and in 1896 it was l-3ld., falling in 1906 as low as l-iod. Some systems carry passengers over 2j m. for one penny, workmen being carried twice the distance for the same sum. Halfpenny fares are repre- sented as a boon to the working man, but they have been abandoned as a failure after several years' trial on several systems, and in Glasgow it is found that halfpenny fares contribute only 20-4 % of the early morning traffic, while the penny fare contributes 72-3% of that traffic. The general manager of the Birmingham Corporation, tramways reported against halfpenny fares on the basis of his ex- perience as general manager of the London County Council tramways that all the halfpenny passengers there are carried at a loss. The adjustment of fares and stages to their proper value is a question now carefully studied by tramway managers along with many problems of economy in _ working. The close adjustment of the service to the fluctuations in traffic is one source of economy which is being more seriously considered. Many systems have adopted top covers to cars in order to carry more passengers during wet weather. The adoption of these covers is not popular in fine weather; it adds to the weight and wind-resistance of the cars, thus increasing current consumption, and it adds to the cost of construction and maintenance. Economy in electrical energy is, in its broader aspects, secured by purchasing current from an outside source in preference to generating it at a special station. The average cost per unit of electricity for all tramway undertakings in the United Kingdom is i-o6d., but one tramway company which purchases its energy from a large power company pays only o-8sd. per unit. In its narrower aspects economy in current may be secured by reducing waste car mileage — that is to say, eliminating the running of cars at times and places where they are not required for an adequate service. Saving may also be effected by supervision of the driving of the cars, since the difference of as much as 20 % has been noted between different drivers. Year. Number of under- takings. Ordinary capital. Percent, to total. Preference capital. Percent, to total. Loan and Debenture capital. Percent, to total. Total. 1896 1897 1898-1899 1899-1900 1900-1901 1901-1902 1903 17 30 51 66 75 I25 126 £ 5,041,375 6,584,147 9,793,234 ".770,777 14,558,076 19,748,965 21,600,056 83 88 68 60 55 50 49 £ 412,776 124,850 1,640,780 3,834,761 5,904,998 9,748,891 11,170,319 7 2 II 20 23 24 25 £ 630,521 727,176 2,972,126 4.033,992 5,686,785 10,024,327 11,296,714 10 10 21 20 22 26 26 £ 6,084,672 7,436,173 14,406,140 19,639,530 26,149,859 39,522,183 44,067,089 1904 1905 1906 1907 156 159 170 173 33,491,604 36,949,069 38,130,981 53,034,778 54 47 41 45 13,219,487 22,853,948 25,206,988 30,642,266 22 29 27 26 14,895,418 19,410,384 29,522,581 34,372,411 24 24 32 29 61,606,509 79,213,401 92,860,550 118,049,455 One tramway manager secured substantial improvement by merely marking on the trolley standards the position which the controller handle should occupy in passing each point. The limitation of stops is an- other source of economy, the average cost per stop on a system having been found to beO'i7d. A slight increase in the maxi- mum speed of tramcars would 1 Average reduced owing to inclusion of Metropolitan and Metropolitan District railways' capital. TRANCE 167 also improve the net results by reducing the proportion of standing charges (wages, &c.) to the traffic capacity of the system without making the cost of maintenance or current more than slightly greater. A 15% increase in average speed means a saving of Jd. per car mile. The development of parcels traffic is a source of revenue, and addi- tional receipts can be earned by the hiring-out of cars for picnics and other special purposes. An important point is the proper selection of the size of car. A small four-wheeled car is suitable to continual traffic of compara- tively small volume, but when the traffic is heavy cars of larger capacity are advisable. A serious The following table gives a few totals, ratios, and percentages for the last two years of what may be called a period of electric traction, in comparison with a typical "steam" period (i.e. a period in which the use of steam power in tramways was at its maximum) and a typical " horse " period :- — burden on tramways is the cost of insurance against accidents, although the number of serious accidents on electric tramways is exceedingly small in proportion to the number of passengers carried, the ratio of tramway accidents of all kinds being about one accident to every 15,000 passengers. There are many adjoining towns having separate tramway under- takings which do not provide intercommunication. Experience has shown that a break of tramway facilities reduces the receipts by 20 to 50 % on the lines which have been severed ; and the terminal half-mile, except in populous districts, is the least remunerative section of a tramway route. Statistics. — Each year the British board of trade issues a return of street and road tramways and light railways authorized by act or order, showing the amount of capital authorized, paid up and expended; the length of line authorized and the length open for public traffic ; the gross receipts, working expenditures, net receipts and appropriation of net receipts ; the number of passengers conveyed ; the number of miles run by cars and the quantity of electrical energy used; together with the number of horses, engines and cars in use. The return published in January 1909 deals with the figures for local authorities up to the 3ist of March 1908 and for companies up to the 3 1st of December 1907. The following comparative table summarizes the most important general figures for the United Kingdom provided by this official return : — Electric period, 1907-1908. Steam period, 1896. Horse period, 1879. Length of route open Total number of passengers carried . . Percentage of net receipts to total capital outlay . Percentage of working expenditure to gross receipts Passengers carried per mile of route open . Average fare per passenger 2,464-22 2,625,532,895 6-81 62-64 1,065,462 i-09d. 1009 759,466,047 6-88 74-79 752,691 i-6id. 321-27 150,881,515 3-97 83-81 469,641 i-84d. From the above figures it will be noticed that the capital cost per mile has increased as a result of the adoption of electric traction, while at the same time the percentage of the return on the capital has been reduced notwithstanding that the rate of working expendi- ture has fallen and the number of passengers carried per mile has increased, the fares charged having been disproportionately reduced. (E. GA.) TRANCE (through the French, from Lat. transilus, from Iransire, to cross, pass over) , a term used very loosely in popular speech to denote any kind of sleeplike state that seems to pre- sent obvious differences from normal sleep; in medical and scien- tific literature the meaning is but little better defined. In its original usage the word no doubt implied that the soul of the entranced person was temporarily withdrawn or passed away from the body, in accordance with the belief almost universally held by uncultured peoples in the possibility of such withdrawal. But the word is now commonly applied to a variety of sleeplike states without the implication of this theory; ordinary sleep- walking, extreme cases of melancholic lethargy and of anergic stupor, the deeper stages of hypnosis (see HYPNOTISM), the Year ending Dec. 31 (com- Years ended June 30. panies) and March 31 (local authorities). 1878. 1886. 1898. 1902. 1907-1908 Total capital authorized £6,586,111 £17,640,488 £24,435,427 £51,677,471 £91,305.439 Total capital expended £4,207,350 £12,573,041 £16,492,869 £31,562,267 £68,199,918 Length of route open (miles) 269 865 1,064 1,484 2,464 Number of horses 9,222 24-535 38,777 24,120 5-288 Number of locomotive engines H 452 589 388 64 Number of cars 1,124 3-44° 5-335 7,752 10,908 Total number of passengers carried .... Quantity of electrical energy used, B.O.T. units Gross receipts I46,OOI,223 £l,099,27I 384,157,524 £2,630,338 858,485,524 £4,560,126 1,394,452,983 £6,679,291 2,625,532,895 431,969,119 £12,439,625 Working expenditure £868,315 £2,021,556 £3,507,895 £4,817,873 £7,792,663 Net receipts £230,956 £608,782 £1,052,231 £1,861,418 £4,646,962 The total figures at the date of the return are summarized in the following table, which is accompanied by one showing the lengths of line worked by various methods of traction : — cataleptic state, the ecstasy of religious enthusiasts, the self- induced dream-like condition of the medicine-men, wizards or priests of many savage and barbarous peoples, and the abnormal Capital expenditure Total expendi- Length open for traffic. No. of open for traffic. account. Double. Single. Total. takings. . L £ M. Ch. M. Ch. M. Ch. Tramways and light railways belonging to local authorities Tramways and light railways belonging to com- 32,978,5/9 44,920,317 III3 77 505 77 1619 74 177 panies and private individuals 18,641, 279 1 23,279,601 408 58 435 46 844 24 128 Total United Kingdom 51,619,858 68,199,918 1522 55 941 43 2464 18 305 Table showing lengths worked by various methods of traction : — Method of traction. England and Scotland. Ireland. Total. Electric Steam . Cable . . . Gas motors . Horse . Total. M. 1922 22 4 4 82 Ch. 66 67 49 2 60 M. 235 22 4 Ch. 35 72 28 M. 127 29 — . < 7 Ch. 69 45 5 M. 2286 52 27 4 94 Ch. IO 32 41 2 13 2037 4 262 55 164 39 2461 18 1 These figures include cost of buildings and equipment in respect of certain local authorities' lines worked in conjunction with other lines. state into which many of the mediums of modern spiritualistic seances seem to fall almost at will; all these are commonly spoken of as trance, or trance-like, states. There are no well- marked and characteristic physical symptoms of the trance state, though in many cases the pulse and respiration are slowed, and the reflexes diminished or abolished.. The common feature which more than any other determines the application of the name seems to be a relative or complete temporary indifference to impressions made on the sense-organs, while yet the entranced person gives evidence in one way or another, either by the expression of his features, his attitudes and movements, his speech, or by subsequent relation of his experiences, that his i68 TRANCE condition is not one of simple quiescence or arrest of mental life, such as characterizes the state of normal deep sleep and the coma produced by defective cerebral circulation by toxic substances in the blood or by mechanical violence done to the brain. If we refuse the name trance to ordinary sleep-walking, to normal dreaming, to catalepsy, to the hypnotic state and to stupor, there remain two different states that seem to have equal claims to the name; these may be called the ecstatic trance and the trance of mediumship respectively. The ecstatic trance is usually characterized by an outward appearance of rapt, generally joyful, contemplation; the sub- ject seems to lose touch for the time being with the world of things and persons about him, owing to the extreme concen- tration of his attention upon some image or train of imagery, which in most cases seems to assume an hallucinatory character (see HALLUCINATION). In most cases, though not in all, the sub- ject remembers in returning to his normal state the nature of his ecstatic vision or other experience, of which a curiously frequent character is the radiance or sense of brilliant luminosity. In the mediumistic trance the subject generally seems to fall into a profound sleep and to retain, on returning to his normal condition, no memory of any experience during the period of the trance. But in spite of the seeming unconscious- ness of the subject, his movements, generally of speech or writing, express, either spontaneously or in response to verbal interrogation, intelligence and sometimes even great intel- lectual and emotional activity. In many cases the parts of the body not directly concerned in these expressions remain in a completely lethargic condition, the eyes being closed, the muscles of neck, trunk and limbs relaxed, and the breathing stertorous. Trances of these two types seem to have occurred sporadic- ally (occasionally almost epidemically) amongst almost all peoples in all ages. And everywhere popular thought has interpreted them in the same ways. In the ecstatic trance the soul is held to have transcended the bounds of space or time, and to have enjoyed a vision of some earthly event distant in space or tune, or of some supernatural sphere or being. The mediumistic trance, on the other hand, popular thought in- terprets as due to the withdrawal of the soul from the body and the taking of its place, the taking possession of the body, by some other soul or spirit; for not infrequently the speech or writing produced by the organs of the entranced subject seems to be, or actually claims to be, the expression of a personality quite other than that of the sleeper. It is noteworthy that in almost all past ages the possessing spirit has been regarded in the great majority of cases as an evil and non-human spirit; whereas in modern times the possessing spirit has usually been regarded as, and often claims to be, the soul or spirit of some deceased human being. Modern science, in accordance with its materialistic and positive tendencies, has rejected these popular interpretations. It inclines to see in the ecstatic trance a case of hallucination induced by prolonged and intense occu- pation with some emotionally exciting idea, the whole mind becoming so concentrated upon some image in which the idea is bodied forth as to bring all other mental functions into abey- ance. The mediumistic trance it regards as a state similar to deep hypnosis, and seeks to explain it by the application of the notion of cerebral or mental dissociation in one or other of its many current forms; this assimilation finds strong support in the many points of resemblance between the deeper stages of hypnosis and the mediumistic trance, and in the fact that the artificially and deliberately induced state may be connected with the spontaneously occurring trance state by a series of States which form an insensible gradation between them. A striking feature of the mediumistic trance is the frequent occurrence of " automatic " speech and writing; and this feature especially may be regarded as warranting the appli- cation of the theory of mental dissociation for its explanation, for such automatic speech and writing are occasionally pro- duced by a considerable number of apparently healthy persons while in a waking condition which presents little or no other symptom of abnormality. In these cases the subject hears his own words, or sees the movement of his hand and his own hand writing, as he hears or sees those of another person, having no sense of initiating or controlling the movements and no anticipatory awareness of the thoughts expressed by the movements. When, as hi the majority of cases, such move- ments merely give fragmentary expression to ideas or facts that have been assimilated by the subject at some earlier date, though perhaps seemingly completely forgotten by him, the theory of mental dissociation affords a plausible and moderately satisfactory explanation of the movements; it regards them as due to the control of ideas or memories which somehow have become detached or loosened from the main system of ideas and tendencies that make up the normal personality, and which operate in more or less complete detachment; and the application of the theory is in many cases further justified by the fact that the " dissociated " ideas and memories seem in some cases to become taken up again by, or reincorporated with, the normal personality. But in recent years a new interest has been given to the study of the mediumistic trance by careful investigations (made with a competence that commands respect) which tend to re-establish the old savage theory of possession, just when it seemed to have become merely an anthropological curiosity. These investiga- tions have been conducted for the most part by members of the Society for Psychical Research, and their most striking results have been obtained by the prolonged study of the automatic speech and writing of the American medium, Mrs Piper. In this case the medium passes into a trance state apparently at will, and during the trance the organs of speech or the hand usually express what purport to be messages from the spirits of deceased relatives or friends of those who are present. A number of competent and highly critical observers have arrived at the conviction that these messages often com- prise statements of facts that could not have come to the know- ledge of the medium in any normal fashion ; and those who are reluctant to accept the hypothesis of " possession " find that they can reject it only at the cost of assuming the operation of tele- pathy (q.v.) in an astonishing and unparalleled fashion. During 1907-1908 the investigation was directed to the obtaining of communications which should not be explicable by the most extended use of the hypothesis of telepathic communication from the minds of living persons. The plan adopted was to seek for " cross-correspondences " between the communica- tions of the Piper " controls " and the automatic writings of several other persons which claimed to be directed by the same disembodied spirits; i.e. it was sought to find in the automatic writings of two or more individuals passages each of which in itself would be fragmentary and unintelligible, but which, taken in connexion with similar fragments contemporaneously pro- duced by another and distant writer, should form a significant whole; for it is argued that such passages would constitute irrefutable evidence of the operation of a third intelligence or personality distinct from that of either medium. The results published up to 1909 seem to show that this attempt met with striking success; and they constitute a body of evidence in favour of the hypothesis of possession which no impartial and unprejudiced mind can lightly set aside. Nevertheless, so long as it is possible to believe, as so many of the most competent workers in this field believe, that dissociated fragments of a personality may become synthesized to form a secondary and as it were parasitic personality capable of assuming temporary control of the organs of expression, and so long as we can set no limits to the scope of telepathic communication between embodied minds, lit would seem wellnigh impossible, even by the aid of fliis novel and ingenious plan of investigation, to achieve completely convincing evidence in favour of the hypothesis of "possession." LITERATURE. — F. Podmore, Modern Spiritualism (London, 1502); F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (London, 1903) ; Morton Prince, The Dissociation of a Personality TRANENT— TRANSBAIKALIA 169 (London, 1906). See also various articles in Grenzfragen des Nerven- und Seelenlebens, edited by L. Loewenfeld and H. Kurella (Wiesbaden, iqoo), especially the article " Somnambulismus und Spiritismus "; also articles in Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, especially pts. liii., Iv. and Ivii., and in the Journ. of Abnormal Psychology, edited by Morton Prince (Boston, 1906-1909) ; also litera- ture cited under AUTOMATISM; HYPNOTISM; MEDIUM; TELEPATHY and POSSESSION. (W. Me D.) TRANENT, a police burgh of Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 2584. It lies 9f m. E. of Edinburgh by road and i m. S.E. of Prestonpans station on the North British railway. The town possesses the oldest coal-mining charter (1202-1218) in Great Britain, and the mines and quarries in the neighbour- hood provide the staple industry. A fragment of a parish church, said to have been built in the nth century, still stands. Of the palace of the Setons which stood in the parish there are no remains. It was demolished towards the close of the i8th century and a modern mansion was erected on its site. In the neighbouring village of Ormiston, in 1885, a granite obelisk was erected in memory of Robert Moffat (1795-1883), a native, the South African missionary and father-in-law of Livingstone. _ At Ormiston Hall, a seat of the marquess of Linlithgow, there is a yew tree, beneath which the reformer George Wishart (1513-1546) used to preach. Hard by is the village of Pencaitland, divided into an eastern and a western portion by the Tyne. The parish church in Easter Pencaitland probably dates from the I3th century. The aisle may belong to the original building, but the rest is of the 1 6th century, excepting the small belfry of the 1 7th century. The old house of Pencaitland stands in the grounds of Winton Castle, which was erected by the 3rd earl of Winton in 1620 but forfeited by the 5th earl, who was involved in the Jacobite rising of 1715. Five miles south-east of Tranent is the village of Salton (or Saltown), where Gilbert Burnet, afterwards bishop of Salisbury, had his first charge (1665). At his death he bequeathed the parish 20,000 marks for the clothing and educating of poor children. He was tutor to Andrew Fletcher, who was born at Salton in 1655 and buried there in 1716. At Fletcher's instigation James Meikle, a neighbour- ing millwright, went to Holland to learn the construction of the iron-work of barley mills, and the mill which he erected at Salton after his return not only gave Salton barley a strong hold on the market, but was also for forty years the only mill of its kind in the British Isles. Meikle's son Andrew (1719-1811), inventor of the threshing machine, carried on his trade of millwright at Houston Mill near Dunbar. Andrew Fletcher, also of Salton (1692-1766), nephew of the elder Andrew, became lord justice clerk in 1735 under the style of Lord Milton. By his mother's energy the art of weaving and dressing holland linen was introduced into the village. She travelled in Holland with two skilled mechanics who contrived to learn the secrets of the craft. The British Linen Company laid down their first bleachfield at Salton under Lord Milton's patronage. Salton also lays claim to having been the birthplace of the poet William Dunbar. TRANI, a seaport and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, on the Adriatic, in the province of Bari, and 26 m. by rail W.N.W. of that town, 23 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 34,688. Trani has lost its old walls and bastions, but the 13th-century Gothic citadel is used as a prison. Some of the streets remain much as they were in the medieval period, and many of the houses dis- play more or less of Norman decoration. The cathedral (dedi- cated to St Nicholas the Pilgrim, a Greek assassinated at Trani in 1094 and canonized by Urban II.), on a raised open site near the sea, was consecrated, before its completion, in 1143; it is a basilica with three apses, a large crypt and a lofty tower, the latter erected in 1230-1239 by the architect whose name appears on the ambo in the cathedral of Bitonto, Nicolaus Sacerdos. It has an arch under it, being supported partly on the side wall of the church, and partly on a massive' pillar. The arches of the Romanesque portal are beautifully ornamented, in a manner suggestive of Arab influence; the bronze doors, executed by Barisanus of Trani in 1175, rank among the best of their period in southern Italy. The capitals of the pillars in the crypt are fine examples of the Romanesque. The interior of the cathedral has been barbarously modernized, but the crypt is fine. Near the harbour is the Gothic palace of the doges of Venice, which b now used as a seminary. The church of the Ognissanti has a Romanesque relief of the Annunciation over the door. S. Giacomo and S. Francesco also have Romanesque facades and the latter and S. Andrea have " Byzantine " domes. The vicinity of Trani produces an excellent wine (Moscato di Trani) ; and its figs, oil, almonds and grain are also profitable articles of trade. Trani is the Turenum of the itineraries. It first became a flourishing place under the Normans and during the crusades, but attained the acme of its prosperity as a seat of trade with the East under the Angevin princes. The harbour, however, has lost its importance. TRANQUEBAR, a town of British India, in the Tanjore district of Madras, on the sea-coast, 18 m. N. of Negapatam. Pop. (1901), 13,142. A Danish factory was opened here as early as 1620. It was taken by the British in 1801, but restored in 1814, and finally purchased, with the other Danish settlements in India, in 1845. In Danish times Tranquebar was a busy port, but it lost its importance when the railway was opened to Negapatam. It was the first settlement of Protestant missionaries in India, founded by Ziegenbalg and Plutschau (Lutherans) in 1706; and there is still a Lutheran mission high school and mission press. TRANSBAIKALIA (sometimes also known as Dauria), a province of Eastern Siberia, lying E. of Lake Baikal, with the government of Irkutsk on the N.W. and N., the provinces of Amur and Manchuria on the E. and Mongolia on the S. Its area (232,846 sq. m.) is nearly as large as that of Austria- Hungary, but its population does not much exceed half a million. Transbaikalia forms an intermediate link between Siberia, Mon- golia and the northern Pacific littoral. The Yablonoi Mountains, which run north-east from the sources of the Kerulen to the bend of the Olekma in 56° N., divide the province into two quite distinct parts; to the west, the upper terrace of the high east Asian plateau, continued from the upper Selenga and the Yenisei (4000 to 5000 ft. high) towards the plateau of the Vitim (3500 to 4000 ft.); and to the east the lower terrace of the same plateau (2800 ft.), forming a continuation of the eastern Gobi. Beginning at Lake Baikal, a valley, deep and broad, penetrates the north-western border-ridge of the plateau, and runs eastward up the river Uda, with an im- perceptible gradient, like a gigantic railway cutting enclosed between two steep slopes, and it sends another branch south towards Kiakhta. After having served, through a succession of geological periods, as an outlet for the water and ice which accumulated on the plateau, it is now utilized for the two highways which lead from Lake Baikal across the plateau (3500- 4000 ft.) to the Amur on the east and the Chinese depression on the south. Elsewhere the high and massive border-ridge on the north-western edge of the plateau can be crossed only by difficult footpaths. The border-ridge just mentioned, gapped by the wide opening of the Selenga, runs from south-west to north-east under different names, being known as Khamar-daban (6900 ft.) south of Lake Baikal, and as the Barguzin Mountains (7000 to 8000 ft.) along the east bank of the Barguzin river, while farther north-east it has been described under the names of the South Muya and the Chara Mountains (6000 to 7000 ft.). Resting its south-east base on the plateau, it descends steeply on the north-west to the lake and to the broad picturesque valleys of the Barguzin, Muya and Chara. Thick forests of larch, fir and cedar clothe the ridge, whose dome-shaped rounded summits (goltsy) rise above the limits of tree vegetation, but dp not reach the snow-line (here above 10,000 ft.). The high plateau itself has the aspect of an undulating table-land, intersected by ranges, which rise some 1500 or 2000 ft. above its surface, and are separated by broad, flat, marshy valleys, traversed by sluggish meandering streams. The better drained valleys have fine meadow lands, while the hills are clothed with forests (almost exclusively of larch and birch). Numberless lakes and ponds occur along the river courses. Tunguses hunt in the forests and meadows, but permanent agricultural settlements are impossible, corn seldom ripening on account of the early frost. The lower parts of the broad, flat valley of the Jida have, however, a few Cossack settlements, and Mongolian shepherds inhabit the elevated grassy valleys about Lake Kosso-gol (5300 ft. above the sea). Quite different is the lower terrace of the plateau, occupied by the eastern Gobi and the Nerchinsk region, and separated from the upper terrace by the Yablonoi range. This last is the south- eastern border-ridge of the higher terrace. It rises to 8035 ft. in the Sokhondo peak, but elsewhere its dome-shaped summits do not exceed 5000 or 6000 ft. Numberless lakes, with flat undefined margins, feed streams which join the great north-going rivers or the Amur and the Pacific. Low hills rise above the edge of the plateau, but the slope is abrupt towards the south-east, where the foot-hills of the Yablonoi are nearly 1500 and 2000 ft. lower than on the north-west. Climate, flora and fauna change suddenly as soon as the Yablonoi has been crossed. The Siberian flora gives way to the Daurian flora, and this is in turn exchanged for the Pacific littoral flora on the Manchurian plains and lowlands. 1 70 TRANSCASPIAN REGION The lower terrace has the character of a steppe, but is intersected by a number of ranges, plications of Silurian and Devonian rocks, all running south-west to north-east, and all containing silver, lead, copper and auriferous sands. Agriculture can be easily carried on in the broad prairies, the only drawbacks being droughts, and frosts in the higher closed valleys of the Nerchinsk or Gazimur Mountains. The lower terrace is in its turn fringed by a border-ridge — the Great Khingan — which occupies, with reference to the lower terrace, the same position that the Yablonoi does in relation to the upper, and separates Siberia from northern Manchuria. This important ridge does not run from south to north, as represented on the old maps, but from ['south-west to north-east ; it is pierced by the Amur near Albazin, and joins the Okhotsk Mountains, which however do not join the Yoblonoi Mountains. The rivers belong to three different systems — the affluents of Lake Baikal, of the Lena and of the Amur. Of the first the Selenga (800 m. long) rises in north-west Mongolia, one of its tributaries (the Egin-gol) being an emissary of Lake Kosso-gol. The Chikoi, Khilok and Uda are its chief tributaries in Transbaikalia. The Barguzin and the upper Angara enter Lake Baikal from the north- east. Of the tributaries of the Lena, the Vitim with its affluents (Karenga, Tsipa, and Muya) flows on the high plateau through un- inhabited regions, as also does the Olekma. The, tributaries of the Amur are much more important. The Argun, which at a quite recent epoch received the waters of the Dalai-nor, and thus had the Kerulen for its source, is no longer in communication with the rapidly desiccating Mongolian lake, but has its sources in the Gan, which flows from the Great Khingan Mountains. It is not navigable, but receives the Gazimur and several other streams from the Nerchinsk mining district. The Shilka is formed by the union of the Onon and the Chita rivers, and is navigable from the town of Chita, thus being an important channel to the Amur. Lake Baikal, with an area of 13,200 sq. m. (nearly equal to that of Switzerland), extends in a half crescent from south-west to north-east, with a length of nearly 400 m. and a width of 20 to 50 m. Its level is 1,500 ft. above the sea.1 The wide delta of the Selenga narrows it in the middle, and renders it shallower in the east than in the west. The other lakes include the Gusinoye and Lake Ba-unt on the Vitim plateau. Many lakes yield common salt. The high plateau is built up of granites, gneisses and syenites, overlain by Laurentian schists. Silurian and Devonian marine deposits occur only on the lower terrace. Since that epoch the region has not been under the sea, and only fresh-water Jurassic deposits and coal beds are met with in the depressions. During the Glacial period most of the high terrace and its border ridges were undoubtedly covered with vast glaciers. Volcanic rocks of more recent origin (Mesozoic?) are met with in the north-western border-ridge and on its slopes, as well as on the Vitim plateau. During the Glacial period the fauna of the lowest parts of Trans- baikalia was decidedly arctic; while during the Lacustrine or post- Glacial periods this region was dotted over with numberless lakes, the shores of which were inhabited by Neolithic man. Only few traces of these survive, and they are rapidly drying up. Earth- quakes are very frequent on the shores of Lake Baikal, especially at the mouth of the Selenga, and they extend as far as Irkutsk, Barguzin and Selenginsk; in 1862 an extensive area was submerged by the lake. Numerous mineral springs, some of them of high repute, exist all over Transbaikalia. The most important are the hot alkaline springs (130° F.) at Turka, at the mouth of the Barguzin, those of Pogromna on the Uda (very similar to the Seltzer springs), those of Molokova near Chita and those of Darasun in the Nerchinsk district. The climate is, as a whole, exceedingly dry. The winter is cold and dry, the thermometer dropping as low as — 58° F. But the snow is so trifling that the horses of the Buryats are able to procure food throughout the winter on the steppes, and in the very middle of the winter wheeled vehicles are used all over the west. To the east of the Yablonoi ridge the Nerchinsk district feels the influence of the North Pacific monsoons, and snow falls more thickly, especially in the valleys; but the summer is hot and dry. On the high plateau even the summer is cold, owing to the altitude and the humidity arising from the marshes, and the soil is frozen to a great depth. At Chita the daily range in summer and spring is sometimes as much as 33° to 46° In the vicinity of Lake Baikal there is a cooler summer; in winter exceedingly deep snow covers the mountains around the lake.2 The estimated population in 1906 was 742,200. The Russian population is gathered around the mines of the Nerchinsk district, while the steppes are occupied by the Buryats. A string of villages has been planted along the Shilka between Chita and Stryetensk. The valleys of the Uda, the lower Selenga, and especially the Chikoi and the Khilok have been occupied since the beginning of the igth century by Raskolniks, some of whom, living in a condition of prosperity such as is unknown in 1 There is uncertainty as to the absolute altitude (see BAIKAL). 2 See" DasKlimavon Ost-Siberien," by A. Woyeikow, in Meleorol. Zeitschrift (1884). Russia proper, rank amongst the finest representatives of the Russian race. The remainder of the steppe of the Uda is occu- pied by Buryats, while the forests and marshes of the plateau are the hunting grounds of the nomad Tunguses. South of the Khamar-daban the only settled region is the lower valley of the Jida. On the Upper Argun the Cossacks are in features, character, language and manners largely Mongolian. The Russians along the Chinese frontier constitute a separate voisko or division of the Transbaikal Cossacks. The Buryats number about 180,000, the Tunguses over 30,000. The province is divided into five districts, the chief towns of which are Chita, the capital, Barguzin, Nerchinsk, Selenginsk and Verkhneudinsk. Although a good deal of land has been cleared by the settlers, nearly one-half of the entire area is still covered with forests. The principal varieties are fir, larch, aspen, poplar and birch, with Abies pectinata in the north and the cedar in the south. Only about one-third of the surface is adaptable for cultivation, and of that only about one-tenth is actually under tillage. Agriculture is carried on to a limited extent by the Buryats and in all the Russian settlements; but it prospers only in the valleys of West Transbaikalia, and partly in the Nerchinsk region, while in the steppes of the Argun and Onon even the Russians resort to pastoral pursuits and trade, or to hunting. Livestock rearing is extensively carried on, especially by the Buryats, but their herds and flocks are often destroyed in great numbers by the snowstorms of spring. Hunting is an important occupation, even with the Russians, many of whom leave their homes in October to spend six weeks in the taiga (forest region). The fisheries of Lake Baikal and the lower parts of its affluents are important. Enormous quantities of Salmo omul are taken every year ; and 5. thymalus, S. oxyrhynchus and S. fluviatilis are also taken. Mining, and especially gold mining, is important, but the production of gold has fallen off. Silver mines have only a very small output. Iron mining is gradually developing, and good coal mines are now being worked. Salt is raised from several lakes, and the extraction of Epsom salts has considerably developed. Manufactures, though insignificant, have increased. The trade is chiefly concentrated at Kiakhta. The Cossacks on the frontier traffic in brick-tea, cattle and hides with Mongolia. The export of furs is of considerable value. Transbaikalia >is crossed by the Trans-siberian railway from Mysovaya on Lake Baikal, via Chita, to Stryetensk, andfromKaida- lovo, near Chita, to the Mongolian frontier; the latter section is continued across Manchuria to Vladivostok and Port Arthur. Regular steamer communication has been established along Lake Baikal, not only for the transport of passengers and goods between the two railway stations of Listvinichnoye and Mysovaya, but also with the object of developing the fishing industry, which is of great importance. Steamers ply up the Selenga river as far as Selenginsk, considerable cargoes of tea being transported along this line. (P.A. K.; J. T. BE.) TRANSCASPIAN REGION, a Russian territory on the E. of the Caspian, bounded S. by Khorasan and Afghanistan, N. by the Russian province of Uralsk, N.E. by Khiva and Bokhara and S.E. by Afghan Turkestan. Area, 212,545 sq. m. Some of the most interesting problems of geography, such as those relating to the changes in the course of the Jaxartes (Syr-darya) and the Oxus (Amu-darya), and the supposed periodical disappearance of Lake Aral, are connected with the Transcaspian deserts; and it is here that we must look for a clue to the physical changes which transformed the Euro-Asiatic Mediterranean — the Aral-Caspian and Pontic basin — into a series of separate seas, and desiccated them, powerfully influencing the distribution of floras and faunas, and centuries ago com- pelling the inhabitants of Western and Central Asia to enter upon their great migrations. But down to a comparatively recent date the arid, barren deserts, peopled only by wandering Turkomans, were almost a terra incognita. A mountain chain, comparable in length to the Alps, separates the deserts of the Transcaspian from the highlands of Khorasan. It begins in the Krasnovodsk peninsula of the Caspian, under the names of Kuryanyn-kary and Great Balkans, whose masses of granite and other crystalline rock reach an altitude of some 5350 ft. Farther south-east they are continued in the Little Balkans (2000 ft.) and the Kopepet-dagh or Kopet-dagh. The latter rises steep and rugged above the flat deserts over a stretch of 600 m. In structure it is homologous with the Caucasus chain ; it appears as an outer wall of the Khorasan plateau, and is separated from it by a broad valley, which, like the Rion and Kura valley of Transcaucasia, is drained by two rivers flowing in opposite directions — the Atrek, which flows north-west into the Caspian, and the Keshef-rud, which flows to TRANSCASPIAN REGION 171 the south-east and is a tributary of the Murghab. On the other side of this valley the Alla-dagh (Aladagh) and the Binalund border- ranges (9000 to 11,000 ft.) fringe the edge of the Khorasan plateau. Descending towards the steppe with steep stony slopes, the mountain barrier of the Kopet-dagh rises to heights of 6000-9000 ft. to the east of Kyzyl-arvat, while the passes which lead from the Turkoman deserts to the valleys of Khorasan are seldom as low as 3500, and usually rise to 5000, 6000 and even 8500 ft., and in most cases are very difficult. It is pierced by only one wide opening, that between the Great and Little Balkans, through which the sea, which once covered the steppe, maintained connexion with the Caspian. While the Alla-dagh and Binalund border-ranges are chiefly composed of crystalline rocks and metamorphic slates, overlain by Devonian deposits, a series of more recent formations — Upper and Lower Cretaceous and Miocene — crops out in the outer wall of the Kopet-dagh. Here again we find that the mountains of Asia which stretch towards the north-west continued to be uplifted at a geologically recent epoch. Quarternary deposits have an extensive development on its slopes, and its foothills are bordered by a girdle of loess. The loess terrace, called Atok (" mountain base "), 10 to 20 m. in width, is very fertile; but it will produce nothing without irriga- tion, and the streams flowing from the Kopet-dagh are few and scanty. The winds which impinge upon the northern slope of the mountains have been deprived of all their moisture in crossing the Kara-kum — the Black Sands of the Turkoman desert; and even such rain as falls on the Kopet-dagh (10^ in. a,t Kyzyl-arvat) too often reaches the soil in the shape of light showers which do not penetrate it, so that the average relative humidity is only 56 as compared with 62 at even so dry a place as Krasnovodsk. Still, at those places where the mountain streams run closer to one another, as at Geok-tepe, Askhabad, Lutfabad and Kaaka, the villages are more populous, and the houses are surrounded by gardens, every square yard and every tree of which is nourished by irrigation. North of this narrow strip of irrigated land begins the desert — the Kara-kum — which extends from the mountains of Khorasan to Lake Aral and the plateau of Ust-Urt, and from the Caspian to the Amu-darya, interrupted only by the oases of Merv and Tejen. But the terrible shifting sands, blown into barkhans, or elongated hills, sometimes 50 and 60 ft. in height, are accumulated chiefly in the west, where the country has more recently emerged from the sea. Farther east the barkhans are more stable. Large areas amidst the sands are occupied by takyrs, or flat surfaces paved with clay, which, as a rule, is hard but becomes almost impassable after heavy rains. In these takyrs the Turkomans dig ditches, drain- ing into a kind of cistern, where the water of the spring rains can be preserved for a few months. Wells also are sunk, and the water is found in them at depths of 10 to 50, or occasionally 100 ft. and more. All is not desert in the strict sense; in spring there is for the most part a carpet of grass. The vegetation of the Kara-kum cannot be described as poor. The typical representative of the sandy deserts of Asia, the saksaul (Anabasis ammodendron), has been almost destroyed within the last hundred years, and occurs only sporadically, but the borders of the spaces covered with saline clay are brightened by forests of tamarisk, which are inhabited by great numbers of the desert warbler ( Atraphornis aralensis) — a typical inhabitant of the sands- sparrows and ground-choughs (Podoces) ; the Houbara macqueeni, though not abundant, is characteristic of the region. Hares and foxes, jackals and wolves, marmots, moles, _ hedgehogs and one species of marten live in the steppe, especially in spring. As a whole, the fauna is richer than might be supposed, while in the Atok it contains representatives of all the species known in Turkestan, intermingled with Persian and Himalayan species. The Uzboi. — A feature distinctive of the Turkoman desert is the very numerous shors, or elongated depressions, the lower portion of which are mostly occupied with moist sand. They are obviously the relics of brackish lakes, and, like the lakes of the Kirghiz steppes, they often follow one another in quick succession, thus closely resembling river-beds. As the direction of the .shors is generally from the higher terraces drained by the Amu-darya towards the lowlands of the Caspian, they were usually regarded as old beds of the Amu-darya, and were held to support the idea of its once having flowed across the Turkoman desert towards what is now the Caspian Sea. It was formerly considered almost settled, not only that that river (see Oxus) flowed into the Caspian during histor- ical times, but that after having ceased to do so in the yth century, its waters were again diverted to the Caspian about 1221. A chain of elongated depressions, bearing a faint resemblance to old river- beds, was traced from Urgenj to the gap between the Great and the Little Balkans; this was marked on the maps as the Uzboi, or old bed of the Oxus.1 The idea of again diverting the Amu into the Caspian was thus set afloat, but the investigations of Russian engi- neers, especially A. E. Hedroitz, A. M. Konshin, I. V. Mushketov, 1 On the original Russian map of the Transcaspian, drawn immediately after the survey of the Uzboi had been completed, the Uzboi has not the continuity which is given to it on subsequent maps. P. M. Lessar and Svintsov,2 went to show that the Uzboi is no river-bed at all, and that no river has ever discharged its waters in that direction. The existence of an extensive lacustrine depres- sion, now represented by the small Sary-kamysh lakes, was proved, and it was evident that this depression, having a length of more than 130 m., a width of 70 m., and a depth of 280 ft. below the present level of Lake Aral, would have to be filled by the Amu before its waters could advance farther to the south-west. The sill of this basin being only 28 ft. below the present level of Lake Aral, this latter could not be made to disappear, nor even be notably reduced in size, by the Amu flowing south-west from Urgenj. A more careful exploration of the Uzboi has shown that, while the deposits in the Sary-kamysh depression, and the Aral shells they contain, bear unmistakable testimony to the fact of the basin having once been fed by the Amu-darya, no such traces are found along the Uzboi below the Sary-kamysh depression ;s on the contrary, shells of molluscs still inhabiting the Caspian are found in numbers all along it, and the supposed old bed has all the characteristics of a series of lakes which continued to subsist along the foothills of the Ust-Urt plateau, while the Caspian was slowly receding westwards during the post- Pliocene period. On rare occasions only did the waters of the Sary- kamysh, when raised by inundations above the sill just mentioned, send their surplus into the Uzboi. It appears most probable that in the l6th century the Sary-kamysh was confounded with a gulf of the Caspian;4 and this gives much plausibility to Konshin's supposition that the changes in the lower course of the Amu (which no geologist would venture to ascribe to man, if they were to mean the alternative discharge of the Amu into the Caspian and Lake Aral) merely meant that by means of appropriate dams the Amu was made to flow in the I3th-i6th centuries alternately into Lake Aral and into the Sary-kamysh. The ancient texts (of Pliny, Strabo, Ptolemy) about the Jaxartes and Oxus only become intelligible when it is admitted that, since the epoch to which they relate, the outlines of the Caspian Sea and Lake Aral have undergone notable changes, commensurate with those which are supposed to have occurred in the courses of the Central Asian rivers. The desiccation of the Aral-Caspian basin proceeded with such rapidity that the shores of the Caspian cannot possibly have maintained for some twenty centuries the outlines which they exhibit at present. When studied in detail, the general configuration of ttie Transcaspian region leaves no doubt that both the Jaxartes and the Oxus, with its former tributaries, the Murghab and the Tejen, once flowed towards the west; but the Caspian of that time was not the sea of our days; its gulfs penetrated the Turkoman steppe, and washed the base of the Ust-Urt plateau. (See CASPIAN and ARAL.) Kelif-Uzboi. — There is also no doubt that, instead of flowing north-westward of Kelif (on the present Bokhara- Afghan frontier), the Amu once bent south to join the Murghab and Tejen; the chain of depressions described by the Russian engineers as the Kelif- Uzboi6 supports this hypothesis, which a geographer cannot avoid making when studying a map of the Transcaspian region ; but the date at which the Oxus followed such a course, and the extension which the Caspian basin then had towards the east, are uncertain. In 1897 the population numbered 377,416, of whom only 42,431 lived in towns; but, besides those of whom the census took account, there were about 25,000 strangers and troops. 2 Their original papers are printed in the Izvestia of the Russian Geographical Society, 1883 to 1887, also in the Journal of the Russian ministry of roads and communications. 8 According to A. E. Hedroitz and A. M. Konshin the old Tonu- darya bed of the Amu contains shells of molluscs now living in the Amu (Cyrena fluminalis, Dreissensia polymorpha and Anodonta), The Sary-kamysh basin is characterized by deposits containing Neritina lilurata,, Dreissensia polymorpha and Limnaeus, character- istic of this basin. Below the Sary-kamysh there are no deposits containing shells characteristic of the Amu; Anodontae are found quite occasionally on the surface, not in beds, in company with the Caspian Cardium (Didacna) trigonoid.es, var. crassum, Cardium piramidatum. Dreissensia polymorpha, D. roslriformis, Hydrobia caspia, Neritina lilurata and Dreissensia beardii; the red clays containing these fossils extend for 130 m. east of the Caspian (Izvestia of Russ. Geog. Soc., 1883 and 1886). 4 As by Jenkinson, who mentions a freshwater gulf of the Caspian within six days' march from Khwarezm (or Khiva), by which gulf he could only mean the Sary-kamysh depression. 6 The Turkomans call this southern " old bed " Unghyuz or Onguz (" dry old bed "), and there can be no doubt that when the Bolshoi- Chertezh of the i6th century (speaking from anterior information) mentions a river, Ughyuz or Ugus, flowing west from the Amu towards the Caspian, it is merely describing as a river what the very name shows to have been a dry bed, supposed to have been once occupied by a river. The similarity of the names Ongus and Ugus with Ogus and Ochus possibly helped to accentuate, if not to give rise to, the confusion. Cf. N. G. Petrusevich, " The South-east Shores of the Caspian," in Zapiski of the Caucasian Geographical Society (1880), vol. xi. 172 TRANSCAUCASIA— TRANSEPT Included in the total were some 280,000 Turkomans, 60,000 Kirghiz, 12,000 Russians, 8000 Persians, 4250 Armenians, and some Tatars. The estimated population in 1906 was 397,100. The province is divided into five districts, the chief towns of which are Askhabad, the capital; Krasnovodsk; Fort Alexan- drovskiy, in the district of Manghishlak, on the Caspian Sea; Merv and Tejen. Until a recent date the chief occupations of the Turkomans were cattle-rearing and robbery. Even those who had settled abodes on the oases of the Atok, Tejen and Merv were in the habit of encamping during the spring in the steppes, the khanates of Afghan Turkestan from Balkh to Meshhed being periodically devastated by them. The aspect of the steppe has, however, greatly changed since the Russian advance and the fall ( 1 88 1 ) of the Turkoman stronghold of Geok-tepe. Their principal oases are situated along the Atok or loess terrace, the chief settlements being Askhabad, Kyzyl-arvat and Geok-tepe. The oasis of Merv is inhabited by Akhal-tekkes (about 240,000) , mostly poor. In January 1887 they submitted to Russia. The oasis of Tejen has sprung up where the river Tejen (Heri-rud) terminates in the desert. South-west Turcomania. — The region between the Heri-rud and the Murghab has the characteristics of a plateau, reaching about 2000 ft. above the sea, with hills 500 and 600 ft. high covered with sand, the spaces between being filled with loess. The Borkhut Mountains which connect the Kopet-dagh with the Sefid-kuh in Afghanistan reach 3000 to 4000 ft., and are cleft by the Heri-rud. Thickets of poplar and willow accompany both the Murghab and the Heri-rud. Pistachio and mulberry trees grow in isolated clumps on the hills ; but there are few places available for cultivation, and the Saryk Turkomans (some 60,000 in number) congregate in only two oases — Yol-otan or Yelatan, and Penjdeh. The Sarakhs oasis is occupied by the Salor Turkomans, hereditary enemies of the Tekke Turkomans; they number about 3000 tents at Old Sarakhs, and 1700 more on the Murghab, at Chardjui, at Maimene (or Meimane), and close to Herat. The Transcaspian Region is very rich in minerals. Rock-salt, petroleum, gypsum and sulphur are extracted. Nearly 300,000 acres are irrigated by the natives, and attempts are being made by the government to increase the irrigated area; it is considered that over 5,000,000 acres of land could be rendered suitable for agriculture. Several hundred thousand trees are planted every year, and a forest guard has been established to prevent useless destruction of the saksaul trees, which grow freely in the steppes. A model garden and a mulberry plantation have been established at Askhabad in connexion with the gardening school. The land in the oases, especially those of the Atrek River, is highly cultivated. Wheat and barley are grown, in addition to sorghum (a species of millet), maize, rice, millet and sesame for oil. Raw cotton is extensively grown in the Merv district. Gardening and fruit-growing are well developed, and attempts are being made to encourage the spread of viticulture. Livestock breeding is the chief occupation of the nomad Turkomans and Kirghiz. Considerable fishing is carried on in the Caspian Sea, and seals are killed off the Manghishlak peninsula. The natives excel in domestic industries, as the making of carpets, travelling bags, felt goods and embroidered leather. The Russian population is mostly limited to the military and the towns. Wheat, flour, wool, raw cotton and dried fruit are exported; while tea, manufactured goods, timber, sugar, iron and paraffin oil are imported, as also rice and fruit from Bokhara, Turkestan and Persia. The Transcaspian railway, constructed across the province from Krasnovodsk to Merv, with a branch to Kushk, and from Merv to Bokhara and Russian Turkestan, has effected quite a revolution in the trade of Central Asia. The old caravan routes via Orenburg have lost their impor- tance, and goods coming from India, Persia, Bokhara and even China are now carried by rail. (For the history of the region see MERV.) See the researchesof Andrusov, Bogdanovich, Konshin, Mushketov and Obruchev in the Memoirs, the Bulletin (Izvestia) and the Annuals of the Russian Geographical Society (1890-1900); P. M. Lessar, L' Ancienne junction de I'Oxus avec la mer Caspienne (1889) ; Zarudnoi (zoology) in Bulletin de la society des naturalistes de Moscou (1889 seq.). (P. A. K.; J.T. BE.) TRANSCAUCASIA, a general name given to the governments and provinces of Russian Caucasia, excluding the steppe provinces of Kuban and Terek and the steppe government of Stavropol. It thus includes the governments of Baku, Elisavetpol, Erivan, Kutais and Tiflis; the provinces of Batum, Daghestan and Kars; and the military districts of the Black Sea (Chernomorsk) and Zakataly. Its area is 95,402 sq. m., and the estimated population in 1906 was 6,114,600. (See CAUCASIA and CAUCASUS.) TRANSCENDENTALISM (Lat. trans, across, scandere, climb, whence Iranscendere, to pass a limit) , in philosophy, any system which emphasizes the limited character of that which can be perceived by the senses and is based on the view that true know- ledge is intuitive, or supernatural. The term is specially applied to Kant's philosophy and its successors which hold that know- ledge of the a priori is possible. It is traceable as far back as the schoolmen of whom Duns Scotus describes as " transcen- dental " those conceptions which have a higher degree of univer- sality than the Aristotelian categories. Thus ens (being) is more universal than God or the physical universe because it can be predicated of both. Kant distinguishes as " transcen- dent " the world of things-in-themselves as being without the limits of experience; while " transcendental " is his term for those elements which regulate human experience, though they are themselves beyond experience; such are the categories of space, time, causality. In general use the term is applied rather promiscuously and frequently by way of criticism to an attitude of mind which is imaginative, aloof from mundane affairs and unmoved by practical considerations. The most famous example of the pseudo-philosophic use of the term is for a movement of thought which was prominent in the New England states from about 1830 to 1850. Its use originated in the Transcendental Club (1836) founded by Emerson, Frederic Henry Hedge (1805-1890), and others. This movement had several aspects: philosophical, theological, social, economic. Its main theme was regeneration, a revolt from the formalism of both Unitarian' and Calvinist theology and a widening literary outlook. It took its rise to a large extent in the study of German (and to a less extent French) philosophy and spread widely among the cultured classes. In 1840 the club began to issue an official organ, The Dial, and the settlement of Brook Farm (q.v.) followed in 1841. These enterprises themselves did not receive general support even among the Transcendentalist leaders, and the real signifi- cance of the movement was the stimulus which it gave to philanthropy, to the Abolition movement, and to a new ideal of individual character. The chief names associated with it, besides those of Emerson and Hedge, are those of A. B. Alcott (q.v.), Margaret Fuller (q.v.), George Ripley (q.v.), W. E. Channing (q.v.), and H. D. Thoreau (q.v.). TRANSEPT (from Lat. trans, across, and septum, enclosure; synonymous terms in other languages are Fr. croisee, nef trans- vers&e; Ital. crociala; Ger. Querbau, Querschiff), in architecture, the term given to the large and lofty structure which lies at right angles to the nave and aisles of a church. The first example is that which existed in the old St Peter's at Rome, but as a rule it is not found in the early basilicas. At the present day the transept might be better defined as that portion of a cruciform church which extends from north to south across the main body of the building and usually separates the choir from the nave; but to this there are some exceptions, as in Westminster Abbey, where the choir, with its rood screen, occupies the first four bays of the nave; in Norwich two bays; in Gloucester one bay; and Winchester one bay. In some of the English cathedrals there is an eastern transept, as in Canterbury, Lincoln, Salisbury and Worcester; at Durham that which might be regarded as an eastern transept is the chapel of the Nine Altars, and the same is found in Fountains Abbey. Four of the English cathedrals have aisles on east and west sides, viz. Ely, Wells, Winchester and York, while at Chester there are aisles to the south transept only, and at Lincoln, Peterborough and Salisbury on the east side only. In some cases the transept extends to the outer walls of the aisles on'.y, but there are many instances in which it is carried beyond, as at Lincoln (225 ft. long), Ely (180 ft.), Peter- borough (iSoft.), Durham (175 ft.) and Norwich (172 ft.); in all these cases the transept is carried three bays beyond; in York (220 ft.), St Albans (170 ft.), Lichfield (145 ft.) and Canterbury, east transept (165 ft.), two bays beyond; and in Canterbury, western transept (130 ft.), Chichester (160 ft.) and Worcester (130 ft.), only one bay on each side, the dimension in all cases being taken within the north and south walls of the transept. TRANSFER— TRANSFORMERS 173 TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over), the handing over, removal or conveyance of anything from one person or place to another; also the subject of this transference or the form or method by which it is effected. The term is particularly used in law of the conveyance of property from one person to another, especially of the conveyance of real property (see CONVEYANCING). For the simplification of this process by means of registration of title, see LAND REGISTRATION. For the transference of designs, drawings, &c., by means of transfer- paper to the surface of pottery and porcelain, see CERAMICS; for their transfer to stones for printing, see LITHOGRAPHY. TRANSFORMERS. An electrical transformer is the name given to any device for producing by means of one electric current another of a different character. The working of such an appliance is, of course, subject to the law of conservation of energy. The resulting current represents less power than the applied current, the difference being represented by the power dissipated in the translating process. Hence an electrical transformer corresponds to a simple machine in mechanics, both transforming power from one form into another with a certain energy-dissipation depending upon frictional losses, or something equivalent to them. Electrical transformers may be divided into several classes, according to the nature of the transformation effected. The first division comprises those which change the form of the power, but keep the type of the current the same; the second those that change the type of the current as well as the form of power. The power given up electrically to any circuit is measured by the product of the effective value of the current, the effective value of the difference of potential between the ends of the circuit and a factor called the power factor. In dealing with periodic currents, the effective value is that called the root-mean-square value (R.M.S.), that is to say, the square root of the mean of the squares of the time equidistant instantaneous values during one complete period (see ELECTROKINETICS). In the case of continuous current, the power factor is unity, and the effective value of the current or voltage is the true mean value. As the electrical measure of a power is always a product involving current and voltage, we may transform the character of the power by increasing or diminishing the current with a corresponding decrease or increase of the voltage. A transformer which raises voltage is generally called a step-up transformer, and one which lowers voltage a step-down transformer. Again, electric currents may be of various types, such as con- tinuous, single-phase alternating, polyphase alternating, undirec- tional but pulsating, &c. Accordingly, transformers may be distinguished in another way, in accordance with the type of transformation they effect, (i) An alternating current trans- former is an appliance for creating an alternating current of any required magnitude and electromotive force from another of different value and electromotive force, but of the same fre- quency. An alternating current transformer may be con- structed to transform either single-phase or polyphase currents. (2) A continuous current transformer is an appliance which effects a similar transformation for continuous currents, with the difference that some part of the machine must revolve, whereas in the alternating current transformer all parts of the machine are stationary; hence the former is generally called a rotatory transformer, and the latter a static transformer. (3) A rotatory or rotary transformer may consist of one machine, or of two separate machines, adapted for converting a single-phase alter- nating current into a polyphase current, or a polyphase current into a continuous current, or a continuous current into an alter- nating current. If the portions receiving and putting out power are separate machines, the combination is called a motor-gene- rator. (4) A transformer adapted for converting a single-phase alternating current into a unidirectional but pulsatory current is called a rectifier, and is much used in connexion with arc lighting in alternating current supply stations. (5) A phase trans- former is an arrangement of static transformers for producing a polyphase alternating current from a single-phase alternating current. Alternating current transformers may be furthermore divided into (a) single-phase, (b) polyphase. Transformers of the first class change an alternating current of single-phase to one of single-phase identical frequency, but different power; and transformers of the second class operate in a similar manner on polyphase currents. (6) The ordinary induction or spark coil may be called an intermittent current transformer, since it transforms an intermittent low-tension primary current into an intermittent or alternating high-tension current. Alternating Current Transformer. — The typical alternating current transformer consists essentially of two insulated electric circuits wound on an iron core constituting the magnetic circuit. They may be divided into (i) open magnetic circuit static transformers, and (2) closed magnetic circuit static trans- formers, according as the iron core takes the form of a terminated bar or a closed ring. A closed circuit alternating current trans- former consists of an iron core built up of thin sheets of iron or steel, insulated from one another, and wound over with two insulated conducting circuits, called the primary and secondary circuits. The core must be laminated or built up of thin sheets of iron to prevent local electric currents, called eddy currents, from being established in it, which would waste energy. In practical construction, the core is either a simple ring, round or rectangular, or a double rectangular ring, that is,' a core whose section is like the figure 8. To prepare the core, thin sheets of iron or very mild steel, not thicker than -014 of an inch, are stamped out of special iron (see ELECTROMAGNETISM) and care- fully annealed. The preparation of the particular sheet steel or iron used for this purpose is now a speciality. It must possess extremely small hysteresis loss (see MAGNETISM), and various trade names, such as " stalloy," " lohys," are in use to describe certain brands. Barrett, Brown and Hadfield have shown (Journ. Inst. Eiec. Eng. Land., 1902, 31, p. 713) that a silicon iron containing 2-87% of silicon has a hysteresis loss far less than that of the best Swedish soft iron. In any case the hysteresis loss should not exceed 3-0 watts per kilo- gram of iron measured at a frequency of 50 — and a flux-density of 10,000 Jines per square centimetre. This is now called the " figure of merit " of the iron. Examples of the shapes in which these stampings "are supplied are shown in fig. i. The plates when annealed are varnished or covered with thin paper on one side, and then piled up so as to make an iron core, being kept together by bolts and nuts or by pressure plates. The designer of a transformer core has in view, first, economy in metal, so that there may be no waste fragments, and second, a mode of construction that facili- tates the winding of the wire circuits. These consist of coils of cotton- covered copper wire which are wound on formers and baked after being well saturated with shellac varnish. The primary and secondary circuits are sometimes formed of separate bobbins which are sandwiched in between each other; in other cases they are wound one over the other (fig. 2). In any case the primary and secondary coils must be symmetri- cally distributed. If they were placed on opposite sides of the iron circuit the result would be considerable magnetic leakage. It is usual to insert sheets or cylinders of micanite between the primary and secondary windings. The transformer is then well baked and placed in a cast-iron case sometimes filled in with heavy insulating oil, the ends of the primary and secondary circuits being brought out through water-tight glands. The most ordinary type of alternating current transformer is one intended to transform a small electric current produced by a large electromotive force (2000 to 10,000 volts) into a larger current of low electromotive force ( i oo to 200 volts). Such a step- down transformer may be obvi- ously employed in the reverse direction for raising pressure and reducing current, in which case it is a step-up transformer. A trans- former when manufactured has to be carefully tested to ascertain, first, its power of resisting break- down, and, second, its energy- dissipating qualities. With the first object, the transformer is subjected to a series of pressure tests. If it is intended that the [FlG. 2. — Closed Circuit Trans- primary shall carry a current former. FIG. I. Core Prlmaty Circuit Secood&ry Circuit TRANSFORMERS produced by an electromotive force of 2000 volts, an insulation tes must be applied with double this voltage between the primary am the secondary, the primary and the case, and the primary and th< core, to ascertain whether the insulation is sufficient. To preven. electric discharges from breaking down the machine in ordinary work, this extra pressure ought to be applied for at least a quartei of an hour. In some cases three or four times the working pressun is applied for one minute between the primary and secondary circuits When such an alternating current transformer has an alternating current passed through its primary circuit, an alternating magnetiza tion is produced in the core, and this again induces an alternating secondary current. The secondary current has a greater or less electromotive force than the primary current according as the number of windings or turns on the secondary circuit is greater or less than those on the primary. Of the power thus imparted to the primary circuit one portion is dissipated by the heat generatec in the primary and secondary circuits by the currents, and another portion by the iron core losses due to the energy wasted in the cyclica magnetization of the core; the latter are partly eddy current losses and partly hysteresis losses. In open magnetic circuit transformers the core takes the form oi a laminated iron bar or a bundle of iron wire. An ordinary induc- tion coil is an instrument of this description. It has been shown however, by careful experiments, that for alternating current trans- formation there are very few cases in which the closed magnetic circuit transformer has not an advantage. An immense number of designs of closed circuit transformers have been elaborated since the year 1885. The principal modern types are the Ferranti, Kapp, Mordey, Brush, Westinghouse, Berry, Thomson-Houston and Ganz. Diagrammatic representations of the arrangements of the core and circuits in some of these transformers are given in fig. 3. A B C FIG. 3.— Diagrams of (A) Mordey (in section;, (B) Kapp and (C) Ganz Transformers. i, i Primary circuit; 2, 2 Secondary circuit. Alternating current transformers are classified into (i.) Core and (ii.) Shell transformers, depending upon the arrangements of the iron and copper circuits. If the copper circuits are wound on the outside of what is virtually an iron ring, the transformer is a core transformer; if the iron encloses the copper circuits, it is a shell transformer. Shell transformers have the disadvantage generally of poor ventilaton for the copper circuits. Berry, however, has overcome this difficulty by making the iron circuit in the form of a number of bunches of rectangular frames which are set in radial fashion and the adjacent legs all embraced by the two copper circuits in the form of a pair of concentric cylinders. In this manner he secures good ventilation and a minimum expenditure in copper and iron, as well as the possi- bility of insulating the two copper circuits well from each other and from the core. An important matter is the cooling of the core. This may be effected either by ordinary radiation, or by a forced draught of air made by a fan or else by immersing the transformer in oil, the oil being kept cool by pipes through which cold water circulates immersed in it. This last method is adopted for large high-tension transformers. The ratio between the power given out by a transformer and the power taken up by it is called its efficiency, and is best Efficiency, represented by a curve, of which the ordinate is the efficiency expressed as a percentage, and the corresponding abscissae represent the fractions of the full load as decimal fractions. The output of the transformer is generally reckoned in kilowatts, and the load is conveniently expressed in. decimal fractions of the full load taken as unity. The efficiency on one-tenth of full load is generally a fairly good criterion of the economy of the transformer as a transforming agency. In large transformers the one-tenth load efficiency will reach 90% or more, and in small transformers 75 to 80%. The general form of the efficiency curve for a closed circuit trans- former is shown in fig. 4. The horizontal distances represent fractions of full secondary load (represented by unity), and the vertical distances efficiency in percentages. The efficiency curve has a maximum value corresponding to that degree of load at which the copper losses, in the transformer are equal to the iron losses. In the case of modern closed magnetic circuit transformers the copper losses are proportional to the square of the secondary cur- rent (It) or to gI22, where g = Ria2 + R2; Ri being the resistance of the primary and R2 that of the secondary circuit, while a is the ratio of the number of secondary and primary windings of the transformer. Let C stand for the core loss, and V2 for the secondary terminal potential difference (R.M.S. value). We can then write as an expression for the efficiency ();) of the transformer (7) = I2V2/ (C + gI22+I2V2). It is easy to show that if d, V2 and g are constants, but I2 is variable, the above expression for -n has a maximum value when C-gI22 = O, that is, when the iron core loss C=the total copper losses q\f its full load, but in the case of an open circuit transformer he power factor is always much less than unity at all loads. 3ower factor curves show the variation of power factor with load. Examples of these curves were first .given by J. A. Fleming, who suggested the term itself (see Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. Land., 892, 21, p. 606). A low power factor always implies a magnetic :ircuit of large reluctance. The operation of the alternating current is then as follows: the periodic magnetizing force of the primary circuit creates a periodic magnetic flux in the core, and this being linked with the primary ircuit creates by its variation what is called the back electromotive orce in the primary circuit. The variation of the particular portion Fraction of Full Load. FIG. 4. — Typical Efficiency Curve of Closed Circuit Transformer. TRANSFORMERS of this periodic flux, linked with the secondary circuit, originates in this last a periodic electromotive force. The whole of the flux linked with the primary circuit is not interlinked with the secondary circuit. The difference is called the magnetic leakage of the trans- former. This leakage is increased with the secondary output of the transformer and with any disposition of the primary and secondary coils which tends to separate them. The leakage exhibits itself by increasing the secondary drop. If a transformer is worked at a constant primary potential difference, the secondary terminal potential difference at no load or on open secondary circuit is greater than it is when the secondary is closed and the transformer giving its full output. The difference between these last two differences of potential is called the secondary drop. This secondary drop should not exceed 2 % of the open secondary circuit potential difference. The facts required to be known about an alternating current transformer to appraise its value are (i) its full load secondary output or the numerical value of the power it is designed to transform, on the assumption that it will not rise in temperature more than about 60° C. above the atmosphere when in normal use; (2) the primary and secondary terminal voltages and currents, accompanied by a statement whether the transformer is intended for producing a constant secondary voltage or a constant secondary current; (3) the efficiency at various fractions on secondary load from one-tenth to full load taken at a stated frequency; (4) the power factor at one- tenth of full load and at full load; (5) the secondary drop between full load and no load; (6) the iron core loss, also the magnetizing current, at the normal frequency; (7) the total copper losses at full load and at one-tenth of full load; (8) the final temperature of the transformer after being left on open secondary circuit but normal primary potential for twenty-four hours, and at full load for three hours. The matters of most practical importance in connexion with an alternating current transformer are (l) the iron core loss, which affects the efficiency chiefly, and must be considered (a) as to its initial value, and (b) as affected by " ageing " or use ; (2) the secondary drop or difference of secondary voltage between full and no load, primary voltage being constant, since this affects the service and power of the transformer to work in parallel with others ;-and (3) the temperature rise when in normal use, which affects the insulation and life of the transformer. The shellacked cotton, oil and other materials with which the transformer circuits are insulated suffer a deterioration in insulating power if continuously maintained at any temperature much above 80° C. to 100° C. In taking the tests for core loss and drop, the temperature of the transformer should therefore be stated. The iron losses are reduced in value as tem- perature rises and the copper losses are increased. The former may be 10 to 15% less and the latter 20% greater than when the trans- former is cold. For the purpose of calculations we require to know the number of turns on the primary and secondary circuits, repre- sented by NI and N2; the resistances of the primary and secondary circuits, represented by Ri and R2; the volume (V) and weight (W) of the iron core; and the mean length (L) and section (Sj of the magnetic sectio'n. The hysteresis loss of the iron reckoned in watts per tb per 100 cycles of magnetization per second and at a maximum flux density of 2500 C.G.S. units should also be determined. The experimental examination of a transformer involves the measurement of the efficiency, the iron core loss, and the secondary drop; also certain tests as to insulation and heating, and finally an examination of the relative phase position and graphic form of the various periodic quanti- ties, currents and electromotive forces taking place in the trans- former. The efficiency is best determined by the employment w of a properly constructed wattmeter (see WATT- METER). The trans- former T (fig. 5) should be so arranged that, if a constant potential trans- former, it is supplied with its normal working pressure at the primary side and with a load which can be varied, and which is obtained either by incandescent lamps, L, or resistances in the secondary circuit. A wattmeter, W, should be placed with its series coil, Se, in the primary circuit of the transformer, and its Testing. FlG. 5. — Arrangement for Testing Transformers. shunt coil, Sh, either across the primary mains in series, with a suitable non-inductive resistance, or connected to the secondary circuit of another transformer, T1, called an auxiliary transformer, having its primary terminals connected to those of the transformer under test. In the latter case one or more incandescent lamps, L, may be connected in series with the shunt coil of the wattrrTeter so as to regulate the current passing through it. The current through the series coil of the wattmeter is then the same as the current through the primary circuit of the transformer under test, and the current through the shunt coil of the wattmeter is in step with, and proportional to, the primary voltage of the transformer. Hence the wattmeter reading is proportional to the mean power given up to the transformer. The wattmeter can be standardized and its scale reading interpreted by replacing the transformer under test by a non-inductive resistance or series of lamps, the power absorption of which is measured by the product of the amperes and volts supplied to it. In the secondary circuit of the trans- former is placed another wattmeter of a similar kind, or, if the load on the secondary circuit is non-inductive, the secondary voltage and the secondary current can be measured with a proper alternating current ammeter, A2, and voltmeter, Vi, and the product of these readings taken as a measure of the power given out by the transformer. The ratio of the powers, namely, that given out in the external secondary circuit and that taken in by the primary circuit, is the efficiency of the transformer. In testing large transformers, when it is inconvenient to load up the secondary circuit to the full load, a close approximation to the power taken up at any assumed secondary load can be obtained by adding to the value of this secondary load, measured in watts, the iron core loss of the transformer, measured at no load, and the copper losses calculated from the measured copper resistances when the transformer is hot. Thus, if C is the iron core loss in watts, measured on open secondary circuit, that is to say, is the power given to the transformer at normal frequency and primary voltage, and if Ri and R2 are the primary and secondary circuit resistances when the transformer has the temperature it would have after running at full load for two or three hours, then the efficiency can be calculated as follows : Let O be the nominal value of the full secondary output of the transformer in watts, Vi and V2 the terminal voltages on the primary and secondary side, Ni and N2 the number of turns, and Ai and A2 the currents for the two circuits; then O/V2 is the full load secondary current measured in amperes, and N2Ni multiplied by O/V2 is to a sufficient approximation the value of the corresponding primary current. Hence O2R2/V22 is the watts lost in the secondary circuit due to copper resistance, and O2RiN22/V22Ni2 is the corre- sponding loss in the primary circuit. Hence the total power loss in the transformer ( = L) is such that L = C Therefore the power given up to the transformer is O+L, and the efficiency is the fraction O/(O+L) expressed as a percentage. In this manner the efficiency can be determined with a considerable degree of accuracy in the case of large transformers without actually loading up the secondary circuit. The secondary drop, however, can only be measured by loading the transformer up to full load, and, while the primary voltage is kept constant, measuring the potential difference of the secondary terminals, and comparing it with the same difference when the transformer is not loaded. Another method of testing large transformers at full load without supplying the actual power is by W. E. Snmpner's differential method, which can be done when two equal transformers are available (see Fleming, Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room, ii. 602). No test of a transformer is complete which does not comprise some investigation of the " ageing " of the core. The slow changes which take place in the hysteretic quality ^geia of iron when heated, in the case of certain brands, give rise to a time-increase in iron core loss. Hence a trans- former which has a core loss, say, of 300 watts when new, may, unless the iron is well chosen, have its core loss increased from 50 to 300% by a few months' use. In some cases specifications for transformers include fines and deductions from price for any such increase; but there has in this respect been great improve- ment in the manufacture of iron for magnetic purposes, and makers are now able to obtain supplies of good magnetic iron or steel with non-ageing qualities. It is always desirable, how- ever, that in the case of large sub-station transformers tests should be made at intervals to discover whether the core loss 176 TRANSFORMERS has increased by ageing. If so, it may mean a very considerable increase in the cost of magnetizing power. Consider the case ef a 30-kilowatt transformer connected to the mains all the year round; the normal core loss of such a transformer should be about 300 watts, and therefore, since there are 8760 hours in the year, the total annual energy dissipated in the core should be 2628 kilowatt hours. Reckoning the value of this electric energy at only one penny per unit, the core loss costs £10, ips. per annum. If the core loss becomes doubled, it means an additional annual expenditure of nearly £11. Since the cost of such a transformer would not exceed £100, it follows that it would be economical to replace it by a new one rather than continue to work it at its enhanced core loss. In Great Britain the sheet steel or iron alloy used for the trans- former cores is usually furnished to specifications which state the maximum hysteresis loss to be allowed in it in watts per Ib (avoirdupois) at a frequency of 50, and at a maximum flux-density during the cycle of 4000 C.G.S. units. When plates having a thick- ness t mils are made up into a transformer core, the total energy loss in the core due to hysteresis and eddy current loss when worked at a frequency n and a maximum flux-density during the cycle B is given by the empirical formulae T = •0032»B1'66 1 o-7 + (teB)2 1 o-18, where T stands for the loss per cubic centimetre, and TI for the same in watts per pound of iron core, B for the maximum flux- density in lines per square centimetre, and Bi for the same in lines per square inch, / for the thickness of the plates in thousandths of an inch (mils), and t\ for the same in inches. The hysteresis loss varies as some power near to I -6 of the maximum flux-density during the cycle as shown by Steinmetz (see ELECTRO-MAGNETISM). Since the hysteresis loss varies as the l-6th power of the maximum flux-density during the cycle (B max.), the advantages of a low flux-density are evident. An excessively low flux-density increases, however, the cost of the core and the copper by increasing the size of the transformer. If the form factor (/) of the primary voltage curve is known, then the maximum value of the flux-density in the core can always be calculated from the formula B = Ei/4/BSNi, where E is the R.M.S. value of the primary voltage, Ni the primary turns, S the section of the core, and n the frequency. The study of the processes taking place in the core and circuits of a transformer have been greatly facilitated in recent years by Carve the improvements made in methods of observing and Tracing. recording the variation of periodic currents and electromotive forces. The original method, due to Joubert, was greatly improved and employed by Ryan, Bell, Duncan and Hutchinson, Fleming, Hopkinson and Rosa, Callendar and Lyle; but the most important improvement was the introduction and invention of the oscillograph by Blondel, subsequently improved by Duddell, and also of the ondograph of Hospitalier (see OSCILLOGRAPH). This instrument enables us, as it were, to look inside a transformer, for •which it, in fact, performs the same function that a steam engine indicator does for the steam cylinder.1 Delineating in this way the curves of primary and secondary current and primary and secondary electromotive forces, we get the following result: Whatever may be the form of the curve of primary terminal potential difference, or primary voltage, that of the secondary voltage or terminal potential difference is an almost exact copy, but displaced 180° in phase. Hence the alternating current trans- former reproduces on its second- ary terminals ah1 the variations of potential on the primary, but changed in scale. The curve of primary current when the FIG. 6.— Transformer Curves transformer is an open secondary at no load. circuit is different in form and «,. Primary voltage curve; phase, lagging behind the primary A, Primary current curve; d, voltage curve (fig. 6); but if the Secondary voltage curve. transformer is loaded up on its 1 For a useful list of references to published papers on alternating current curve tracing, see a paper by W. D. B. Duddell, read before the British Association, Toronto, 1897; also Electrician (1897), xxxix. 636; also Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room (J. A. Fleming), i. 407. secondary side, then the primary current curve comes more into step with the primary voltage curve. The secondary current curve, if the secondary load is non-inductive, is in step with the secondary voltage curve (fig. 7). These transformer diagrams yield much information as to the nature of the operations proceeding in the transformer. The form of the curve of primary current at no secondary load is a consequence of the hysteresis of the iron, combined with the fact that the form of the core flux-density curves of the transformer is always not far removed from a simple sine curve. If «i is at any moment the electromotive force, ii the current on the primary circuit, and 61 is the flux-density in the core, then we have the fundamental relation «i = Rii'i+SNi db\/dt, where Ri is the re- sistance of the primary, and Ni the number of turns, and S is the cross-section of the core. In all modern closed circuit trans- formers the quantity Riii is very small compared with the quantity Stidbfdt except at one instant during the phase, and in taking the integral of the above equation, viz. in finding the value of feidt, the integral of the first term on the right-hand side may be neglected in comparison with the second. Hence we have approxi- mately 61 = (SNij rlfeidt. In other words, the value of the flux- density in the core is obtained by integrating the area of the primary voltage curve. In so doing the integration must be started from the time point through which passes the ordinate bisecting the area of the primary voltage curve. When any curve is formed such that its ordinate y is the integral of the area of another curve, viz. y=fyldx, the first curve is always smoother and more regular in form than the second. Hence the process above described when applied to a complex periodic curve, which can by Fourier's theorem be resolved into a series of simple periodic curves, results in a relative reduction of the magnitude of the higher harmonics compared with the funda- mental term, and hence a wiping out of the minor irregularities of the curve. In actual practice the curve of electromotive force of alternators can be quite sufficiently reproduced by employing three terms of the expansion, viz. the first three odd harmonics, and the resulting flux-density curve is always very nearly FiG. 7.— Transformer Curves "at full a simple sine curve. ioad We have then the follow- Clt Primary voltage curve ;«,, Primary ing rules for predetermining current curve; «2, Secondary voltage the form of the current curve curve; 4, Secondary current curve, of the transformer at no load , assuming that the hysteresis curve of the iron is given, set out in terms of flux-density and ampere-turns per centimetre, and also the form of the curve of primary electromotive force. Let the time base line be divided up into equal small elements. Through any selected point draw a line perpendicular to the base line. Bisect the area enclosed by the curve representing the half wave of primary electromotive force and the base line by another perpendicular. Integrate the area enclosed between the electromotive force cftrve and these two perpendicular lines and the base. Lastly, set up a length on the last perpendicular equal to the value of this area divided by the product of the cross-section of the core and the number of primary turns. The resulting value will be the core flux-density b at the phase instant corresponding. Look out on the hysteresis loop the same flux-density value, and corresponding to it will be found two values of the magnetizing force in ampere-turns per centimetre, one the ' value for increasing flux-density and one for decreasing. An inspection of the position of the point of time selected on the time line will at once show which of these to select. Divide that value of the ampere-turns per centimetre by the product of the values of the primary turns and the mean length of tne mag- netic circuit of the core of the transformer, and the result gives the value of the primary current of the transformer. This can be set up to scale on the perpendicular through the time instant selected. Hence, given the form of the primary electromotive force curve and that of the hysteresis loop of the iron, we can draw the curves representing the changes of flux-density in the core and that of the corresponding primary current, and thus predict the root- mean-square value of the magnetizing current of the transformer. It is therefore possible, when given the primary electromotive force curve and the hysteresis curve of the iron, to predetermine the curves depicting all the other variables of the transformer, provided that the magnetic leakage is negligible. The elementary theory of the closed iron circuit transformer may be stated as follows: Let NI, Na be the turns on the primary and secondary circuits, RI and Rt the resistances, S the „. „!,„ section of the core, and 61 and bt the co-instantaneous Theory values of the flux-density just inside the primary and secondary windings. Then, if i\ and it and «i and €2 are the primary TRANSFORMERS 177 and secondary currents and potential differences at the same instant, these quantities are connected by the equations i = IWi +SNrf/, e, = 2 - Rai». Hence, if ii=i2, and if R;ii is negligible in comparison^with S>Nidb/dt, and *=o, that is, if the secondary circuit is open, then «i/ej = Ni/N2, or the transformation ratio is simply the ratio of the windings. This, however, is not the case if 61 and 62 have not the same value; in other words, if there is magnetic leakage. If the magnetic leakage can be neglected, then the resultant magnetizing force, and therefore the iron core loss, is constant at all loads. Accordingly, the relation between the primary current (ii), the secondary current (22), and the magnetizing current (i), or primary current at no load, is given by the equation Niz'i — Nj»s = Ni*. Then, writing b for the instantaneous value of the flux-density in the core, everywhere supposed to be the same, we arrive at the identity This equation merely expresses the fact that the power put into the transformer at any instant is equal to the power given out on the secondary side together with the power dissipated by the copper losses and the constant iron core loss. The efficiency of a transformer at any load is the ratio of the mean value, during the period, of the product e\i\ to that of the product eii?. The efficiency of an alternating current transformer is a function of the form of the primary electromotive force curve. Experiment has shown1 that if a transformer is tested for efficiency on various alternators having electromotive force curves of different forms, the efficiency values found at the same secondary load are not identical, those being highest which belong to the alternator with the most peaked curve of electromotive force, that is, the curve having the largest form factor. This is a consequence of the fact that the hysteresis less in the iron depends upon the manner in which the magnetization (or what here comes to the same thing, the flux-density in the core) is allowed to change. If the primary electromotive force curve has the form of a high peak, or runs up suddenly to a large maximum value, the flux-density curve will be more square-shouldered than when the voltage curve has a lower form factor. The hysteresis loss in the iron is less when the magneti- zation changes its sign somewhat suddenly than when it does so more gradually. In other words, a diminution in the form factor of the core flux-density curve implies a diminished hysteresis loss. The variation in core loss in transformers when tested on various forms of commercial alternator may amount to as much as 10%. Hence, in recording the results of efficiency tests of alternating current transformers, it is always necessary to specify the form of the curve of primary electromotive force. The power factor of the transformer or ratio of the true power absorption at no load, to the product of the R.M.S. values of the primary current and voltage, and also the secondary drop of the transformer, vary with the form factor of the primary voltage curve, being also both in- creased by increasing the form factor. Hence there is a slight advantage in working alternating current transformers off an alternator giving a rather peaked or high maximum value electro- motive force curve. This, however is disadvantageous in other ways, as it puts a greater strain upon the insulation of the trans- former and cables. At one time a controversy arose as to the relative merits of closed and open magnetic circuit transformers. It was, however, shown by tests made by Fleming and by Ayrton on Swinburne's " Hedgehog " transformers, having a straight core of iron wires bristling out at each end, that for equal secondary outputs, as regards efficiency, open as compared with closed mag- netic circuit transformers had no advantage, whilst, owing to the smaller power factor and consequent large R.M.S. value of the magnetizing current, the former type had many disadvantages (see Fleming, " Experimental Researches on Alternate Current Transformers," Journ, Inst. Elec. Eng., 1892). The discussion of the theory of the transformer is not quite so simple when magnetic leakage is taken into account. In all cases M tic a cert^'n proportion of the magnetic flux linked with Leakage 'I16 P"mary circuit is not linked with the secondary circuit, and the difference is called the magnetic leakage. This magnetic leakage constitutes a wasted flux which is non- effective in producing secondary electromotive force. It increases with the secondary current, and can be delineated by a curve on the transformer diagram in the following manner. The curves of primary and secondary electromotive force, or terminal potential difference and current, are determined experimentally, and then two curves are plotted on the same diagram which represent the variation of («i — Rit'i)/Ni and (e2 + R2J2)/N2; these will represent the time differentials of the total magnetic fluxes S&i'and S&2 linked respectively with the primary and secondary Tcircuits. The above curves are then progressively integrated, starting from the time 'See Dr G. Roessler, Electrician (1895), xxxvi.Tiso; Beeton, Taylor and Barr, Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. xxv. 474; also J. A. Fleming, Electrician (1894), xxxiii. 580. point through which passes the ordinate bisecting the area of each half wave, and the resulting curves plotted to express by their ordinates S&i and Si2- A curve is then plotted whose ordinates are the differences Sfri — Sfea, and this is the curve of magnetic leakage. The existence of magnetic leakage can be proved experimentally by a method due to Mordey, by placing a pair of thermometers, one of mercury and the other of alcohol, in the centre of the core aperture. If there is a magnetic leakage, the mercury bulb is heated not only by radiant heat, but by eddy currents set up in the mercury, and its rise is therefore greater than that of the alcohol thermometer. The leakage is also determined by observing the secondary voltage drop between full load and no load, and de- ducting from it the part due to copper resistance; the remainder is the drop due to leakage. Thus if V2 is the secondary voltage on open circuit, and V2l that when a current A2 is taken out of the transformer, the leakage drop v is given by the equation » = (V2-W)-fR.A.+RiA,(NJ/Ni)»). The term in the large bracket expresses the drop in secondary voltage due to the copper resistance of the primary and secondary circuits. In drawing up a specification for an alternating current trans- former, it is necessary to specify that the maximum secondary drop between full and no load to be allowed shall not exceed a certain value, say 2% of the no-load secondary voltage; also that the iron core loss as a percentage of the full secondary output shall not exceed a value, say, of I % after six months' normal work. In the design of large transformers one of the chief points for attention is the arrangement for dissipating the heat gene- rated in their mass by the copper and iron losses. For every watt expended in the core and circuit, a surface of 3 to 4 sq. in. must be allowed, so that the heat may be dissipated. In large transformers it is usual to employ some means of producing a current of air through the core to ventilate it. In these, called air-blast transformers, apertures are left in the core by means of which the cooling air can reach the interior portions. This air is driven through the core by a fan actuated by an alternating current motor, which does not, however, take up power to a greater extent than about i or jV/o of the full output of the transformer, and well repays the outlay. In some cases transformers are oil-insulated, that is to say, in- cluded in a cast-iron box which is filled in with a heavy insulating oil. For this purpose an oil must be selected free from mineral acids and water: it should be heated to a higri temperature before use, and tested for dielectric strength by observing the voltage required to create a spark between metal balls immersed Material. Dielectric strength in kilowatts per centimetre. Material. Dielectric strength in kilowatts per centimetre. Glass Ebonite .... Indiarubber . Mica Micanite .... American linen paper paraffined . 285 538 492 2000 4OOO 540 Lubricating oil . Linseed oil . Cotton-seed oil . Air film -02 cm. thick .... Air film 1-6 cm. thick .... 83 67 57 27 48 in it at a distance of i millimetre apart. Oils, however, are inferior in dielectric strength or spark-resisting power to solid dielectrics, such as micanite, ebonite, &c., as shown by the above table of dielectric strengths (see T. Gray, Phys. Rev., 1898, P- I99)- Polyphase Transformers are appliances of TP ft> to similar construction to the single-phase trans- formers already described, but modified so as to enable them to transform two or more phase-related primary alternating cur- rents into similar secondary currents. Thus, a three-phase transformer may be constructed with a core, as shown in fig. 8. Each core leg is surrounded with a primary coil, and these are joined up either in star or delta fashion, and connected to the three or four , line wires. The secondary circuits are then * connected in a similar fashion to three or ' j's L jr— ' four secondary lines. In the case of two- I ' I J I » phase transmission with two separate pairs FIG. 8. — Brush Three- of leads, single-phase transformers may be phase Transformer. i78 TRANSFORMERS employed in each branch, but with two-phase three- wire supply, two- phase transformers must be supplied. Phase Transformers are arrangements of static or rotary trans- formers intended to transform single-phase alternating currents into polyphase currents. An important system of phase transformation has been described by C. F. Scott.1 It is known that if two alternat- ing electromotive forces differing in phase are connected in series, the resulting electromotive force will in general differ in phase and value from either of the components. Thus, if two alternating electromotive forces differing 90° in phase, and having magnitudes in the ratio of I : V3, are connected in series, the resulting electro- motive force will have a magnitude represented by 2, and the three can be represented by the sides of a triangle which is half an equilateral triangle. If then a two-phase alternator, D (fig. 9), provides two-phase cur- rents, and if the two circuits are connected, as shown, to a pair of single-phase trans- formers, Ti and Tj, we can obtain three-phase alter- nating currents from the ar- rangement. The primaries of both transformers are the same. The secondary circuit of one transformer, Ti, has, say, 100 turns, and a connexion is made to its middle point O, and this is connected to the secondary of the other transformer which has 87 ( = 50 V 3) turns. From the points A, B, C we can then tap off three-phase alternating cur- rents. The advantages of the Scott system are that we can transform two-phase alternating currents into three-phase for transmis- sion, and then by a similar arrangement retransform FIG. 9. — Scott's Arrangement for back again into two-phase Transformation of Two-phase to Three- for use. In this manner an phase Currents. economy of 25 % in copper is effected, for instead of four transmission lines we have only three. The system adapts itself for the transmission of currents both for power in driving three-phase motors and for working incandescent lamps. A somewhat similar system has been designed by C. P. Steinmetz for producing three- phase currents from single-phase (see Electrician, xliii. 2)6). When a number of alternating electromotive forces are maintained in a closed circuit, the sum of all must be zero, and may be repre- sented by the sides of a closed polygon. The fundamental principle of Mr Steinmetz's invention consists in so choosing the number of these electromotive forces that the polygon must remain stable. Thus, if three single-phase alternators are driven independently at constant speed and excitation, and if they are joined in series, then three wires led away from the junction points will provide three-phase currents to a system from which lamps and motors may be worked. Reference must be made to the continuous current transformer. The conversion of a continuous current supplied, say, at 100 volts, Continuous mto one nav'nf> an electromotive force of 10 volts, Current can °' course be achieved by coupling together on the Trans- same bedplate a suitable electric motor and a dynamo. formers. The combination is called a motor-dynamo set, and each machine preserves its own identity and peculiarity. The same result may, however, be accomplished by winding two separate armature circuits on one iron core, and furnishing each with its own commutator. The two circuits are interlaced or wound on together. An arrangement of this kind constitutes a rotatory or rotary transformer, or continuous current transformer. It has the advantage of greater cheapness and efficiency, because one field magnet serves for both armature windings, and there is only one armature core and one pair of bearings; moreover, no shift or lead of the brushes is required at various loads. The armature reactions of the two circuits annul each other. Machines of this description are self-starting, and can be constructed to take in primary current at high pressures, say 1000 to 2000 volts, and yield another larger current of much lower voltage, say 100 or 150 volts, for use with electric lamps. They are used in connexion with public electric supply by continuous current in many places. Another important class of rotatory transformer is that also called a rotatory converter, by means of which continuous current is translated into alternating current of one-, two- or three-phase, or vice versa. The action of such an appliance may best be under- stood by considering the simple case of a Gramme ring armature 1 Proceedings of the National Electric Light Association (Washing- ton, U.S.A., 1894); also Electrician (1894), xxxii. 640. (see DYNAMO) having, in addition to its commutator, a pair of in- sulated rings on its shaft connected with opposite ends of the arma- ture winding (fig. 10). If such a ring is placed in a bipole field magnet, and if a pair of brushes make contact with the commutator C and another pair with the two rings called slip rings, Si Sj, and if continuous current at a constant voltage is supplied to the com- mutator side, then the armature will begin to revolve in the field, and from the brushes in contact with the slip rings we can draw off an alternating current. This reaches its maximum value when the points of contact of the rings with the armature circuit pass the axis of commutation, or line at right angles to the direction of the magnetic field, for it has at this moment a value which is double the steady value of the continuous current being poured into the armature. The maximum value of the electromotive force creating this alternating current is nearly equal to the electro- motive force on the continuous current side. Hence if A is the maximum value of the continuous current put into the armature and V is the value of the brush potential difference on the con- tinuous current side, then 2A is the maximum value of the out- coming alternating current and V is the maximum value of its voltage. Hence 2AV/2=AV is the maximum value of the out- coming alternating current power, and if we neglect the loss in the armature for the moment, the power given out is equal to the power put in. Hence, assuming a simple harmonic law of variation, the effective value of the alternating current voltage is V/V2, and that of the alternating current is 2AV2. This conclusion "" follows at once from the fact that the mean value of the square of a sine function is half its maximum value, and hence the R.M.S. value is I/V2 times the maximum value. The outcoming alternating current has its zero value at the instant when the ends of the diameter of the axis to which the rings are connected are in the direction of the magnetic field of the transformer. Hence the power output on the alternating current side varies from a maximum value AV to zero. The rotatory transformer thus absorbs continuous current power and emits it in a periodic form; accordingly, there is a continual storage and emission of energy by the armature, and therefore its kinetic energy is periodically varying during the phase. The armature is also creating a back-electromotive force which acts at some instants against the voltage driving the current into the armature and at others is creating an electromotive force that assists the external impressed voltage in driving a current through the alternating current side. If we put on another pair of insulated rings and connect them to points of the insulated diameter at right angles to the points of connexion of the first pair of rings, we can draw off another alternating current, the phase of which differs 90° from that of the first. Similarly, if we provide three rings connected to points removed 120° apart on the armature circuit, we can tap off a three-phase alternating current. Returning to the case of the single-phase rotatory transformer, we may notice that at the instant when the outcoming alternating current is zero the armature is wholly engaged in absorbing power and is acting entirely as a motor. When the alternating current is a maximum, the armature on the other hand is acting as a gene- rator and adds current to the current put into it. The ratio between the potential difference of the brushes on the continuous current side and the root-mean-square or effective value of the vokagt between any pair of rings on the alternating current side is called the transformation ratio of the converter. The following table, taken from a paper upon rotatory converters by S. P. Thompson (Proc. Jnst. Elec. Eng., November 1898), gives the voltage ratio or conversion ratio in the case of various forms of rotatory transformer: — FIG. ip. — Rotary Converter, continuous to two-phase. Effective Angle voltage on Number of slip rings. between points of connexions to Type of current generated. Voltage ratio. alternating current side as percentage of voltage on armatures. continuous current side. 2 1 80° Single-phase V2:l 70-71 3 120° Three-phase 2>/2:V3 61-23 4 90° Two-phase V2:i 70-71 4 90° Four-phase 2:1 5° 6 60° Three-phase 3V3=V3 61-23 6 60° Six-phase 2V2:l 35'35 TRANSFORMERS 179 Neglecting the energy losses in the armature, and assuming that the continuous current side of the transformer is supplied with loo amperes, the following table, also taken from a paper by S. P. Thompson, shows the effective value of the current on the alternating side put out into each line : — Angle Number of slip between points of connexion Type of current generated. Effective cur- rent put out on each line in rings. to amperes. armature. 2 180° Single-phase 141-4 3 120° Three-phase 94-3 4 90° Two-phase 70-7 6 60° Six-phase 47-2 It is obvious that the same results of conversion can be obtained by coupling together two separate machines on the same shaft; thus we might obtain a single-phase alternating current from a continuous current by coupling together mechanically a continuous current motor and a single-phase alternator. Such a combination is generally called a motor-dynamo. In this case there are two field magnets and two separate armatures, and the hysteresis eddy current and copper losses are all in duplicate. If, however, the same armature winding is made to serve both purposes, the resulting machine is called a rotatory or rotary converter. In the former combination the brushes of the continuous current part require to be set with the usual lead or lag according as that part is generator or motor, but in the latter the armature reactions nearly annul each other, and lead or lag is no longer necessary. Rectifiers are devices for transforming an alternating (gener- ally single-phase) current into a continuous but pulsatory current. They may shortly be described as appli- ances for separating out each alternate current flux in an alternating current. An immense number of more or less imperfect methods of doing this have been proposed, and here we shall describe two which may be called respectively the mechanical and the electrolytic methods. Of the first class a good example is the Ferranti rectifier (fig. 1 1). This consists of a synchronous alternating current motor which is started up and driven in step with the alternator supplying the current. The Rectifiers. FIG. ii. — Ferranti Rectifier. motor drives a commutator of insulated segments, each alternate segment being connected to two insulated rings, against which press a pair of brushes. Another pair of brushes, so adjusted as to be in contact simultaneously with a pair of adjacent commutator segments, are in connexion with the alternator supplying the current to be commutated. The insulated rings are in connexion with the external circuit. It will easily be seen that when the commutator revolves at proper speed the currents delivered from the insulated rings are unidirectional. The Ferranti rectifier is much employed for rectifying alter- nating current for arc lighting purposes. With this object it is associated with a constant current transformer which converts alternating current supplied at constant potential to one supplied at constant current. This is achieved by taking advantage of the repulsive force existing between the primary and secondary circuits of a transformer. These are wound separately, and so balanced that any increase in the current presses them away from each other and so reduces the secondary current to normal value. Such an appliance is useful for rectifying currents up to 10 or 15 amperes. The electrolytic rectifier is based upon the fact that if plates of aluminium and carbon are placed in an electrolyte, say a solution of alum or dilute acids which yield oxygen on electro- lysis, it is found that a current can be sent through the liquid from the carbon to the aluminium, but that great counter- electromotive force is created to a current in the opposite direc- tion. Gratz and Pollak (Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, 1897, 25, P- 359)) taking advantage of this fact, have constructed a rectifying arrangement by arranging two series of carbon aluminium (CA1) cells with alum or hydro-potassic phosphate solution as electrolyte. In one set the order of the plates is (CA1), (CA1), &c., and in the other series (A1C), (A1C), counting from the same end. These series being connected in parallel, it follows that if an alternating current is sent through the parallel series ah1 the currents in one direction pass through one battery and all those in the opposite direction through the other. Thus the constituents of the alternating current are separated out. By using very large cells so as to reduce the internal resistance, an efficiency of 95 % is said to be obtained. There are many points in the operation of the electrolytic rectifier which have as yet been imperfectly explained. The action of the aluminium electrolytic rectifier, consisting as it does of an aluminium plate and a lead or carbon plate placed in an aqueous electrolyte, is to oppose a great obstruction to a current passing out of the aluminium plate, but little or no obstruction to the current passing into the aluminium plate, especially if the ajuminium has been subjected to a previous treatment called formation. This unilateral conductivity is dependent on a certain voltage or potential differ- ence between the plates not being exceeded, but within these limits a plate of carbon and aluminium placed in a solution, say of hydro-sodic phosphate, acts as an electrical valve, allowing current to pass in one direction but not in another. An examination of the aluminium plate after it has been so used shows that its appear- ance has changed and that its surface is covered by a thin film, the thickness of which varies with the electrolyte and the time of formation. After a certain period of use this film is seen as a grey, dull coating traversed by dark lines. It is impossible that the unilateral conductivity can be due to a true electrolytic polariza- tion, because we know of no polarization of this latter kind which exceeds three volts, and the film can be made to resist the flow of a current under an electromotive force of 140 to 200 volts. The resistance of this film has been measured and found to be very high, so high as to be practically an insulation. Light was thrown upon the subject by F. Kohlrausch's discovery of the polarization capacity of metallic electrodes, and this discovery was applied to develop the theory of the aluminium cell by Streintz (1888), Scott (1899) and others. This theory was expounded by K. Norden (Electrician, xlyiii. 107). According to this view, the deposit covering the aluminium electrode forms the dielectric of a condenser. One plate of the condenser is formed by the aluminium plate and the other by an opposite layer of electrically-charged ions in the electrolyte. The dielectric film on the aluminium having been formed, the electro- motive force of the circuit then charges the resulting condenser to the value of its own voltage, but immediately the impressed electro- motive force is removed this condenser discharges itself. This con- denser theory receives support from the behaviour of the aluminium cell when placed in the circuit of an alternating current dynamo, for it is found that in these circumstances the current through the cell is in advance in phase of the difference of potential. The ques- tion then arises, What is the nature of this insulating film? The i8o TRANSFORMERS first discoverer of the phenomenon (Buff) considered it to consist of silicon. Later Professor Beetz disproved this by experiment, and, with many others, assumed that a sub-oxide of aluminium was formed ; but this has never been demonstrated in a satisfactory manner. By forming a sufficient quantity of the film Dr K. Norden was able to obtain sufficient of the material to make a chemical analysis, and this revealed the fact that it consists of normal aluminium hydroxide, Al2(OH)6. According to the facts above stated, one wave of the alternating current produces the insulating film by converting the surface of the aluminium into hydroxide, practically, therefore, blocking its own path very quickly by the creation of this film. If, then, the electromotive force reverses its direction the current immediately flows. According to Dr Norden, the rapid removal of the insulat- ing film is due to the action of the electrolyte corroding or dis- solving the weak points in the coating and thus breaking down its insulating power. The insulating film is therefore a conductor in one direction, but when the current is reversed and flows out of the aluminium plate the insulating film is renewed and is continually being repaired and kept in order. Thus different electrolytes yield aluminium valves having very different efficiencies. Rectifying cells have been made by Pollak which will bear a voltage of over 140 volts, and which are said to have an efficiency of 75%. The plates, however, must be removed when not in use, otherwise the film of hydroxide is destroyed by the electrolyte. One great practical difficulty in connexion with the aluminium rectifier is the tendency to heat in working. The historical development of the discovery of this unilateral conductivity of an electrolytic cell with an aluminium electrode is as follows. The effect was first noticed by Buff in 1857, but was not applied technically until 1874, when Ducretet employed it in telegraphy. Beret in 1877 and Streintz in 1887 discussed the theory of the cell and sought for an explanation. In 1891 Hutin and Leblanc, in their study of alternating current, showed its uses in rectifying an alternating current. Pollak and Gratz laboured to give it a practically useful form. Pollak took out patents in 1895, and made a communication to the Academy of Sciences in Paris in June 1897; and Gratz presented a memoir at a meeting of the German Association of Electrochemists in Munich in 1897. M. Blondin has summarized all the work so far done on the aluminium rectifier in two articles in L'£clairage electrique (1898), xiv. 293, and xxviii. 117 (1901). The choice of an electrolyte is of great importance. Buff, Ducretet and Gratz employed dilute sulphuric acid, and the greatest difference of potential which could then be applied to the cell without breaking down its insulation in one direction was 20 volts. Pollak in 1896 found that when aqueous solutions of alkaline salts were used, and when the aluminium was subjected to a preliminary formation, the back electromotive force or what is equivalent to it could be raised to 140 or 200 volts. Pollak found that the best results were given by the use of phosphate of potassium or sodium. It appears, therefore, that the ions of _K or Na effect the breaking down of the film of aluminium hydroxide more quickly than the ion of hydrogen. The practical form of aluminium rectifier, according to Pollak, consists of plates of thick aluminium and lead placed in a large deep glass vessel filled with a solution of potassium hydrogen phosphate. In 1899 Albert Nodon of Paris began experimenting with an electric rectifier which is now on a commercial footing. It is known as the Nodon electric valve, and it is claimed *-^at il ^ Siye an efficiency of 75 to 80% when used to transform single or polyphase currents into continuous currents. In the form used for transforming single- phase currents the valve is made up of 4 cells, each consisting of an iron cylinder with an insulating plug at the bottom through which is passed a cylinder formed of an alloy of zinc and (From the Electrical Times, by permission.) (From the Electrical Times, by permission.) FIG. 12. — Section through Nodon Valve. FIG. 13. — Method of connecting the cells. aluminium. This cylinder is concentric with the iron tube and provided with a terminal at the lower end. The cell is filled with a saturated solution of ammonium phosphate, and a non- conducting shielding tube can be slid over the aluminium electrode to alter the exposed area. The valve is shown in section in fig. 12, and the 4 cells are arranged in a Wheatstone's Bridge fashion, as shown in fig. 13. A and A1 are the terminals to which the alternating current is supplied, C and C1 the terminals from which the continuous current is drawn, off. The electrolytic actions which take place in the cells are as follows: When the alternating current passes in the positive direction from the zinc-aluminium cylinder to the iron cylinder there is formed instantly on the former a film of aluminium hydroxide; this film, presenting an enormous resistance, opposes the passage of the current. On the other hand, if the current passes in the opposite direction the film is reduced instantly and the current now flows. When used with polyphase currents the valve comprises as many times two cells as there are wires in the distribution. The cells must stand a pressure varying; from 50 to 140 volts, and for higher pressures two or more valves in series are employed. The aluminium-iron electrolytic rectifier is not suitable for the rectification of very high frequency currents, because the chemical actions on which it depends involve a time element. ., It was, however, discovered by J. A. Fleming that an cuum °' oscillation valve could be constructed for rectifying electrical oscillations, as follows (see Proc. Roy. Soc. Land., 1905, 74, p. 476) : In a glass bulb similar to that of an incandescent lamp a carbon filament is fixed. Around the carbon filament, but not touching it, is placed a cylinder of nickel con- nected to an external terminal by means of platinum wire sealed through the glass. If the carbon filament is made incandescent by an insulated battery (and for this purpose it is convenient to have the filament adjusted to be fully incandescent at a pressure of about 12 volts), then the space between the incandescent fila- ment and the embracing cylinder possesses a unilateral conductivity such that negative electricity can pass from the incandescent filament to the cylinder but not in the opposite direction. Hence if the negative terminal of the filament and the terminal attached to the cylinder are connected to an oscillation transformer (see INDUCTION COIL) which supplies a high frequency alternating oscillatory current, the flow of electricity in one direction is cut out and the oscillatory current is therefore converted into a con- tinuous current. Such valves have been employed by Fleming in connexion with wireless telegraphy. Wehnelt discovered that if a platinum wire was covered with oxide of barium or any of the oxides of rare earth metals, it possessed in the same manner, when used in a valve of the above type, an even greater power than incandescent carbon. The explanation of this action is to be sought for in the fact that incandescent carbon in a vacuum or incandescent earthy oxides copiously emit negative electrons. A rectifier dependent upon the peculiar qualities of mercury vapour has been devised by Cooper-Hewitt for the transformation of polyphase currents into continuous currents. The three-phase transformer is made as follows: A large glass bulb (see fig. 14) has four iron electrodes sealed through the walls as positive electrodes and a negative electrode consisting of a pool of mercury in the bottom of the bulb connected with platinum wires sealed through the glass; the bulb is highly exhausted and contains only mer- cury vapour. The three iron electrodes are connected to the terminals of a star- connected polyphase transformer and one of them to the positive pole of a con- tinuous current starting current, the con- nexions being shown as in fig. 15. The mercury vapour is a non-conductor for low voltages, but if a sufficiently high voltage is placed on the mercury bulb by means of the continuous current it begins to conduct and if the three-phase current is then switched on the mercury vapour will allow the components of the three-phase current to pass when the mercury electrode is negative, not when it is positive. Hence for alternate cur- rent wave of the three-phase, supply is cut down and a continuous current can be drawn by the connexions as shown in fig. 1 5 for the purposes of supplying secondary batteries, arc lamps, &c. Owing to the fact that the mercury vapour ceases to conduct when the electromotive force on it falls below a certain critical value the valve will not work with single-phase currents but will work with polyphase currents at all voltage from 100 to 1000 or more and can transform as much as 100 amperes. It is stated to have an efficiency of 88 to 89 %. (See The Electrician, .1903, 50, p. 510.) FIG. 14. Cooper-Hewitt Rectifier. TRANSIT CIRCLE 181 A mechanical polyphase rectifier or rotary devised by Bragstad and La Cour is described in Der Kaskadenumformer, by E. Arnold and J. L. La Cour, Stuttgart, 1904. It consists of a three-phase induction motor coupled direct to a continuous current dynamo, the armatures of the two machines being electrically connected so that the three-phase current created in the rotor of the induction FIG. 15. motor enters the continuous current armature and creates around it a rotary field. The connexions are such that the rotating field turns in a direction opposite to that in which the armature is turning, so that the field is stationary in space. From the con- tinuous current armature can therefore be drawn off a continuous current and the device acts as a transformer of three-phase alternat- ing current to a continuous current. The ordinary induction coil (q.v.) may be regarded as the trans- former for converting continuous current at low voltage into high voltage intermittent continuous current, but the difficulties of interrupting the primary current render it impossible to transform in this way more than a small amount of power. Where, however, high voltages are required, high potential transformers are used which are now built for the purpose of wireless telegraphy and the transformation of power to give secondary voltages up to 20,000, 30,000 or 60,000 volts. Transformers have even been built to give secondary voltages of half a million volts capable of giving a 14 in. spark in air. These machines, however, must be regarded as more physical laboratory instruments than appliances for tech- nical work. For description of one such extra high potential trans- former see H. B. Smith, on " Experiments on Transformers for Very High Potentials," The Electrician (1904), 54, p. 358. A trans- former of this kind must invariably be an oil insulated transformer, as under extremely high voltage the air itself becomes a conductor and no solid insulator that can be put upon the wires is strong enough to stand the electric strain. AUTHORITIES. — J. A. Fleming, The Alternate Current Transformer (3rd ed., 1901); "Experimental Researches on Alternate Current Transformers," Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1892); "Alternate Current Transformers," Cantor Lectures (Society of Arts, 1896); " Electric Oscillations and Electric Waves," Cantor Lectures (Society of Arts, 1900-1901) ; Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room (1901); S. P. Thompson, Dynamo Electric Machinery (1896); Poly- phase Electric Currents and Alternate Current Motors (2nd ed., 1900); "Rotatory Converters," Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1898); G. Kapp, The Electrical Transmission of Energy and its Trans- formation (1895); Alternating Currents of Electricity (1896); Trans- formers for Single and Multiphase Currents (1896) ; C. C. Hawkins and F. Wallis, The Dynamo (2nd ed., 1896) ; F. Bedell, The Principles of the Transformer (New York, 1896) ; W. E. Goldsborough, " Trans- former Tests," Proc. Nat. Electric Light Associations, U.S.A. (1899) ; C. P. Steinmetz, The Theory and Calculation of Alternating Current Phenomena (4th ed., New York, 1908); A. Still, Alternating Currents of Electricity and the Theory of Transformers; D. C. Jackson, Text- Book on Electro-magnetism (1896), vol. ii. ; Loppe, Alternating Currents in Practice; Martin, Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla (New York, 1894); W. G. Rhodes, An Elementary Treatise on Alternating Currents (1902) ; A. Hay, Alternating Currents (1905); D. K. Morris and G. A. Lister, "The Testing of Trans- formers and Transformer Iron," Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1906), 37, p. 264; J. Epstein, " The Testing of Electric Machinery and Materials of Construction," Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1906), 38, p. 28. (J. A. F.) TRANSIT CIRCLE, or MERIDIAN CIRCLE, an instrument for observing the time of a star's passing the meridian, at the same time measuring its angular distance from the zenith. The idea of having an instrument (quadrant) fixed in the plane of the meridian occurred even to the ancient astronomers, and is mentioned by Ptolemy, but it was not carried into practice until Tycho Brahe constructed a large meridian quadrant. This instrument enabled the observer to determine simultaneously right ascension and declination, but it does not appear to have been much used for right ascension during the I7th century, the method of equal altitudes by portable quadrants or measures of the angular distance between stars with a sextant being preferred. These methods were, however, very inconvenient, which induced Romer to invent the transit instrument about 1690. It consists of a horizontal axis in the direction east and west resting on firmly fixed supports, and having a telescope fixed at right angles to it, revolving freely in the plane of the meridian. At the same time Romer invented the altitude and azimuth instrument for measuring vertical and horizontal angles, and in 1 704 he combined a vertical circle with his transit instru- ment, so as to determine both co-ordinates at the same time. This latter idea was, however, not adopted elsewhere, although the transit instrument soon came into universal use (the first one at Greenwich was mounted in 1721), and the mural quadrant continued till the end of the century to be employed for deter- mining declinations. The advantage of using a whole circle, as less liable to change its figure, and not requiring reversal in order to observe stars north of the zenith, was then again recog- nized by Ramsden, who also improved the method of reading off angles by means of a micrometer microscope as described below. The making of circles was shortly afterwards taken up by Trough ton, who in 1806 constructed the first modern transit circle for Groombridge's observatory at Blackheath, but he afterwards abandoned the idea, and designed the mural circle to take the place of the mural quadrant. In the United King- dom the transit instrument and mural circle continued till the middle of the igth century to be the principal instrument in observatories, the first transit circle constructed there being that at Greenwich (mounted in 1850) but on the continent the transit circle superseded them from the years 1818-1819, when two circles by Repsold and by Reichenbach were mounted at Gottingen, and one by Reichenbach at Konigsberg.1 The firm of Repsold was for a number of years eclipsed by that of Pistor and Martins in Berlin, who furnished various observatories with first-class instruments, but since the death of. Martins the Repsolds have again taken the lead, and have of late years made many transit circles. The observatories of Harvard College (United States), Cambridge and Edinburgh have large circles by Troughton and Simms, who also made the Greenwich circle from the design of Airy.2 In the earliest transit instrument the telescope was not placed in the middle of the axis, but much nearer to one end, in order to prevent the axis from bending under the weight of the telescope. It is now always placed in the centre of the axis. The latter consists of one piece of brass or gun-metal with carefully turned cylindrical steel pivots at each end. Several recent instruments have been made entirely of steel, which is much more rigid than brass. The centre of the axis is shaped like a cube, the sides of which form the basis of two cones which end in cylindrical parts. The pivots rest on V-shaped bearings, either let into the mas- sive stone or brick piers which support the instrument or attached to metal frameworks bolted on the tops of the piers. In order to relieve the pivots from the weight of the instrument, which would soon destroy their figure, the cylindrical part of each end of the axis is supported by a hook supplied with friction rollers, and suspended from a lever supported by the pier and counterbalanced so as to leave only about 10 Ib pressure on each bearing. Near each end of the axis is attached a circle or wheel (generally of 3 or 33 ft. diameter) finely divided to 2' or 5' on a slip of silver let into the face of the circle near the circumference. The graduation is read off by means of microscopes, generally four for each circle at 90° from each other, as by taking the mean of the four readings the eccentricity and the accidental errors of graduation are to a great extent eliminated.3 In the earlier instruments by Pistor and Mar- tins the microscopes were fixed in holes drilled through the pier, but afterwards they let the piers be made narrower, so that the microscopes could be at the sides of them, attached to radial arms starting from near the bearings of the axis. This is preferable, as it allows of the temporary attachment of auxiliary microscopes for the purpose of investigating the errors of graduation of the circle, but the plan of the Repsolds and of Simms, to make the piers short and to let the microscopes and supports of the axis be carried by an iron framework, is better still, as no part of the circle is xThe most notable exception was the transit instrument and vertical circle of the Pulkovo observatory, specially designed by the elder Struve for fundamental determinations. 2 This instrument differs in many particulars from others: the important principle of symmetry in all the parts (scrupulously followed in all others) is quite discarded ; there is only one circle ; and the instrument cannot be reversed. There is a similar instru- ment at the Cape observatory. 3 On Reichenbach's circles there were verniers instead of micro- scopes, and they were attached to an alidade circle, the immovability of which was tested by a level. 182 TRANSIT CIRCLE exposed to radiation from the pier, which may cause strain and thereby change the angular distance between various parts of the circle. Each microscope is furnished with a micrometer screw, which moves a frame carrying a cross, or better two close parallel threads of spider's web, with which the distance of a division line from the centre of the field can be measured, the drum of the screw being divided to single seconds of Tt^. arc (o-i" being estimated), while the number of revolutions fegu are counted by a kind of comb in the field of view. The >^= periodic errors of the screw Transit Circle. must be investigated and taken into account, and care must be taken that the microscopes are placed and kept at such a distance from the circle that one revolution will correspond to l', the excess or defect (error of run) being determined from time to time by measuring standard intervals of 2' or 5' on the circle. The telescope consists of two slightly conical tubes screwed to the central cube of the axis. It is of great importance that this connexion should be as firm and the tube as stiff as possible,1 as the flexure of the tube will affect the declinations deduced from the observations. The flexure in the horizontal position of the tube may be determined by means of two collimators or telescopes placed horizontally in the meridian, north and south of the transit circle, with their object glasses towards it. If these are pointed on one another (through holes in the central tube of the telescope), so that the wire-crosses in their foci coincide, then the telescope, if pointed first to one and then to the other, will have described exactly 180°, and by reading off the circle each time the amount of flexure will be found. M. Loewy has constructed a very ingenious apparatus2 for determining the flexure in any zenith distance, but generally the observer of standard stars endeavours to eliminate the effect of flexure in one of the following ways: either the tube is so arranged that eyepiece and object-glass can be interchanged, whereby the mean of two observations of the same star in the two positions of the object-glass will be free from the effect of flexure, or a star is not only observed directly (in zenith distance Z), but also by reflection from a mercury trough (in zenith distance 180 — Z), as the mean result of the Z.D. of the direct and reflection observa- tions, before and after reversing the instrument east and west, will only contain the terms of the flexure depending on sin 2Z, sin $Z, &c. In order to raise the instrument a reversing carriage is provided which runs on rails between the piers, and on which the axis with circles and telescope can be raised by a kind of screw-jack, wheeled out from between the piers, turned exactly 180°, wheeled back, and gently lowered on its bearings. The eye end of the telescope has in a plane through the focus a number of vertical and one or two horizontal wires (spider lines). The former are used for observing the transits of the stars, each wire furnishing a separate result for the time of transit over the middle wire by adding or subtracting the known interval between the latter and the wire in question. The intervals are determined by observing the time taken by a star of known declination to pass from one wire to the other, the poje star being best on account of its slow motion.3 Instead of vertical wires, the eye end may be fitted with Repsold's self-registering micrometer with one movable wire to follow the star (see MICROMETER). The instrument is pro- 1 Reichenbach supplied his tubes with counterpoising levers like those on the Dorpat refractor (see TELESCOPE). 1 Comptes rendus, Ixxxvii. 24. 'The transits are either observed by "eye and ear," counting the second beats of the clock and comparing the distance of the star from the wire at the last beat before the transit over the wire with the distance at the first beat after the transit, in this way estimating the time of transit to o- 1" ; or the observer employs a " chronograph. vided with a clamping apparatus, by which the observer, after having beforehand set to the approximate declination of a star, can clamp the axis so that the telescope cannot be moved except very slowly by a handle pushing the end of a fine screw against the clamp arm, which at the other side is pressed by a strong spring. By this slow motion, the star is made to run along one of the horizontal wires (or if there are two close ones, in the middle between them), after which the microscopes are read off. A movable horizontal wire or declination-micrometer is also often used. The field or the wires can be illuminated at the observer's pleasure; the lamps are placed at some distance from the piers in order not to heat the instrument, and the light passes through holes in the piers and through the hollow axis to the cube, whence it is directed to the eye-end by a system of prisms.4 The time of the star's transit over the middle wire is never exactly equal to the actual time of its meridian passage, as the plane in which the telescope turns never absolutely coincides with the meridian. Let the production of the west end of the axis meet the celestial sphere in a point of which the altitude above the horizon is b (the error of inclination), and of which the azimuth is 90°— a (the azimuth being counted from stmth through west), while the optical axis of the telescope makes the angle 90 + c with the west end of the axis of the instrument, then the correction to the ob- served time of transit will be jasin(<£ — 5) + b cos (— 6) + c) / cos S, where is the latitude of the station and S the declination of the star. This is called Tobias Mayer's formula, and is very con- venient if only a few observations have to be reduced. Putting b sin — a cos 4> = n, we get Hansen's formula, which gives the correction = b sec + n (tan 5 — tan ) + c sec 8, which is more convenient for a greater number of observations. The daily aberration is always deducted from c, as it is also multiplied by sec S (being o-3l" cos sec ,8). The above corrections are for upper culmination; below the pole 180° — 8 has to be substituted for 8. The constant c is determined by pointing the instrument on one of the collimators, measuring the distance of its wire-cross from the centre wire of the transit circle by a vertical wire movable by a micrometer screw, reversing the instrument and repeating the operation, or (without reversing) by pointing the two collimators on one another and measuring the distance of first one and then the other wire-cross from the centre wire. The inclination b is measured directly by a level which can be suspended on the pivots.6 Having thus found b and c, the observation of two stars of known right ascension will furnish two equations from which the clock error and the azimuth can be found. For finding the azimuth it is most advantageous to use two stars differing as nearly 90° in declination as possible, such as a star near the pole and one near the equator, or better still (if the weather permits it) two successive meridian transits of a close circumpolar star (one above and one below the pole), as in this case errors in the assumed right ascension will not influence the result. The interval of time between the culminations or meridian transits of two stars is their difference of right ascension, 24 hours corresponding to 360° or I hour to 15°. If once the absolute right ascensions of a number of standard stars are known, it is very simple by means of these to determine the R.A. of any number of stars. The absolute R.A. of a star is found by observing the interval of time between its culmination and that of the sun. If the in- clination of the ecliptic _(e) is known, and the declination of the sun (8) is observed at the time of transit, we have sin a tan e = tan 8, which gives the R.A. of the sun, from which, together with the observed interval of time corrected for the rate of the clock, we get the R.A. of the star. Differentiation of the formula shows that observations near the equinoxes are most advantageous, and that errors in the assumed « and the observed S will have no influence if the Aa is observed at two epochs when the sun's R.A. is A and 180°— A or as near thereto as possible. A great number of ob- servations of this kind will furnish materials for a standard cata- logue; but the right ascensions of many important catalogues have been found by making use of the R.A.'s of a previous catalogue to determine the clock error and thus to improve the individual adopted R.A.'s of the former catalogue. In order to determine absolute declinations or polar distances, it is first necessary to determine the co-latitude (or distance of the pole from the zenith) by observing the upper and lower culmination of a number of circumpolar stars. The difference between the circle reading after observing a star and the reading corresponding to the zenith is the zenith distance of the star, and this plus the co-latitude is the north polar distance or 90° — 8. In order to and by pressing an electric key causes a mark to be made on a paper stretched over a uniformly revolving drum, on which the clock beats are at the same time also marked electrically. 1 The idea of illuminating through the axis is due to H. Ussher, professor of astronomy in Dublin (d. 1790). ' To avoid the use of a very large level, the pivots of the new transit circle at Kiel are supplied with small riders " carrying a wire-cross; these can in turn be observed through a horizontal telescope with a hanging mirror in front of its object-glass, whereby the difference in height of the two pivots above a horizontal line may be measured. TRANSKEI— TRANSLATION 183 determine the zenith point of the circle, the telescope is directed vertically downwards and a basin of mercury is placed under it, forming an absolutely horizontal mirror. Looking through the telescope the observer sees the horizontal wire and a reflected image of the same, and if the telescope is moved so as to make these coincide, its optical axis will be perpendicular to the plane of the horizon, and the circle reading will be 1 80 ° + zenith point. In observations of stars refraction has to be taken into account as well as the errors of graduation and flexure, and, if the bisection of the star on the horizontal wire was not made in the centre of the field, allowance must be made for curvature (or the deviation of the star's path from a great circle) and for the inclination of the hori- zontal wire to the horizon. The amount of this inclination is found by taking repeated observations of the zenith distance of a star during the one transit, the pole star being the most suitable owing to its slow motion. Attempts have been made in various places to record the transits of a star photographically; with most success at the Georgetown College Observatory, Washington (since 1889). A sensitive plate is placed in the focus of a transit instrument and a number of short exposures made, their length and the time they are made being registered automatically by a clock. The exposing shutter is a thin strip of steel, fixed to the armature of an electromagnet. The plate thus gives a series of dots or short lines, and the vertical wires are photographed on the plate by throwing light through the object-glass for one or two seconds. This seems to give better results than the method adopted at the Paris observatory, where the plate is moved by clock-work and the exposure is comparatively long, while the image of a fixed slit is photographed at different recorded instants. LITERATURE. — The methods of investigating the errors of a transit circle and correcting the results of observations for them are given in Briinnow's and Chauvenet's manuals of spherical astronomy. For detailed descriptions of modern transit circles, see particularly the Washington Observations for 1865, the Publications of the Wash- burn Observatory (vol. ii.) and Astrpnomische Bepbachtungen zu Kid (1905). The Greenwich circle is described in an appendix to the Greenwich Observations for 1852. Accounts of photographic transit instruments will be found in The Photochronograph (Washing- ton, 1891), Annales de I'observatoire de Tokyo, tome iii. and Comptes rendus (July 16, 1906). (J. L. E. D.) TRANSKEI, one of the divisions of the Cape province, South Africa, east of the Kei River, being part of the country known variously as Kaffraria ((q.v.), " the Native Territories " (of the Cape) and the Transkeian Territories. The majority of the inhabitants are Fingo (q.v.). TRANSLATION (Lat. trans, across, and latus, the participle of ferre, to carry), literally a carrying over or transference from one to another, and so from one medium to another. Among the more literal usages is the translation of Enoch in the Bible (Heb. xi. 5), or the ecclesiastical removal of a bishop to another see. But the commonest sense of the word is in connexion with the rendering of one language into another. The characteristics of a good translation in the literary sense, and the history of the influence, through translations, of one literature on another, are worth more detailed notice. Dryden has prescribed the course to be followed in the execution of the ideal translation: " A translator that would write with any force or spirit of an original must never dwell on the words of his author. He ought to possess himself entirely, and perfectly comprehend the genius and sense of his author, the nature of the subject, and the terms of the art or subject treated of; and then he will express himself as justly, and with as much life, as if he wrote an original; whereas, he who copies word for word loses all the spirit in the tedious transfusion." Comparatively few translators have satisfied this canon. A writer capable of attain- ing the standard set up by Dryden is naturally more disposed to use his powers to express his own views than those of his foreign predecessors. No doubt at all times, and in all countries, translations have usually been produced for utilitarian purposes, and not from artistic motives. In the first instance we may assume that translations were undertaken in a spirit of educa- tional propaganda as a means of communicating new ideas and new facts to a somewhat uninstructed and uncritical public, indifferent as to matters of form. But, though the translator's primary motive is didactic, he is insensibly led to reproduce the manner as well as the matter of his original as closely as possible. Montaigne warns aspirants of the difficulty in dealing with authors remarkable for the finish of their execution. " II faict bon," he writes in the Apologie de Raimond Sebonde, " traduire les aucteurs comme celuy-la ou il n'y a gueres que la matiere a representer; mais ceux qui ont donne beaucoup a la grace et a 1'elegance de langage ils sont dangereux a entreprendre nomme- ment pour les rapporter a un idiome plus foible." As it happens, however ^he task of translating foreign masterpieces has frequently been undertaken by writers of undisputed literary accomplishment whose renderings have had a permanent effect on the literature of their native country. It was certainly the case when Rome, having conquered Greece, was captured by her captive. There is much point and little exaggeration in the statement that " when the Greek nation became a province of Rome, the Latin literature became a province of the Greek "; and this peaceful victory was initiated by a series of translations made by writers of exceptional ability and, in some cases, of real genius. The first translator whose name is recorded in the history of European literature is L. Livius Andronicus, a manumitted Greek slave who about 240 B.C., rendered the Odyssey into Saturnian verse. This transla- tion, of which some fragments are preserved, was long in use as a school text, for Horace studied it under the formidable Orbilius;- but Andronicus appears to have recognized his mistake in using the native Latin measure as a vehicle of literary expression, and is said to have rendered Greek tragedies and comedies into metres corresponding to those of his Greek originals. The deci- sion was momentous, for it influenced the whole metrical develop- ment of Latin poetry. The example set by Andronicus was followed by Naevius and Ennius, both of whom laid the founda- tions of the Latin theatre by translating Greek plays — especially those of Euripides — and naturalized in Rome the hexameter, which, as practised later by Lucretius and Virgil, was destined to become '^the stateliest measure ever moulded by the lips of man." The tradition of translating more or less freely was continued by Pacuvius, the nephew of Ennius, as well as by Plautus and Terence, whose comedies are skilful renderings or adaptations from the New Attic Comedy of Philemon, Diphilus and Menander. A persistent translator from the Greek was Cicero, who interpolates in his prose writings versified renderings of passages from Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides which prove the injustice of the popular verdict on his merits as a poet. Cicero not only translated the oration of Demosthenes On the Crown, but also made Latin versions of Plato's Timaeus (part of which survives), of Xenophon's Oeconomicus, and of the Phaenomena, an astronomical poem by Aratus of Soli, an Alexandrian imitator of Hesiod. This last performance was a tribute to the prevailing fashion of the moment, for the Alex- andrian poets had supplanted the early Greek school in favour among the literary circles of Rome. To the foregoing list may be added the great name of Catullus, whose Coma Berenices is translated from Callimachus, and Cornelius Callus is mentioned as a translator of Euphorion. Complete translations became less and less necessary as a knowledge of Greek spread among the educated class. But the practice of translating fragments of Greek verse continued throughout the classic period of Latin literature, and the translations of Greek originals incorporated by Virgil were duly pointed out by Octavius Avitus. The knowledge of Greek declined with the empire, and trans- lations were accordingly produced for the benefit of students who were curious concerning the philosophic doctrines of the Athenians and the Neoplatonists. Porphyry's introduction to Aristotle's Categories was translated by Victorinus about the reign of Julian the Apostate; at the end of the 5th century this introduction was once more translated by Boetius, whose trans- lations of Aristotle's Categories and other logical treatises began the movement which ended in establishing the Greek philosopher as the most profound and authoritative exponent of intellectual problems during the middle ages. Plato was less fortunate, for he was known to students chiefly by the Latin version of the Timaeus made by Chalcidius (it is said) for Hosius, the bishop of Cordova. Cassiodorus, the contemporary of Boetius, went farther afield when he ordered a Latin translation of Josephus to be prepared; but the interest in Aristotle extended to the 184 TRANSLATION East, and in the 6th century he was translated into Syriac by Sergius of Resaina. The Syrians acted as interpreters of Greek learning to the Arabs, and during the 8th and pth centuries — chiefly through the staff of translators organized at Bagdad by Honein ibn Ishak — the works of Plato and Aristotle, as well as those of Hippocrates and Galen, were translated into Arabic. These translations are of capital importance in the history of European thought. Many of them were introduced into Spain by the Arabs, and were rendered — in some cases through the intermediary of a Castilian-speaking Jew— into Latin at the college of translators founded in 1130 (or shortly afterwards) at Toledo by Raymund, archbishop of that city. Circulating widely throughout western Europe, these Latin translations supplied the learned with a third- or fourth-hand knowledge of Greek philosophy. When Albertus Magnus, St Thomas Aquinas, or any other early light of the schools refers to Aristotle, it must be borne in mind that he often had no more exact acquaintance with the text which he expounds or confutes than could be gathered from an indirect Latin version of an Arabic rendering of a Syriac translation of a Greek original. This accounts for .many misunderstandings and errors which would otherwise be incomprehensible. Among the earliest European translators who made their way to Toledo were Adelard of Bath, who rendered an Arabic version of Euclid into Latin; the English- man known as Robert de Retines, afterwards archdeacon of Pamplona, the first translator of the Koran, which he did into Latin in 1141-1143 by order of Peter the Venerable; and Gerard of Cremona, who, towards the end of the i2th century, was responsible for over seventy translations from the Arabic, including Ptolemy's Almagest and many of Aristotle's treatises, as well as works by Galen, Hippocrates and Avicenna. Early in the I3th century Michael Scot, who had begun his Arabic studies at Palermo, visited Toledo and (perhaps with the help of the Jew Andreas, if we are to believe the statement of Her- mann the German, repeated by Roger Bacon) translated into Latin various works of Aristotle, Avicenna, and — more especially — Averroes. These Latin translations by Michael Scot intro- duced Averroes to the notice of Western scholars, and the fact that they were used at the universities of Paris and Bologna gave the first impetus to the vogue of Averroistic doctrine which lasted from the time of St Thomas Aquinas to the rise of Martin Luther. At Toledo, between 1240 and 1256, Hermann the German translated into Latin the commentaries of Averroes on Aristotle's Ethics, together with abridgments of the Poetic and the Rhetoric made respectively by Averroes and Alfarabi. But, at the very period of Hermann the German's residence at Toledo, a more satisfactory method of translation was begun. Within half a century of the conquest of Constantinople in 1 204 a visit to Spain was no longer indispensable for a would-be translator of Greek philosophical treatises. The original texts slowly became more available, and a Latin translation of Aris- totle's Ethics seems to have been made from the Greek by order of Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, between 1240-1244. Towards the end of the century the indefatigable William of Moerbeke (near Ghent) — mentioned as " William the Fleming " by Roger Bacon — produced, amongst numerous other Latin renderings from the Greek, versions of Aristotle's Rhetoric and Politics which have commended themselves to more exact scholars of the modem German type. The Latin renderings from the Arabic were current till a much later date; but it was henceforth accepted, at least in principle, that translations of the Greek classics should be made direct from the original text. Meanwhile the work of translating foreign productions into the local vernacular had been begun in the north and west of Europe. Towards the end of the gth century an illustrious English translator appeared in the person of King Alfred, who rendered St Gregory the Great's Cura pastordis into West Saxon " sometimes word for word, sometimes sense for sense." Alfred is also regarded, though with less certainty, as the translator of Bede's Historic, ecclesiastica and the Historic, adversus paganos of Orosius. The version of St Gregory's treatise is the most literal of the three; omissions are frequent in the renderings of Bede and Orosius, and in all the diction is disfigured by latinisms. A larger conception of a translator's function is noticeable in Alfred's version of Boetius's De consolalione philosophiae, a famous Neoplatonic treatise which was the delight of the middle ages, and was translated later into German by Notker Labeo, into French ,by Jean de Meung, and twice again into English by Chaucer and by Queen Elizabeth respec- tively. In translating Boetius, Alfred deals more freely with his author, interpolates passages not to be found in the extant texts of the original, and yet succeeds in giving an adequate interpretation which is also an excellent specimen of English prose. If the alliterative verses found in one manuscript of Alfred's translation are accepted as his work, it is clear that he had no poetic faculty; but he has the credit of opening up a new path, of bringing England into contact with European thought, and of stimulating such writers as Werferth, bishop of Worcester — the translator of St Gregory's Dialogues — to proceed on the same line. Some forty years earlier John Scotus (Erigena) had won celebrity as a translator by his Latin renderings of works ascribed to the mysterious 5th century Neoplatonist who passes under the name of Dionysius the Areopagite. Towards the close of Alfred's reign some countrymen of Erigena bettered his example by producing Irish versions of Hippocrates and Galen at St Gallen. St Gallen became a centre of translation, and there, at the beginning of the nth century, Notker Labeo presided over a committee of interpreters who issued German renderings of certain treatises by Aristotle, Terence's Andria and Virgil's Eclogues. Far greater literary importance attaches to Syntipas,ihe title given by Michael Andreopulos to a collection of ancient Oriental tales which he translated from an intermediate Syriac version into Greek at the request of the Armenian duke of Melitene about the end of the nth century. These stories were retranslated into French verse and (by Jean de Haute-Seille) into Latin during the course of the I2th century under the respec- tive titles of the Sept sages de Rome and Dolopathos; they were utilized in the Cento novelle antiche, in the Libra dei sette savj, and in the Decamerone, and were finally absorbed by every literature in Europe. Immense popularity was won by the Liber gestorum Barlaam el Josaphat, a Latin translation made in the nth or I2th century from the Greek, and recast in many European languages during the i3th century. The book is in fact a legendary life of Buddha adapted to the purposes of Christianity by a monk; but it was accepted as an historical record, the undiscerning credulity of the faithful informally canonized Barlaam and Josaphat, and ultimately compelled the Latin Church to include these two fictitious beings as saints in the Martyrologium romanum. This is perhaps the most curious result attained by any translation. The interest in Eastern apologues and moralizing stories, which was early shown in Marie de France's translation of Aesopic fables, was further demonstrated by the Castilian translations of Kalilah and Dimnah and Sindibad made about the middle of the I3th century, by (or at the command of) Alphonso the Learned and his brother the Infante Fadrique respectively. The enthusiasm for these Oriental stories was communicated to the rest of Europe by John of Capua's Directorium humanae vitae (1270), a Latin translation of Kalilah and Dimnah; but, in the meanwhile, as the younger European literatures grew in power and variety, the field of translation necessarily widened to such an extent that detailed description becomes impossible. Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia regum Britanniae, which pur- ports to be a free version of an unnamed Breton book, is the source of the Arthurian legends which reappeared transformed in elaborate French versions, and were transmitted to the rest of Europe during the i2th and i3th centuries. During this period of French literary supremacy instances of bilingual faculty are not wanting in the form of translations: shortly after the middle of the i3th century Brunette Latini translated passages of Cicero into Italian, and selections from Sallust into French. A hundred years later there are unmistakable indica- tions that the middle ages are departing, that the French suzerainty over literature is at an end, and that the advent of TRANSLATION 185 the New Humanism is an accomplished fact. The early Renais- sance had already dawned in Italy: a renewed interest in the Latin classics (Greek was not yet generally cultivated by scholars) proved that there was a revival of learning in France. Livy was done into French by Bersuire, Seneca by Bauchant, Boccaccio by Laurent de Premier Fait, and a celebrated trans- lator appeared in the person of Nicolas Oresme, who, however, rendered Aristotle from a Latin version. In England Chaucer executed translations of Boetius and part of the Roman de la rose, and succeeded equally in interpreting the philosophic treatise and the allegorical poem. A still further advance is discernible in the book of travels ascribed to Sir John Mande- ville: this work, which seems to have been originally written in French, is rendered into English with an exceptional felicity which has won for the translator the loose-fitting but not altogether inappropriate title of " the father of English prose." The English version of Mandeville is assigned to the beginning of the 1 5th century. About 1470 Sir Thomas Malory produced from French originals his Morte d' Arthur, a pastiche of different texts translated with a consummate art which amounts to originality. Malory's inspired version, together with the numerous renderings from the French issued (and often made personally) by Caxton, stimulated the public taste for romantic narrative, raised the standard of execution, and invested the translator with a new air of dignity and importance. Yet the i sth century has a fair claim to be regarded as the golden age of translation. The Gothic version of the Bible, made by Ulfilas during the 4th century almost simultaneously with St Jerome's Vulgate, is invaluable as the sole literary monument of a vanished language; the I4th century English version by Wycliffe and the i5th century English versions which bear the names of Tyndale and Coverdale are Interesting in themselves, and are also interesting as having contributed to the actual Authorized Version of 1611. But they are incom- parably less important than Luther's German translation of the Bible (1522-1534) which, apart from its significance as indicating the complete victory of the liberal middle class and the irreme- diable downfall of the feudal and ecclesiastical autocracy, supplanted minor dialects and fixed the norm of literary expres- sion in German-speaking countries. Luther, it has been truly said, endowed Germany with a uniform literary language, a possession which she had lost for nearly three hundred years. The effect of profane literature was speedily visible in Fischart's translations of Rabelais's Pantagrueline (1572) and the first book of Gargantua (1575). But before this date France had produced a prince of translators in Jacques Amyot, bishop of Auxerre. In 1548 Nicolas de Herberay had published a French translation of Amadis de Gaule which enchanted the polite world at the court of Henry II., had its day, and is forgotten. But Amyot's translation of Plutarch (1559) remains an acknow- ledged masterpiece, surviving all changes of taste and all variations of the canon of translation. Montaigne writes: " Je donne la palme avecque raison, ce me semble, a Jacques Amyot, sur tous nos escripvains Francois." If " escripvain " be understood to mean " translator," this judgment is beyond appeal. Lord Berners will not bear comparison with Amyot in achieve- ment or influence; but. though less completely equipped and less uniformly happy in his choice of texts (for Amyot translated the Aethiopian History and Daphnis and Chloe as well as Plu- tarch), Lord Berners holds a distinguished place in the ranks of English translators. His renderings of Fernandez de San Pedro's Cdrcel de amor and of Guevara's Libra aureo are now read solely by specialists engaged in tracing English euphuism to its remoter sources, and some of his other translations — the Boke of Duke Huon of Burdeux and Arthur of Little Britain — are too poor in substance to be interesting nowadays. But Lord Berners is justly remembered by his notable translation of Froissart (1523-1525). Froissart offers fewer opportunities than Guevara for the display of that " fecundious art of rhetoric " in which the English translator thought himself deficient, and, with this temptation removed, Lord Berners is seen at his best. In his version of Froissart, apart from endless confusion of proper names, he makes few mistakes of any real importance, and, if he scarcely equals his original in brio, .he is almost invariably ade- quate in reproducing the French blend of simplicity with state- liness. Such translations as Phaer's Virgil (1557) and Golding's Ovid (1561) have not the historical importance of William Painter's Palace of Pleasure, a miscellaneous collection of stories rendered from the Italian, nor of Jasper Heywood's version of Seneca (1581) whose plays had exercised immense influence upon the methods of Garnier and Montchretien in France. Though Kyd translated Garnier's Cornelie, the Senecan system was destined to defeat in England, and Heywood's translation did not even postpone the catastrophe. On the other hand Marlowe found the subject of.his Tamburlaine in Painter's collection, and thus began the systematic exploitation of the Palace of Pleasure which was continued by his successors on the stage. A trans- lator of the rarest excellence was forthcoming in Sir Thomas North, who rendered Guevara (1557) from the French (revising his second edition from the Spanish), and The M or all Philosophic of Doni — " a worke first compiled hi the Indian tongue " — from the Italian (1570). But, good as they are, both these versions are overshadowed by the famous translation of Plutarch which North published in 1579. He may have referred occa- sionally to the Greek, or perhaps to some intermediate Latin rendering; but the basis of his work is Amyot, and his English is not inferior to the French in sonority and cadence of phrase. This retranslation of a translation is a masterpiece of which fragments are incorporated with scarcely any change in Corio- lanus, Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra; and touches from North have been noted also in the Midsummer Night's Dream and in Timon of Athens. Amyot greatly influenced the develop- ment of French prose, and his translation was the source of Racine's Mithridate; but, if we reflect that Shakespeare not only took some of his subjects from the English Plutarch and found nothing to amend in the diction of many passages, North's triumph may be reckoned as even more signal than Amyot's. Very h'ttle below North's translation of Plutarch comes John Florio's translation of Montaigne (1603), a fantastically ingenious performance which contributed a celebrated passage to The Tempest and introduced the practice of the essay into England. ' It is impossible to cope with the activity of English translators during the last half of the i6th century and the first half of the I7th. To this period belongs Chapman's impressive and resounding translation (1598-1616) of Homer, which was to enrapture Keats two hundred years later. Adlington's version of Apuleius, Underdown's renderings of Heliodorus and Ovid, the translations of Livy, Pliny, Suetonius and Xenophon issued in quick succession by Philemon Holland are vivid and often extravagantly picturesque in their conveyance of classic authors into Elizabethan prose. With them must be named the translator of Tacitus (1591), Sir' Henry Savile, who served later on the committee which prepared the Authorized Version of the Bible, and must therefore be counted amongst those who have exercised a permanent influence on English prose style. Thomas Shelton produced the earliest translation (1612) of Don Quixote, a version which, in spite of its inaccuracies and freakishness, preserves much of the tone and atmosphere of the original. Mabbe's translation (1622) of Guzmdn de Alfarache was lauded by Ben Jonson, and widely read during the I7th century, and his version of the Celestina deserved a success which it failed to obtain. It compares most favourably with a version of Tasso (1600) by Edward Fairfax, who has been persistently overpraised. But the Puritanical instinct of the English people, powerful even when not in the ascendant, was an insuperable obstacle to the acclimatization of Spanish literature in England. The Leviathan has obscured Hobbes's fame as a translator, but he is known to scholars by his sound but crabbed rendering of Thucydides (1629), and by a wholly unnecessary version of Homer which h'e published at the very end of his career (1674). Sir Roger L'Estrange is responsible for translations of Seneca, Cicero and Josephus, which are usually lively enough to be readable and unfaithful enough to be misleading; the most popular of his renderings is a translation of Quevedo's Suefios i86 TRANSOM— TRANSVAAL (made through the French) which owes most of its vogue during the Restoration rather to its reckless indecency than to its intrinsic merit. Dryden's free translations of Juvenal (1693) and Virgil (1697) treat the original authors with a cavalier freedom, but at least they preserve the meaning, if not the conciseness and point, of the Latin. Among the multitudinous English translations of the i8th century it is only necessary to mention Pope's versions of the Iliad (1715-1720) and the Odyssey (1725-1726), and Cowper's rendering of Homer, issued in 1791. These neat translations necessarily fail to convey any impression of Homer's epical grandeur, and they set a mischievous fashion of artificial " ele- gance " which has been too often adopted by their successors; but both Pope and Cowper conform faithfully to the mistaken canon of their age, and both have fugitive moments of felicity. A posthumous translation of Don Quixote bearing the name of Charles Jarvis appeared in 1742, has been reprinted times innumerable ever since, and has helped to make Cervantes's masterpiece known to generations of English-speaking people. Defective in point of exact scholarship, it has the merit of agree- able perspicuity, and there seems no reason to believe the remark, ascribed by Warburton to Pope, that Jarvis " translated Don Quixote without knowing Spanish ": the available evidence is strongly against this malicious theory. The most remarkable translations of the i8th century, however, appeared in Germany: these are the versions of the Odyssey (1781) and Iliad (1793) by Voss, and A. W. von Schlegel's rendering of Shakespeare (1797- 1810), which gave a powerful impulse to the romantic movement on the Continent. Byron's version of a Spanish ballad and Shelley's renderings of Calderon are interesting exhibitions of original genius volun- tarily accepting a subordinate r61e. More importance attaches to Carlyle's translation of Wilhelm Meisler (1824), a faithful rendering free from the intolerable mannerisms and tricks which the translator developed subsequently in his original writings. William Taylor had long before translated Burger's Lenore, Lessing's Nathan and Goethe's Iphigenia; but such interest as the English nation has been induced to take in German litera- ture dates from the appearance of Carlyle's translation. If he did nothing more, he compelled recognition of the fact that Germany had at last produced an original genius of the highest class. Calderon found accomplished translators in Denis Florence MacCarthy (1848-1873) and in Edward FitzGerald (1853), who also attempted to render Sophocles into English; but these are on a much lower plane than the translation of the Rubaiydl (1859) of Omar Khayyam, in which, by a miracle of intrepid dexterity, a half-forgotten Persian poet is transfigured into a pessimistic English genius of the igth century. Versions of Dante by Longfellow (whose translations of poems by minor authors are often admirable), of Latin or Greek classics by Conington, Munro, Jowett and Jebb, maintain the best traditions of the best translators. William Morris was less happy in his poetical versions of Virgil (1875) and the Odyssey (1887) than in his prose translations of The Story of Grettir the Strong (1869) and The Volsunga Saga (1870) — both made in collaboration with Magnusson — and in his rendering of Beowulf (1895). In his Lays of France (1872) Arthur O'Shaughnessy skirts the borders of translation without quite entering into the field; he elaborates, paraphrases and embroiders rather than translates the lais of Marie de France. Most versions of modern foreign writers are mere hackwork carelessly executed by incompetent hands, and this is even more true of England than of France and Germany. But, with the development of literature in countries whose languages are unfamiliar, the function of the translator increases in importance, and in some few cases he has risen to his opportunity. Through translations the works of the great Russian novelists have become known to the rest of Europe, and through translations of Ibsen the dramatic methods of the modern stage have undergone a revolution. (J. F.-K.) TRANSOM (probably a corruption of Lat. transtrum, athwart, in a boat; equivalents are Fr. traverse, croisillon, Ger. Losholz), the architectural term given to the horizontal lintel or beam which is framed across a window, dividing it into stages or heights. In early Gothic ecclesiastical work transoms are only found in belfry unglazed windows or spire lights, where they were deemed necessary to strengthen the mullions in the absence of the iron stay bars, which in glazed windows served a similar purpose. In domestic work, on account of the opening casements, they are more frequently found. In the later Gothic, and more especially the Perpendicular period, the introduction of transoms became very general in windows of all kinds. TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the term adopted by the Roman Catholic Church to express her teaching on the subject of the conversion of the Bread and Wine into the Body and Blood of Christ in the Eucharist. Its signification was authoritatively defined by the Council of Trent in the following words: " If any one shall say that, in the Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist there remains, together with the Body and Blood of Our Lord Jesus Christ, the substance of the Bread and Wine, and shall deny that wonderful and singular conversion of the whole substance of the Bread into (His) Body and of the Wine into (His) Blood, the species only of the Bread and Wine remaining — which con- version the Catholic Church most fittingly calls Transubstantia- tion — let him be anathema." J The word Transubstantiation is not found earlier than the i2th century. But in the Eucharistic controversies of the gth, loth and nth centuries the views which the term embodies were clearly expressed; as, for example, by Radbertus Paschasius (d. 865), who wrote that " the substance of the Bread and Wine is efficaciously changed interiorly into the Flesh and Blood of Christ," and that after the consecration what is there is " nothing else but Christ the Bread of Heaven." '' The words " substantially converted " appear in the formula which Berengarius was compelled to sign in 1079. Assuming that the Expositio canonis missae ascribed to St Pietro Damiani (d. 1072) is doubtful, we may take it that the first use of the word is in a passage of Hildebert de Savardin 3 (d. 1133), who brings it into an exhortation quite informally, as if it were in common use.4 It is met with in a Decretal of Innocent III.6 The fourth Council of Lateran fully adopted it (1215). It is clear from the treatise of Radbertus Paschasius already quoted that the word " substance " was used for reality as distinguished from outward appearance, and that the word " species " meant outward appear- ance as opposed to reality. The terms, therefore, were not invented by St Thomas Aquinas, and are not mere scholastic subtlety. The definition of the Council of Trent was intended both to enforce the accepted Catholic position and to exclude the teaching of Luther, who, whilst not professing to be certain whether the " substance " of the Bread and Wine could or could not be said to remain, exclaimed against the intolerance of the Roman Catholic Church in defining the question.6 For a full and recent exposition of the Catholic teaching on Transubstantiation the reader may consult De ecclesiae sacra- mentis, auctore Ludovico Billot, S.J. (Rome, Propaganda Press, 1896). The Abb6 Pierre Batifol, in his Etudes d'histoire et de theologie positive, 2me seYie (Elaboration de la notion de conversion, and Conversion et transubstantiation) treats it from the point of view of development (V. Lecoffre, Paris, 1905). (* J. C. H.) TRANSVAAL, an inland province of the Union of South Africa between the Vaal and Limpopo rivers. It lies, roughly, between 22^° and 27^° S. and 25° and 32° E., and is bounded S. by the Orange Free State and Natal, W. by the Cape province and the Bechuanaland Protectorate, N. by Rhodesia, E. by Portuguese East Africa and Swaziland. Save on the south-west the frontiers, for the main part, are well defined natural features. From the south-west to the north-east corners of the colony is 570 m.; east 1 Condi trident. Sess. XIII. Can. 2. 3 P. L. Migne. CXX. De corpore et sanguine Domini, cap. viii. 2, cf. xv. 2. 3 Sometimes called of Tours, or of Le Mans. 4 See Batifol, Etudes d'histoire et de theologie positive, 2me serie. "Lib. III. Decretalium, tit. 41, n. 6. ' De captivitate babylonica ecclesiae. De coena Domini. But Luther elsewhere professed Consubstantiation ; that is, in modern Lutheran phraseology, the " presence of our Lord's Body " in, with and under the bread. PHYSICAL FEATURES] TRANSVAAL to west its greatest extent is 397 m. The total area is 111,196 sq. m., a little less than the area of Great Britain and Ireland The boundaries of the Transvaal have varied from time to time The most important alteration was made in January 1903 when the districts of Utrecht and Vryheid, which then formed the south-eastern part of the country were annexed to Natal. Th area thus lost to the Transvaal was 6970 sq. m. (For map se SOUTH AFRICA.) Physical Features. — About five-sixths of the country lies west of the Drakensberg (q.v.), the mountain range which forms the inne rim of the great tableland of South Africa. For a few miles on the Natal-Transvaal frontier the Drakensberg run east and west anc here is the pass of Laing's Nek. Thence the mountains sweep round to the north, with their precipitous outer slopes facing east For some 250 m. within the province the mountains form a more „, !„„„ — » ^u. i..--.!..^ int being the Maiichberg bile there are several heights _ the foot of the Drakensberg stretches a broad belt of low land beyond which rise the Lebombo hills running north and south along the parallel of 32° E. anc approaching within 35 m. of the sea at Delagoa Bay. The Lebombo hills are flat topped but with a' well-defined break on their seaward side. This eastern edge forms the frontier between Transvaal and Portuguese territory. The country west of the Drakensberg, though part of the main South African tableland, is not uniform in character, consisting of (l) elevated downs, (2) their slopes, (3) the flat " bottom " land. The downs or plateaus occupy all the southern part of the country, sloping gradually westward from the Drakensberg. That part of the plateau east of Johannesburg is from 5000 to 6400 ft. high; the western and somewhat, larger half is generally below 5000 ft. and sinks to about 4000 ft. on the Bechuanaland border. This plateau land is called the high veld,1 and covers about 34,000 sq. m. The northern edge of the plateau follows an irregular line from somewhat north of Mafeking on the west to the Mauchberg on the east. This edge is marked by ranges of hills such as the Witwaters- rand, Witwatersberg and Magaliesberg; the Witwatersrand, which extends eastward to Johannesburg, forming the watershed between the rivers flowing to the Atlantic and Indian Ocean. Farther north, beyond the intervening slopes and low bush, are two elevated regions covering together over 4000 sq. m. They are the Water- berg, and, more to the east, separated from the VVaterberg by the valley of the Magalakwane tributary of the Limpopo, the Zoutpans- berg. The Zoutpansberg has steep slopes and is regarded as the northern termination of the Drakensberg. An eastern offshoot of the Zoutpansberg is known as the Murchison Range. The low land between the high veld and the Waterberg and Zoutpansberg is traversed by the Olifants River, an east flowing tributary of the Limpopo. The true high veld, extending east to west 120 m. and north to south 100 m., consists of rolling grass covered downs, absolutely treeless, save where, as at Johannesburg, plantations have been made by man, the crest of the rolls being known as builts and the hollows as laagtes or vleys. The surface is occasionally broken by kopjes — either table-shaped or pointed — rising sometimes 100 ft. above the general level. Small springs of fresh water are fre- quent and there are several shallow lakes or pans — flat bottomed depressions with no outlet. The largest of these pans, Lake Chrissie, some 5 m. long by I m. broad, is in the south-eastern part of the high veld. The water in the pans is usually brackish. The middle veld is marked by long low stony ridges, known as rands, and these rands and the kopjes are often covered with scrub, while mimosa trees are found in the river valleys. The banken veld, formed by the denudation of the plateau, is much broken up and is rich in romantic scenery. It covers about 27,000 sq. m., and has an average breadth of 40 m. In places, as between Mafeking and Johannesburg, the descent is in terrace- like steps, each step marked by a line of hills; in other places there is a gradual slope and elsewhere the descent is abrupt, with out- lying hills and deep well-wooded valleys. The rocks at the base of the slopes are granite, the upper escarpments are of sedimentary rocks. Thence issue many streams which in their way to the ocean have forced their way through the ranges of hills which mark the steps in the plateau, forming the narrow passes or poorts char- acteristic of South African scenery. As in the middle veld, rands and kopjes occur in the low or bush veld, but the general characteristic of this part of the country, which covers over 50,000 sq. m., is its uniformity. The low veld east of the Drakensberg begins at about 3000 ft. above the sea and slopes to 1000 ft. or less until it meets the ridge of the Lebombo hills. The lowest point is at Komati Poort, a gorge through the Lebombo hills only 476 ft. above the sea. West and north of the Drakensberg the general level of the low veld is not much below that of the lowest altitudes of the middle veld, though the climatic 1 By the Boers the western and less elevated part of the plateau is known as the middle veld. 187 conditions greatly differ. North of the Zoutpansberg the ground falls rapidly, however, to the Limpopo flats which are little over 1200 ft. above the sea. Near the north-west foot of the Zoutpans- berg is the large saltpan from which the mountains get their name ine low veld is everywhere covered with scrub, and water is scarce the rivers being often dry in the winter season. River Systems.— - There are four separate river basins in the Trans- vaal. Of these the Komati (q.v.) and its affluents, and the Pongola and its affluents rise in the high veld and flowing eastward to the Indian Ocean dram but a comparatively small area of the province, ol which the Pongola forms for some distance the south-eastern Irontier. The rest of the country is divided between the drainage areas of the Vaal and Limpopo. The Vaal (q.v.) rises in the nigh veld in the Ermelo district not far from the source of the Komati and that of the Usuto tributary of the Pongola. The Vaal drains the greater part of the plateau, flowing westward towards the Atlantic. Ine waters of the northern escarpments of the plateau and of all the region farther north are carried to the Indian Ocean by the Limpopo (q.v .) and its tributaries the Olifants, Great Marico Great Letaba, &c. Both the Vaal and the Limpopo in their main course have high steep banks. They carry an immense volume of water during the summer rains, but are very small streams in the winter, when several of their tributaries are completely dry.2 None of the rivers is- navigable within the limits of the province. The absence of alluvial deposits of any size is another characteristic ot the Iransvaal rivers. For a considerable distance the Vaal forms the frontier between the province and the Orange Free State and in similar manner the Limpopo separates the Transvaal from Bechuanaland and Rhodesia. Since the first advent of white colonists many springs and pans and small streams have dried up, this desiccation being attributed, not so much to decreased rainfall, as to the burning off of the grass every winter, so that the water, instead of soaking in, runs off the hard, baked ground into the larger nvers- (F. R. C.) Geology. A broad ring of crystalline rocks (Swaziland schists) encircles the Transvaal except on the south, where the Karroo formation extends over the Vaal River. Within this nearly complete circle of crystalline rocks several geological formations have been deter- mined, of which the age cannot be more definitely fixed than that they are vastly older than the Karroo formation and newer than the Swaziland schists. The following subdivisions have been recognized by Molengraaff : Karroo System, Transvaal System, Vaal River System, South African Primary System. Each of these systems is separated from the other by a strong unconformity. South African Primary System.— The South African Primary System includes a complex of rocks as yet little understood. Ac- cording to Molengraaff it includes the two following series : — {An upper group including the auri- ferous conglomerates of the Rand: a lower group (Hospital Hill series) of quartzites, shales and conglom- erates. Barberton and Swaziland/ Crystalline schists, quartzites, conglom- Series. \ erates, intrusive granites. Barberton Series. — Molengraaff considers the Barberton series to je the metamorphosed equivalent of the Hospital Hill series, while Hatch regards it to be older and to form a portion of his Archaean series (Swaziland schists) to which position it is here assigned. The chief outcrops are in the south-western Transvaal, around Zoutpansberg and in Swaziland. They show a great variety of type made up of slates, quartzites, occasional conglom- erates, schists with large masses of intrusive granites and gneiss. Witwatersrand Series. — It is now generally acknowledged that this important series consists of two main groups. Their chief occurrences are in the districts of Witwatersrand, Heidelberg, Klerksdorp and Venterskroon. The lower group (Hospital Hill slates) consists of quartzites and shales, resting on the eroded surface of the older granites and schists, and estimated to be from 10,000 to 12,000 ft. thick. There are occasional bands of conglom- erates, sometimes auriferous. In the absence of fossils their age cannot be determined. The upper group consists of conglomerates, ;rits and quartzites with a few bands of shales. It has obtained lotoriety from the conglomerates along certain bands contain- ng gold, when they constitute the famous " banket." The thick- ness varies from 2300 to over 11,000 ft. The conglomerate beds occur in belts forming in descending order the Elsburg series, Cimberley series, Bird Reef series, Livingstone Reef series, Main leef series. The richest in gold are to be found among the Main *eef series, which yields by far the greater part of the total output of gold from the Transvaal. The individual beds, seldom more han a few feet in thickness and sometimes only a few inches, are nterstratified with an immense thickness of quartzites. The conglom- rates consist almost entirely of pebbles of quartz set in a hard 2 At the Standerton gauge on the Vaal in 1905-1906, a year of xtreme drought, the total flow was 8,017,000,000 cub. ft., of which ,102,000,000 was storm water. i88 TRANSVAAL [CLIMATE matrix consolidated by the deposition of secondary silica. The conglomerate bands and quartzites contain large quantities of iron pyrites deposited subsequent to their formation, that in the conglom- erates containing the gold. Sericite in the form of scales and films characterizes those portions which have been faulted, squeezed or sheared%. Sheets of diabase, apparently volcanic flows, and numerous 'dykes interfere with the regularity of the stratification. The theory of the subsequent infiltration of the gold is that generally accepted. No fossils have been discovered, and except that they represent some portion or portions of rocks of the Pre-Cape formation the age of the upper Witwatersrand beds, as well as that of the lower division, remains an open question. They may safely be considered to be among the oldest auriferous sediments of the world. Vaal River System. — This consists largely of rocks of igneous origin, of which the amygdaloidal diabase of Klipriversberg forms the type. The other rocks include igneous breccias, shales, coarse conglomerates and grits. Near Reitzburg the coarse conglom- erates reach a thickness of 400 ft. and about 500 ft. at Kroom- draai. This system rests unconformably on the Witwatersrand series and is unconformably overlain by the Transvaal system. It must, however, be acknowledged that these relationships are very imperfectly understood. Compared with other formations they occupy restricted areas, being only met with south of Johannesburg, around Wolmaransstad, Lichtenburg and east of Manco. Transvaal System. — This is a very definite sequence of rocks covering immense areas in the centre of the country. The follow- ing groups are recognized: Waterberg Series, Pretoria Series, Dolomite Series, Black Reef Series. The Black Reef Series is composed of quartzites, sandstone, slates and conglomerate. It varies in thickness from 100 ft. in the southern Transvaal to 1000 ft. at Lydenburg. Thin bands of conglomerate, sometimes auriferous, occur near the base. The Dolomite Series, known to the Dutch as " Olifants Klip," consists of a bluish-grey magnesian limestone with bands of chert. The thickness varies from 2600 ft. in the Witwatersrand area to 5000 ft. around Pretoria; and is about 2600 ft. about Lydenburg. It is worn by solution into caves and swallow-holes (Wondergarien). Gold, lead, copper and iron ores occur as veins. So far it has proved to be unfossiliferous. Dykes and intrusive rocks are common. The Pretoria Series, formerly known as the Gatsrand series, consists of repeated alternations of flagstones and quartzites, shales and sheets of diabase. These follow conformably on the Dolomite series. In the Marico district the shales become highly ferruginous and resemble the Hospital Hill slates of the Witwaters- rand series. Near Pretoria duplications of the beds, due to over- thrusting, are not uncommon. The Waterberg Series lies unconformably on the Pretoria series. The colour is usually red, forcibly recalling the Old Red Sandstone and Trias of England. Sandstones, quartzites, conglomerates and breccia make up the formation. They occur to the north- east of Pretoria and occupy still wide areas in the Waterberg district. A complex of igneous rocks of different ages covers immense areas in the central Transvaal. Various types of granite are the predominant variety. Syenites, gabbros, norites and volcanic rocks are also represented. The granite contains two varieties. One is a red granite intruded subsequently to the Waterberg sand- stones; another is a grey variety considered to be older than the Black Reef series and possibly older than the Witwatersrand series. The Karroo System attains its chief development in the south- eastern Transvaal in the districts of Ermelo, Standerton and Wakkerstroom. The latest classification of Molengraaff subdivides the beds as follows: — Hoogeveld Series = Beaufort beds of Cape Colony. Contains coal-seams. Ecca shales. Not present at Vereeniging. Dwyka conglomerate. Sandstones and conglomerates with coal-seams at Vereeniging. The Dwyka conglomerate resembles the same bed in the Cape province. The boulders consist of very various rocks often of large size. Many of them show glacial striae. The direction of stnae on the underlying quartzitic rocks, particularly well seen near the Douglas colliery, Balmoral, point to an ice movement from the north-north-west to south-south-east. The Ecca series, as in the Cape, consists of sandstones and shales. Seams of coal lie near the base, some of them exceeding 20 ft. in thickness, but in this case layers of shaly coal are included. The overlying sandstones afford good building stones, and frequently, as at Vereeniging, yield many fossil plants. These include among others, Glossopteris browniana, Gangamopteris cyclopteroides, Sigil- laria Brardi, Bothrodendron Leslii, Noeggeralhiopsis Hislopi. The Karroo beds lie almost horizontally, in marked contrast to the highly inclined older rocks. Their distribution, other than in the south-eastern districts, is imperfectly understood. Remnants have been found of their former existence in the neighbourhood of Pretoria; and portions of the Bushveld Sandstone have recently been relegated to the Karroo formation. The diamond pipes probably represent some of the most recent rocks of the Transvaal. They may be of Cretaceous age or even later, and in any case belong to the same class as those of Kimberley. The recent deposits of the Transvaal may be considered to be insignificant. They include the gravels and alluviums of the present streams and the almost ubiquitous red sand of aeolian origin.1 (W. G.*) Climate. — Although lying on the border of and partly within the tropics, the Transvaal, owing to its high general elevation, and to the absence of extensive marshy tracts, enjoys on the whole a healthy invigorating climate, well suited to the European constitution. The climate of the high veld is indeed one of the finest in the world. The air is unusually dry, owing to the proximity of the Kalahari Desert on the west and to the interception on the east by the Drakensberg of the moisture bearing clouds from the Indian Ocean. The range of temperature is often considerable — in winter it varies from about 100° F. in the shade at I p.m. to freezing point at night. During summer (Oct.-April) the mean temperature is about J3°; during winter about 53°. Nov.-Jan. are the hottest and June- uly the coldest months. The chief characteristic of the rainfall is its frequent intensity and short duration. During May to August there is practically no rain, and in early summer (Sept.-Dec.) the rainfall is often very light. The heaviest rain is experienced between January and April and is usually accompanied by severe thunderstorms. On the eastern escarpment of the Drakensberg the rainfall is heavy, 50 or 60 in. in the year, but it diminishes rapidly towards the centre of the plateau where it averages, at Johannesburg about 30 in.,2 while in the extreme west as the Kala- hari is approached it sinks to about 12 in. The winds in winter are uniformly dry while dust storms are frequent at all seasons — a fact which renders the country unsuitable for persons suffering from chest complaints. In the eastern part of the plateau snow occasionally falls, and frost at night is common during winter. The banken veld district is also generally healthy though hotter than the plateaus, and malarial fever prevails in the lower valleys. Malarial fever is also prevalent throughout the low veld, but above 3000 ft. is usually of a mild type. Nearly all the country below that elevation is unsuitable for colonization by whites, while the Limpopo flats and other low tracts, including the district between the Drakensberg and the Lebombo hills are extremely unhealthy, blackwater fever being endemic. In the low veld the shade tempera- ture in summer rises to 113° F., but the nights are generally cool, and down to 2000 ft. frost occurs in winter. The rainfall in the low country is more erratic than on the plateau, and in some districts a whole year will pass without rain. Flora. — The general characteristic of the flora is the prevalence of herbaceous over forest growths; the high veld is covered by short sweet grasses of excellent quality for pasturage; grass is mingled with protea scrub in the middle veld; the banken veld has a richer flora, the valley levels are well wooded, scattered timber trees clothe their sides and the hills are covered with aloe, euphorbia, protea and other scrub growths. Among the timber trees of this region is the bolkenhout of terblanz (Faurea Saligna} which yields a fine wood resembling mahogany. The scrub which covers the low veld consists mainly of gnarled stunted thorns with flattened umbrella shaped crowns, most of the species belonging to the sub- order mimoseae. A rare species is the acacia erioloba Rameel doom, akin to the acacia giraffae of Bechuanaland. The wild seringa (Burkea africana) is also characteristic of the low veld and extends up the slopes of the plateau. The meroola (sclerocarya. caffra) a medium sized deciduous tree with a rounded spreading top is found in the low veld and up the slopes to a height of 4500 ft. It is common in the lower slopes of the rands of the low veld. Cotton and cotton-like plants and vines are also native to the low veld. Few of the low veld bushes are large or straight enough to furnish any useful wood, and timber trees are wholly absent from the level country. The forest patches are confined to the deep kloofs -of the mountains, to the valleys of the larger rivers and to the sea- slopes of the Drakensberg and other ranges, where they flourish in regions exposed to the sea mists. These patches, called " wood- bushes," contain many hardwood trees of great size, their flora and fauna being altogether different from that immediately out- side the wood. Common species in the woodbush are three varieties of yellow wood (Podocarpus), often growing to an enormous size, the Cape beech (myrsine), several varieties of the wild pear (Olinia) and of stinkwood (Oreodaphne) ironwood and ebony. The largest forest areas are in the Pongola district and the Haenertsburg and 1 For geology see : F. H. Hatch and G. S. Corstorphine, The Geology of South Africa (London, 2nd ed., 1909); G. A. F. Molengraaff, Geologie de la Republique Sud-africaine du Transvaal, Bull, de la Soc. Geol. de France, 4 seYie, tome i., pp. 13-92 (1901). (Translation by J. H. Ronaldson, Edinburgh and Johannesburg, 1904); Reports and Memoirs, Geol. Survey (Transvaal, 1903, et seq.); H. Kynaston, The Geology of the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony, Handbook, British Association (Cape Town, 1905); Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Africa (Johannesburg). 2 Exceptionally very heavy rain is experienced on the Rand. In January 1907 seven inches of rain fell in 24 hours. INHABITANTS] TRANSVAAL 189 Woodbush districts north of the Olifants river. Mimosa and the wild wilge-boom (Salix capens-is) are the common trees on the banks and rivers, while the weeping willow is frequent round the farmsteads Many trees have been introduced and considerable plantations made, as for instance on the slopes between Johannesburg and Pre- toria. Among the most successful of the imported trees are citrus trees, the Australian wattle and the eucalyptus. Tobacco and the vine both flourish and most European fruits and vegetables thrive. Of native fruits the misple (Vangueria infausta), miscalled the wild medlar, is of excellent flavour. It is common on the rands and kopjes of the bush veld. Rose and other flowering shrubs and trees grow well on the banken veld and in the valleys. A large yellow tulip (Homerica pattida) is one of the most abundant flowers on moist vlei lands on the high veld and is occasionally met with in the low veld; slangkop (Urginea Burkei) with red bulbs like a beetroot is a low bush plant apparently restricted to the Transvaal and adjacent Portuguese territory. Both these and many other plants such as gift-blaar and drouk-gras are poisonous to cattle. These poisonous plants are found chiefly in the banken and low veld. Fauna. — When first entered by white men the Transvaal abounded in big game, the lion, leopard, elephant, giraffe, zebra and rhinoceros being very numerous, while the hippopotamus and crocodile were found in all the rivers. The indiscriminate destruction of these animals has greatly reduced their numbers and except in the Ppn- gola district, at one or two other places on the Portuguese frontier, and along the Limpopo the hippopotamus, rhinoceros and crocodile are now extinct in the province. A few elephants, giraffes and zebras (equus burchelli — the true zebra is extinct) are still found in the north and north-eastern districts and in the same regions lions and leopards survive in fair numbers. Other animals fairly numerous are the spotted hyena, long-eared fox, jackal, aard wolf, red lynx, wild cat, wild dog and wart hog. Many species of antelope are found, mostly in small numbers, including the kudu, hartebeest, the sable and roan antelope, the white tailed and the brindled gnu, waterbuck, red buck, duiker, blesbok, palla, springbuck (numerous), steinbok, grysbok and klipspringer. The Africander breed of cattle is a well-marked variety, and a characteristic native domestic animal. Whether originally imported from Europe by the Portu- guese or brought from the north by Africans is not certain. It is not found in a wild state and the auffalo (bos eager) is almost if not quite extinct in the Transvaal. Among edentata the ant-bear, scaly ant-eater and porcupine are plentiful. The spring hare (pedetes capensis) abounds. Baboons and other apes are fairly common and there are several species of snakes. The ostrich is found in the Marico and Limpopo districts, and more rarely else- where; the great kori bustard and the koorhaan are common. Insects abound, the greatest pest being the tsetse fly, common in the low veld. Six species of tick, including the blue tick common throughout South Africa, are found, especially in the low veld, where they are the means of the transmission of disease to cattle. Mos- quitoes, locusts and ants are also common. The baba or cat fish and the yellow fish are plentiful in the rivers and the trout has been acclimatized. To preserve the native fauna the low country on the Portuguese frontier has been made a game reserve. It is nearly 300 m. long with an average breadth of 50 m. Other reserves have been con- stituted in the north of the province. Inhabitants. — The population of the Transvaal, on the i;th of April 1904, when the first complete census of the country was taken, was 1,269,951 (including 8215 British soldiers in garrison),1 or 11-342 persons per sq. m. Of these 20-67%, namely 297,277, were European or white. Of the coloured population 937,127 were aboriginals; and 35,547 were of mixed or other coloured races. Of thewhites 178,244 (59-95%) were males. The white population is broadly divisible into the British and Dutch ele- ments, the percentage of other whites in 1904 being but 8-6. The Dutch, as their usual designation, Boers, implies, are mainly farmers and stock-raisers and are still predominant elsewhere than in the Witwatersrand and Pretoria districts. They speak the patois of Dutch known as the Taal. The British element is chiefly gathered in Johannesburg and other towns on the Rand and in Pretoria. The total white population in the Witwatersrand and in Pretoria in 1904 was 135,135, and the strength of the British in these districts is shown by the fact that only 20% was Transvaal born. Of those born outside the Transvaal 24-6% came from other British possessions in Africa and 24-92% from Great Britain or British colonies other than African. Of the non-British or Boer whites Russians form 3-01%, Germans 1-62% and Dutch (of Holland) 1-14%. The natives are found chiefly in Zoutpansberg district, 1 For most purposes this military element is omitted in the census returns. where there were 314,797 at the 1904 census, and the adjoining districts of Lydenburg and Waterberg, i.e. in the northern and north-eastern region of the country. The natives belong to the Bantu negro race and are represented chiefly by Basuto, Bech- uana, Bavenda, and Xosa-Zulu tribes. None of these peoples has any claim to be indigenous, and, save the Bavenda, all are immigrants since c. 1817-1820, when the greater part of the then inhabitants were exterminated by the Zulu chief Mosi- likatze (see § History). After that event Basuto entered the country from the south, Bechuana from the west and Swazi, Zulu, Shangaan and other tribes from the east and south-east. The Basuto, who number 410,020 and form 40% of the total population, are now found mostly in the central, northern and north- eastern districts, forming in Lydenburg about 67%, and in Zout- pansberg about 50% of the inhabitants. The Bechuana, who number 64,751, are almost confined to the western and south-western districts. Next, numerically, to the Basuto and Bechuana peoples are the tribes known collectively as Transvaal Kaffirs, of whom there were 159,860 enumerated at the 1904 census. Altogether the Transvaal Kaffirs form 50% of the inhabitants of Waterberg district, 30% of Zoutpansberg district and i8%of Middelburg district. Zulus number 75,601 and form 54% of the population in Wakkerstroom district and 1 8 % in Standerton district. Elsewhere they are very thinly repre- sented. Swazis form more than half the total population of the Barberton and Ermelo districts and are also numerous in Wakker- stroom. In Barberton, Lydenburg and Zoutpansberg districts Shangaan and other east coast tribes are settled, 80,834 being returned as born in the Transvaal. The Shangaan are members of a Bantu tribe from the Delagoa Bay region who took refuge in the Transvaal between 1860 and 1862 to escape Zulu raids. They were for some time ruled by a Portuguese, Joao Albasini, who had adopted native customs. Since 1873 Swiss Protestant missionaries have lived among them and many of the Shangaans are Christians and civilized. Several other east coast tribes, such as the Bankuna, are of mixed Zulu and Shangaan blood. Among the mixed and other coloured races in the census returns figure 1592 Bushmen, 3597 Hottentots and 1147 Koranna; these people are found chiefly in the south- western regions and are remnants of the true aboriginal population. Besides the tribes whose home is in the Transvaal considerable numbers of natives, chiefly members of east coast tribes, Cape Kaffirs and Zulus, go to the Witwatersrand to work in the gold and other mines. In all there were, in 1904, 135,042 Bantus in the country born elsewhere. Many east coast natives after working in the mines settle in the northern Transvaal. Of the aboriginal South Africans in the Transvaal, at the 1904. census, 77-69% were born in the Transvaal. Among the aborigines the number of females to males was 114 to 100. (See further KAFFIRS; BECHU- ANAS; ZULULAND; BUSHMEN; HOTTENTOTS; and for languages, BANTU LANGUAGES). The number of Asiatics in the Transvaal in April 1904 was 12,320, including 904 Malays, natives of South Africa, and 9986 British Indians. They were nearly all domiciled in the Witwatersrand and in the towns of Pretoria and Barberton, where they are engaged mainly in trade. Administrative Divisions and Chief Towns. — The province is divided into sixteen magisterial districts. Zoutpansberg, 25,654 sq. m.; Waterberg, 15,503 sq. m. ; Lydenburg, 9868 sq. m., occupy the north and north-eastern parts of the country and include most of the low veld areas. Barberton district, 5106 sq. m., is east central. Piet Retief district (in the south-east), 1673 sq. m., lies between Swaziland and Natal. Along the southern border, going east to west from Piet Retief, are the districts of Wakkerstroom, 2128 sq. m.; Standerton, 1959 sq. m.; Heidelberg, 2410 sq. m.; Potchefstroom, 4805 sq. m.; Wolmaransstad, 2169 sq. m., and, occupying the south-western corner of the province, Bloemhof, 3003 sq. m. In the west are the districts of Lichtenburg, 4487 sq. m.; Marico, 3626 sq. m. and Rustenberg, 9511 sq. m. The central regions are divided into the districts of Witwatersrand, 1653 sq. m.; Pretoria, 6525 sq. m.; Middelburg, 4977 sq. m.; Carolina, 1877 sq. m.; Ermelo, 2995 sq. m. and Bethel, 1959 sq. m. It will be seen that twenty districts are enumerated, these being the divisions under the Boer government and still commonly used. In 1904 Bloemhof was officially included in Wolmaransstad; Bethel in Standerton; Piet Retief in Wakkerstroom, and Carolina in Ermelo. Each district is sub-divided into field-cornetcies, the cornetcies being themselves divided, where necessary, into urban and rural areas. For parliamentary purposes the districts are divided intp single member constituencies. The capital of the 190 TRANSVAAL [MINERAL RESOURCES province, and of the Union is Pretoria, with a population (1904) of 36,839 (of whom 21,114 were whites). Johannesburg, the centre of the gold-mining industry, had a population, within the municipal boundary, of 155,642 (83,363 whites). Other towns within the Witwatersrand district are Germiston (29,477), Boksburg (14,757) and Roodepoort-Maraisburg (19,949), virtually suburbs of Johannesburg, and Krugersdorp (20,073) and Springs (5270), respectively at the western and east ends of the district. Besides Pretoria and the towns in the Wit- watersrand district, there are few urban centres of any size. Potchefstroom, in the south near the Vaal (pop. 9348), is the oldest town in the Transvaal. Klerksdorp (4276) is also near the Vaal, S.S.W. of Potchefstroom. Middelburg (5085") is the largest town on the railway between Pretoria and Delagoa Bay; Barberton (2433), the centre of the De Kaap gold-fields, lies on the slopes of the Drakensberg overlooking the De Kaap valley. Communications. — Before 1888 the only means of communication was by road. In that year the government sanctioned the building of a " steam tramway " — a railway in all but name — from the Boksburg collieries to the Rand gold mines. In 1890 the construc- tion of the Transvaal section of the railway to connect Pretoria with Delagoa Bay was begun, the line from Lourengo Marques having been completed to Komati Poort in December 1887. The line to Pretoria was not opened until July 1895. Meantime, in September 1892, the Cape railway system had been extended to Johannesburg and in December 1895 the through line between Durban and Pretoria was completed. Since that date many other lines have been buiit. The majority of the railways are the property of and are worked by the state. With the exception of a few purely local lines they are of the standard South African gauge — 3 ft. 6 in. The lines all converge on Johannesburg. The following table gives the distances from that city to other places in South Africa1: — Inland Centres — To Pretoria 46 miles. „ Kimberley 310 „ Bloemfontein 263 „ Bulawayo (via Fourteen Streams) 979 • „ Salisbury ( „ ) 1279 Seaports — To Cape Town (via Kimberley) . . 957 „ „ (via Bloemfontein) . 1013 „ Port Elizabeth 714 „ East London 665 „ Durban 483 ,, Lourengo Marques (via Pretoria) 396 Besides the lines enumerated the other railways of importance are: (i) A line from Johannesburg eastward via Springs and Breyten to Machadodorp on the Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway. (2) A line, 68 m. long from Witbank, a station on the Pretoria-Delagoa Bay line, to Brakpan on the Springs line. By (l) the distance between Johannesburg and Lourenc.o Marques is 364 m., by (2) 370 m. A continuation of the Springs-Breyten line eastward through Swaziland to Delagoa Bay will give a second independent railway from that port to the Rand, some 60 m. shorter than the route via Pretoria, while from Breyten a line (90 m. long) runs south and east to Ermelo and Piet Relief. (3) A line from Krugersdorp to Zeerust (128 m.). (4) A line from Pretoria to Rustenburg (61 m.). (5) A line from Pretoria to Pietersburg (177 m.). This line was continued (1910) north-west to effect a junction with (6) the " Selati " railway, which, starting from Komati Poort, runs north-west and was in 1910 continued to Leydsdorp. North of the junction with the Pietersburg line the railway goes towards the Limpopo. (7) A line from Belfast on the Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway to Lydenburg (65 m.). (8) A line from Potchefstroom to Lichtenburg (70 m.). There is an extensive telegraphic system linking the towns of the province to one another, and, through the surrounding countries, with Europe and the rest of the world. There is inland communica- tion via Rhodesia with British Central Africa and Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika. The telegraph lines within the Transvaal have a length of about 3000 m. There is a well-organized postal service with about 400 offices. In connexion with the postal services to outlying districts there is a public passenger service by mailcarts. In the Pietersberg district zebras are occasionally employed. Mineral Resources. — The Transvaal, the principal gold pro- ducing country in the world, is noted for the abundance and variety of its mineral resources. The minerals chiefly mined besides gold are diamonds and coal, but the country possesses also silver, iron, copper, lead, cobalt, sulphur, saltpetre and many other mineral deposits. Gold. — The principal gold-bearing reefs are found along the Witwatersrand (" The Rand "). Probably connected with the Rand 1 For projected routes, shortening the journey between Europe and Johannesburg, see the Geog. Journ., Dec. 1910. • reefs are the gold-bearing rocks in the Klerksdorp, Potchefstroom and Venterskroon districts. Other auriferous reefs are found all along the eastern escarpment of the Drakensberg and are worked in the De Kaap (Barberton) district, on the Swaziland frontier, in the Lydenburg district, in the Murchison Range and in other places in the Zoutpansberg. Goldfields also exist in the Waterberg and on the western frontier in the Marico district (the Malmani fields). The total value of the gold extracted from mines in the Transvaal up to the end of 1909 was about £246,000,000. a. The Witwatersrand and Neighbouring Mines. — The Rand reefs, first mined in 1886, cover a large area. The main reef, continuously traced, measures about 62 m. and runs in an east and west direction. The gold is found in minute particles and in the richest ores the metal is rarely in visible quantities before treatment. In many places the mam reef lies at a great depth and some bore-holes are over 5500 ft. deep. The yield of the Rand mines, in 1887 but 23,000 oz.. rose in 1888 to 208,000 oz. In 1892 the yield was 1,210,000 oz. : in 1896 it exceeded 2,280,000 oz. and in 1898 was 4,295,000 oz. The war that followed prevented the proper working of the mines. In 1905 when a full supply of labour was again available the output was 4,760,000 oz., in which year the sum distributed in dividends to shareholders in the Rand mines was over £4,800,000. The total output from the Rand mines up to the end of 1908 was 56,477,240 oz. (see GOLD, and JOHANNES- BURG). The Klerksdorp and Potchefstroom goldfields, known also as the Western Rand, were proclaimed in 1887 and up to the close of 1908 had yielded 446,224 oz. 6. The De Kaap (Barberton) Fields. — Gold was discovered in this district of the Drakensberg in 1875, but it was not until 1884 that the fields attracted much attention. The mines are, in general, situated on the slopes of the hills and are easily opened up by adits. The reefs are narrower than those of the Rand, and the ore is usually very hard. The output, 35,000 oz. in 1889, was 121,000 oz. in 1896, but only 43,000 oz. in 1905. The total production (includ- ing the Komati and Swaziland fields) to the end of 1908 was 1,097,685 oz. c. The Lydenburg and other Fields. — The Lydenburg fields, re- ported to have been worked by the Portuguese in the I7th century, and rediscovered in 1869, though lying at an elevation of 4500 to 5000 ft. are alluvial — and the only rich alluvial goldfields in South Africa. The ground containing the gold is soil which has escaped denudation. Though several large nuggets have been found (the largest weighing 215 oz.), the total production is not great, the highest output obtained by washing being worth about £300,000 in one year. Besides the alluvial deposits a little mining is carried on, gold being present in the thin veins of quartz which cross the sandstone. The chief centres of the fields are Lydenburg, Pilgrims Rest and Spitzkop. The total output of the Lydenburg fields up to the end of 1908 is estimated at 1,200,000 oz. Farther north, in the Zoutpansberg and on its spurs are the little-worked mines generally known as the Low Country goldfields. Near Pietersburg in the Zoutpansberg is the Eersteling, the first mine worked in the Transvaal. Operations began in 1873 but in 1880 the machinery was destroyed by the Boers. It was not until 1904 that prospecting in the neighbourhood was again undertaken. The fields in the Waterberg and along the Malmani river are very small producers. The total yield to the end of 1908 of the Zoutpansberg, Low Country and other minor fields was 160,535 oz- Diamonds. — The chief diamond fields are in the Pretoria district. The ground was discovered to be diamondiferous in 1897, but it was not until 1903, when mining began on the Premier mine, situated 20 m. north-east of Pretoria, that the wealth of the fields was proved. The site of the Premier mine had been recognized as diamond-bearing in March 1898. The owner of the land, a Boer named Prinsloo, refused to allow experimental spade work, but after the conclusion of the Anglo-Boer War in 1902 sold his property for £55,000 to T. Cullinan (a Cape colonist and one of the chief contractors in the building of Johannesburg), whose faith in the richness of the ground was speedily justified. In June 1903 mining began and the diamonds found in the first five months realized over £90,000. On the 27th of January 1905, the largest diamond in the world, weighing 3025$ carats, over ij ft avoirdupois, was found in the mine and named the Cullinan. The Premier mine is of the same character as the diamond mines at Kimberley (see DIAMOND), and is considerably larger. The area of the " pipe " containing blue ground is estimated at 350,000 sq. yds. Besides the Pretoria fields there are diamondiferous areas (alluvial diggings) in the Bloemhof district on the Vaal river north-east of Kimberley, and in other regions. In 1898 the output for the whole of the Transvaal was valued at £44,000. The output since the opening of the Premier mine has been: 1903-1904, £685,720; 1904-1905, £1,198,530; 1905-1906, £968,229; 1906-1907, £2,203,511; 1907-1908, £1,879,551; 1908-1909, £1,295,296. Coal and other Minerals. — There are extensive beds of good coal, including thick seams of steam coal near the Rand and other gold- fields. Coal appears to have been first discovered in the neighbour- hood of Bronkhorst Spruit between the Wilge and Olifants rivers, where it was so near the surface that farmers dug it up for their own use. In 1887 coal was found at Boksburg in the East Rand, and a mine was at once started. The principal collieries are those INDUSTRIES] TRANSVAAL 191 at Boksburg and at Brakpan, also on the East Rand, with a coal area of 2400 acres; at Vereeniging and Klerksdorp, near the Vaal; at Watervaal, 12 m. north of Pretoria ; and in the Middelburg district, between Pretoria and Lourenco Marques. Like that of Natal the Transvaal coal burns with a clear flame and leaves little ash. The mines are free from gas and fire damp and none is more than 500 ft. deep. The output in 1893, the first year in which statistics are available, was 548,534 tons (of 2000 ft) ; in 1898 it was 1,907,808 tons, and for the year ending 3Oth of June 1909 was 3,312,413 tons, valued at £851,150. Iron and copper are widely distributed. The Yzerberg near Marabastad in the Zoutpansberg consists of exceedingly rich iron ore, which has been smelted by the nat jrves for many centuries. Silver is found in many districts, and mines near Pretoria have yielded in one year ore worth £30,000. Salt is obtainable from the many pans in the plateaus, notably in the Zout(salt)pansberg, and was formerly manufactured in considerable quantities. Agriculture. — Next to mining agriculture is the most important industry. At the census of 1904 over 500,000 persons (excluding young children), or 37 % of the population, were returned as engaged in agriculture. Some 25 % more women than men were so employed, this preponderance being due to the large number of Kaffir women and the few native men who work in the mealie fields. The chief occupation of the majority of the white farmers is stock-raising. The high veld is admirably adapted for the raising of stock, its grasses being of excellent quality and the climate good. Even better pasture is found in the low veld, but there stock suffers in summer from many endemic diseases, and in the more northerly regions is subject to the attack of the tsetse fly. The banken veld is also unsuited in summer for horses and sheep, though cattle thrive. Much of the stock is moved from the lower to the higher regions according to the season. Among the high veld farmers the breeding of merino sheep is very popular. The amount of land under cultivation is very small in comparison with the area of the province. In 1904 only 951,802 acres, or 1-26% of the total acreage was under cultivation, and of the cultivated land nearly half was farmed by natives. The small proportion of land tilled is due to many causes, among which paucity of popula- tions is not the least. Moreover while large areas on the high veld are suitable for the raising of crops of a very varied character, in other districts, including a great part of the low veld, arable farming is impossible or unprofitable. Many regions suffer permanently from deficient rainfall ; in others, owing to the absence of irrigation works, the water supply is lost, while the burning of the grass at the end of summer, a practice adopted by many farmers, tends to impoverish the soil and render it arid. The country suffers also from periods of excessive heat and general drought, while locusts occasionally sweep over the land, devouring every green thing. In some seasons the locusts, both red and brown, come in enormous swarms covering an area 5 m. broad and from 40 to 60 m. long. The chief method employed for their destruction is spraying the swarms with arsenic. The districts with the greatest area under cultivation are Heidelberg, Witwatersrand, Pretoria, Standerton and Krugersdorp. The chief crops grown for grain are wheat, maize (mealie) and kaffir corn, but the harvest is inadequate to meet local demands. Maize is the staple food of the Kaffirs. Since 1906 an important trade has also arisen in the raising of mealies for export by white farmers. Oats, barley and millet are largely grown for forage. Oats are cut shortly before reaching maturity, when they are known as oat-hay. The chief vegetables grown are potatoes, pumpkins, carrots, onions and tomatoes. Fruit farming is a thriving industry, the slopes of the plateaus and the river valleys being specially adapted for this culture. At the census of 1904 over 3,032,000 fruit trees were enumerated. There were 163,000 orange trees and nearly 60,000 other citrus trees, 430,000 grape vines, 276,000 pine plants and 78,000 banana plants. Oranges are cultivated chiefly in the Rustenburg, Waterberg, Zoutpansberg and Pretoria districts, grapes in Potchefstroom, Pretoria and Marico, as well as in the Zoutpansberg and Waterberg, to which northern regions the cultivation of the banana is confined. In the tropical district of the Limpopo valley there is some cultiva- tion of the coffee-tree, and this region is also adapted for the growing of tea, sugar, cotton and rice. Tobacco is grown in every district, but chiefly in Rustenburg. Of the 3,032,000 ft of tobacco grown in 1904, Rustenburg produced 884,000 Ib. A department of agriculture was established in 1902, and through its efforts great improvements have been made in the methods of farming. To further assist agriculture a land bank was established by the government in 1907 and an agricultural college in 1910. Land Settlement. — The land board is a government department charged with the control of Crown lands leased to settlers on easy terms for agricultural purposes. Between 1902 and 1907 about 550 families were placed on the land, their holdings aggregating over 500,000 acres. The Crown lands cover in all about 21,500,000 acres. Large areas of these lands, especially in the northern districts, are used as native reserves. Other Industries. — There are few manufacturing undertakings other than those connected with mining, agriculture and the develop- ment of Johannesburg. There is a large factory for the supply of dynamite to the gold mines. The building and construction trade is an important industry on the Rand, where there are also brick- works, iron and brass foundries, breweries and distilleries. There are a number of flour mills and jam factories in various centres. A promising home industry, started under English auspices after the war of 1899-1902, is the weaving by women of rugs, carpets, blankets, &c., from native wool. Export and Import Trade. — Before the discovery of gold the trade of the Transvaal was of insignificant proportions. This may be illustrated by the duties paid on imports, which in 1880 amounted to £20,306. In 1887 when the gold-mining industry was in its infancy the duty on imports had risen to £190,792, and in 1897, when the industry was fully developed, to £i ,289,039. The Anglo-Boer War completely disorganized trade, but the close of the contest was marked by feverish activity and the customs receipts in 1902-1903 rose to £2,176,658. A period of depression followed, the average annual receipts for the next three years being £1,683,159. In 1908-1909 they were £1,588,960. The chief exports are gold and diamonds. Of the total exports in 1908, valued at £33,323,000, gold was worth £29,643,000 and dia- monds £1,977,000. Next in value came wool (£226,000), horses and mules (£110,000), skins, hides and horns (£106,000), tobacco (£89,000), tin, coal, copper and lead. The gold and diamonds are sent to England via Cape Town; the other exports go chiefly to Deiagoa Bay. The imports, valued at £16,196,000 in 1908, include goods of every kind. Machinery, provisions, largely in the form of tinned and otherwise preserved food, and liquors, clothing, textiles and hardware, chemicals and dynamite, iron and steel work and timber, and jewelry are the chief items in the imports. Of the imports about 50% comes from Great Britain and about 20% from British colonies (including other South African states). Half the imports reach the Transvaal through the Portuguese port of Lourenco Marques, Durban taking 25 % and the Cape ports the remainder. There is free trade between the Transvaal and the other British possessions in South Africa, and for external trade they all adhere to a Customs Union which, "as fixed in 1906, imposes a general ad valorem duty of 15% on most goods save machinery, on which the duty is 3 %. A rebate of 3 % is granted on imports from Great Britain. Constitution. — The existing constitution dates from 1910. The province is represented in the Union Parliament by eight senators and thirty-six members of the House of Assembly. For parliamentary purposes the province is divided into single- member constituencies. Every adult white male British subject is entitled to the franchise, subject to a six months' residential qualification.1 There is no property qualification. All electors are eligible to the assembly. Voters are registered biennially, and every five years there is an automatic redistribution of seats on a voters' basis. Central Government. — At the head of the executive is a provincial administrator, appointed by the Union ministry, who holds office for five years and is assisted by an executive committee of four members elected by the provincial council. The provincial council consists of 36 members elected for the same constituencies and by the same electorate as are the members of the House of Assembly. The provincial council, which has strictly local powers, sits for a statutory period of three years. The control of elementary education was guaranteed to the provincial council for a period of five years from the establishment of the Union. In May 1903 an inter-colonial council was established to deal with the administration of the railways in the Transvaal and Orange River Colony (known as the Central South African railways), the South African constabulary and other matters common to the Orange River and Transvaal colonies. This council was presided over by the governor of the Transvaal and formed an important part of the administrative machinery. By agreement between the two colonies the council was dis- solved in 1908. In 1910 the control of the railways passed to the harbours and railway board of the Union of South Africa. Local Government. — The unit of adminfstration is the field cornetcy. The semi-military organization of these divisions, which existed under the South African republic, has been abolished, and field-cornets, who are nominated by the pro- vincial government, are purely civil officials charged with the registration of voters, births and deaths, the maintenance of public roads, &c. The chief local authorities are the municipal bodies, many " municipalities " being rural areas centred round a small town. The municipal boards possess very 1 The number of electors at the first registration (1907) was 105,368. 192 TRANSVAAL [GOVERNM ENT—FI NANCE wide powers of local government. The Witwatersrand munici- palities are for certain purposes combined into one authority, and representatives of these municipalities, together with repre- sentatives of the chamber of mines, compose the Rand water board. The basis of municipal qualification is ownership of real property of the value of £100, or the tenancy of premises of the value of £300, or annual value of £24. Neither aliens nor coloured British subjects can exercise the franchise. Finance. — In 1883, before the Rand gold mines had been found revenue and expenditure were about £150,000; in 1887, when the mines were beginning to be developed, the receipts were £668,000 and the expenditure £72 1 ,000; in 1889 the receipts had risen to £1,577,000 and the expenditure to £1,226,000. In 1894 the receipts first exceeded two millions, the figures for that year being: revenue £2,247,000, expenditure £1,734,000. The figures for the four follow- ing years were: — Revenue. Expenditure. 1895 £3.539.00° £2,679,000 1896 £4,807,000 £4,671,000 1897 £4,480,000 £4,394,000 1898 £3.983,000 £3,971,000 The public debt of the Boer government was £2,500,000. In 1899 war broke out and the finances of the country were disorganized. The accounts of the colony began, for normal purposes, with the year ending 3oth of June 1903, and ended in June 1910 on the establishment of the Union. In May 1903 a loan of £35,000,000, guaranteed by the imperial government and secured on the general revenues of the Transvaal and Orange River colonies, was issued tx> the extent of £30,000,000, the balance being raised about the middle of 1904. This loan bears interest at 3 % per annum, with a sinking fund of I %, and as to the £30,000,000 was issued at par, the £5,000,000 being put up to tender and realizing an average price of £98, IDS. 3d. The principal head in the allocation of this loan was the purchase of the railways in'the two colonies at a cost of £13,520,000, while an additional £5,958,000 was devoted to the building of new lines, purchases of rolling stock, &c. The debt of the South African Republic was paid off; £542,000 went to make food the deficit on the administration for 1901-1902; the sum of 1,561,000 was paid to burghers of the Cape Colony and Natal as compensation for war losses; £3,000,000 was devoted to land settle- ment schemes and £2,000,000 to public works other than railways. The railways were treated as the common property of both colonies, and to administer them and other common services the inter-colonial council was created. In addition to the charges enumerated £5,000,000 were spent out of the loan on " repatriation and compensa- tion " of burghers who had suffered during the war.1 In aoMition to the £35,000,000 guaranteed loan of 1903-1904 two small loans for land settlement and public works, together amounting to £254,800, were issued, and in 1907 an imperial guarantee was given for the raising of another loan, of £5,000,000, by the colonial government. The act authorizing the loan devoted £2,500,000 to the establishment of a land and agricultural bank, and £2,500,000 to railways, public works, irrigation and agricultural settlement and development. The loan was raised, as to £4,000,000, in January 1909, the average price obtained being £96, 33. 7d. The chief sources of revenue are customs, mining royalties, railways, native revenue (poll tax and passes), posts and tele- graphs, stamp and transfer duties, land revenue and taxes on trades and professions. A tax of 10% is levied on the annual net produce of all gold workings (proclamation of 1902) and the government takes 60% of the profits on diamond mines. In 1907 an excise duty was, for the first time, levied on beer. The principal heads of expenditure are on railways and other public works, including posts and telegraphs, justice, education, police, land settlement and agriculture generally, mines and native affairs. Since June 1910 the control of state finance passed to the Union parliament, but the Transvaal provincial council is empowered to raise revenue for provincial purposes by direct taxation and, with the consent of the Union government, to borrow money on the sole credit of the province. In the five years 1902-1907 the average annual receipts and expenditure amounted to £4,500,000, exclusive of the sums received and expended on account of the loans mentioned. The inter-colonial council received and spent in the four years 1903-1907 over £21,500,000, including some £3,500,000 paid in from revenue by the Transvaal and Orange River colonies to make good deficits. Fully two-thirds of the revenue and 'Besides this £5,000,000 an additional sum of £9,500,000 was spent by the imperial government in relieving the necessities of those who had suffered during the war, but of this £9,500,000 the sum of £2,500,000 was in payment for goods received. expenditure of the Council was derived from and spent upon the Transvaal, so that had the accounts of the two colonies been entirely distinct the figures of the Transvaal budget for 1903- 1907 would have balanced at about £8,500,000 a year. In July 1907 when the control of the finances passed into the hands of the Transvaal legislature the credit balance on the consolidated fund was £960,000. In 1908 the inter-colonial council was dissolved, but the railways continued to be administered as a joint concern by a railway board on which the governments of both colonies were represented. This board in 1910 handed over its duties to the harbour and railway board of the Union. The Transvaal revenue (apart from railway receipts) in 1908- 1909 was £5,735,000, the corresponding expenditure £4,524,000. The budget figures for 1900-1910 were: revenue £5,943,000; expenditure £5 , 23 1 ,000. The diamond revenue yielded £235 ,000 and the gold profits tax £965,000. The balance handed over to the Union government was £1,015,000. Justice. — The laws are based on Roman-Dutch law, as modified by local acts. Courts of first instance are presided over by magis- trates, the whole colony being divided into sixteen magisterial wards. There is a provincial division of the Supreme Court of South Africa sitting at Pretoria (consisting of a judge president and six puisne justices) with original and appellate jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters. A local division' of the Supreme Court, formerly known as the Witwatersrand high court (consisting of one or more judges of the Supreme Court) sits permanently at Johannesburg and has civil and criminal jurisdiction throughout the Rand. Circuit courts are held as occasion requires. Police. — Pretoria and Johannesburg have their own police forces. The rest of the province is policed by the South African constabulary, a body 3700 strong, to which is also entrusted customs preventive work, fire brigade work and such like functions. Education. — Since 1910 education other than elementary is under the control of the Union parliament. The provincial council is responsible for elementary education. At the head of the permanent staff is a director of education. School boards and district committees are formed, but their functions are almost entirely advisory. In accordance with the terms of the Education Act of 1907 of the Transvaal colony, state schools are provided for the free instruction of all white children in elementary subjects. Attendance at school between the ages of 7 and 14 is, with certain exceptions, compulsory. The medium of instruction in the lower standards is the mother tongue of the children. Above standard III. English is the medium of instruction. No religious tests are imposed on teachers and re- ligious teaching is confined to undenominational Bible teaching. No government grants are given to private schools. (In 1906 members of the Dutch community established a " Christian National Educa- tion " organization and opened a number of denominational schools.) Secondary education is provided in the towns and high schools are maintained at Pretoria, Johannesburg and Potchefstroom. There are University colleges at Pretoria and Johannesburg. Education of the natives is chiefly in the hands of the missionaries, but the government gives grants in aid to over 100 schools for natives At the census of 1904 the natives able to read formed less than i % of the population. At the same census 95 % of the white population over 21 were able to read and write; of the whites between the ages of 5 and 14 59 % could read and write. State schools for white children were established by the Boer government, and in the last year (1898) before the British occupation there were 509 schools and 14,700 scholars, the education vote that year being £226,000. In 1902 the property vested in various school committees was transferred to government and control of the schools vested in a department of state. In 1909 there were 670 government elementary schools, with more than 42,000 scholars. In 1907-1908 the education vote exceeded £500,000. Religion.— Of the total population 26-69% are Christians, and of the Christians 80% are whites. No fewer than 70% of the people, including the bulk of the natives, are officially returned as of ' no religion. ' Of the 336,869 Christians 69,738 were natives. Nearly half of the white community, 142,540 persons, belong to one or other of the Dutch Churches in the Transvaal, but they have only 4305 native members. Of Dutch Churches the first and chief is the Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk, founded by the Voor- trekkers and originally the state Church. The others are the Neder- duitsch Gereformeerde Kerk, an offshoot of the Church of the same name at the Cape, and the Gereformeerde Kerk (the " Dopper " Church) with some 15,000 members and adherents in the Transvaal The Dopper" Church, an offshoot of the Separatist Re- formed Church of Holland, is distinguished from the other Dutch churches in being more rigidly Calvinistic and " Biblical," and in not using hymns. A " Scouts " Church was formed at the end of the war of 1899-1902 by burghers who had previously acted as National Scouts " and were ostracized by the synods of their former Churches. After some years of friction " National Scouts " were however readmitted, on terms, to their former membership. HISTORY] TRANSVAAL J93 The Anglicans number 67,882 (including 13,033 natives), and are 19% of the European population. At the head of the community is the bishop of Pretoria. Next in numbers according to European membership among the Protestant bodies are Presbyterians, 19,821 (including 1194 natives), and Methodists 37, 812 (including 20,648 natives). The Lutherans are the chief missionary body. Of a total membership of 24,175 only 5770 are European. The Protestant European community amounts altogether to 35% of the white population. The Roman Catholics number 16,453 (including 2005 natives) and form 5 % of the European population, and the Hebrews 15,478 or 5-34% of the European inhabitants. Defence. — A strong garrison of the British army is maintained jn the province, the headquarters of all the imperial military forces in South Africa being at Pretoria. These forces are under the command of a lieutenant-general, who, however, acts under the supreme direction of the governor-general. The Transvaal forms a distinct district command under a major-general. A volunteer force was established in 1904, for service within the Transvaal, or wherever the interests of the country might require. The force, disciplined and organized by a permanent staff of officers and non-commissioned officers of the regular army, is about 6500 strong, and consists of a brigade of artillery, four mounted, three composite and four infantry corps, a cyclist corps, &c. There are also cadet companies some 3000 strong. (F. R. C.) HISTORY A. Foundation of the Republic. — At the beginning of the igth century the country now known as the Transvaal was inhabited, apparently somewhat sparsely, by Bavenda and other Bantu negroes, and in the south-west by wandering Bushmen and Hottentots. About 1817 the country was invaded by the chieftain Mosilikatze and his impis, who were fleeing from the vengeance of Chaka, king of the Zulus. The inhabitants were unable to withstand the attacks of the disciplined Zulu warriors—- or Matabele, as they were henceforth called — by whom large areas of central and western Transvaal were swept bare. The remnants of the Bavenda retreated north to the Waterberg and Zoutpansberg, while Mosilikatze made his chief kraal at Mosega, not far from the site of the town of Zeerust. At that time the region between the Vaal and Limpopo was scarcely known to Europeans. In 1829, however, Mosilikatze was visited at Mosega by Robert Moffat, and between that date and 1836 a few British traders and explorers visited the country and made known its principal features. Such was the situation when Boer emigrants first crossed the Vaal. The causes which led to the exodus of large numbers of Dutch farmers from Cape Colony are discussed elsewhere (see SOUTH AFRICA and CAPE COLONY). Here it is only necessary to state that the Voortrekkers were animated by an intense desire to be altogether rid of British control, and to be allowed to set up independent communities and govern the natives in such fashion as they saw fit. The first party to cross the Vaal consisted of 98 persons under the leadership of Louis Trichard and Jan van Rensburg. They left Cape Colony in 1835 and trekked to the Zoutpansberg. Here Rensburg's party separated from the others, but were soon afterwards murdered by natives.1 Trichard's party determined to examine the country between the Zoutpansberg and Delagoa Bay. Fever carried off several of their number, and it was not until 1838 that the survivors reached the coast. Eventually they pro- ceeded by boat to Natal. Meantime, in 1836, another party of farmers under Andries Hendrik Potgieter had established their headquarters on the banks of the Vet river. Potgieter and some companions followed the trail of Trichard's party as far as the Zoutpansberg, where they were shown rlflgiclcr, i . .. _ _ , * gold workings by the natives and saw rings of gold made by native workmen. They also ascertained that a trade between the Kaffirs and the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay already existed. On returning to the Vet, Potgieter learned that a hunting party of Boers which had crossed the Vaal had been attacked by the Matabele, who had also killed Boer women and children. This act led to reprisals, and on the i7th of January 1837 a Boer commando surprised Mosilikatze's encampment at Mosega, inflicting heavy loss on the Matabele without themselves 1 Two small children were spared and brought up as Kaffirs. In 1867 they were given over to the Boer government by the Swazis, who had acquired them from their captors. xxvn. 7 losing a man. In November of the same year Mosilikatze suffered further heavy losses at the hands of the Boers, and early in 1838 he fled north beyond the Limpopo, never to return. Potgieter, after the flight of the Matabele, issued a pro- clamation in which he declared the country which Mosilikatze had abandoned forfeited to the emigrant farmers. After the Matabele peril had been removed, many farmers trekked across the Vaal and occupied parts of the district left derelict. Into these depopulated areas there was also a considerable immigration of Basuto, Bechuana and other Bantu tribes. The first permanent white settlement north of the Vaal was made by a party under Potgieter's leadership. That com- mandant had in March 1838 gone to Natal, and had endeavoured to avenge the massacre of Piet Relief and his com- rades by the Zulus. Jealous, however, of the preference shown by the Dutch farmers in Natal to another commandant (Gert Maritz), Potgieter speedily recrossed the Drakensberg, and in November 1838 he and his followers settled by the banks of the Mooi river, founding a town named Potchefstroom in honour of Potgieter. This party instituted an elementary form of government, and in 1840 entered into a loose confederation with the Natal Boers, and also with the Boers south of the Vaal, whose headquarters were at Winburg. In 1842, however, Potgieter's party declined to go to the help of the Natal Boers, then involved in conflict with the British. Up to 1845 Pot- gieter continued to exercise authority over the Boer communities on both sides of the Vaal. A determination to keep clear of the British and to obtain access to the outer world through an independent channel led Potgieter and a considerable number of the Potchefstroom and Winburg burghers in 1845 to migrate towards Delagoa Bay. Potgieter settled in the Zoutpansberg, while other farmers chose as headquarters a place on the inner slopes of the Drakensberg, where they founded a village called Andries Ohrigstad. It proved fever-ridden and was abandoned, a new village being laid out on higher ground and named Lyden- burg in memory of their sufferings at the abandoned settlement. Meantime the southern districts abandoned by Potgieter and his comrades were occupied by other Boers. These were joined in 1848 by Andries W. J. Pretorius (?.».), who became com- mandant of the Potchefstroom settlers. When the British go- vernment decided to recognize the independence of the Transvaal Boers it was with Pretorius that negotiations were The Sand conducted. On the 1 7th of January 1852 a con- River vention was signed at a farm near the Sand Convention. river in the Orange sovereignty by assistant commissioners nominated by the British high commissioner on the one hand, and by Pretorius and other Boers on the other. The first clause was in the following terms: — The assistant commissioners guarantee in the fullest manner, on the part of the British government, to the emigrant farmers beyond the Vaal river, the right to manage their own affairs, and to govern themselves according to their own laws, without any interference on the part of the British government, and that no encroachment shall be made by the said government on the territory beyond to the north of the Vaal river, with the further assurance that the warmest wish of the British government is to promote peace, free trade, and friendly intercourse with the emigrant farmers now inhabiting, or who hereafter may inhabit, that country; it being understood that this system of non-interference is binding upon both parties. At this time there were settled north of the Vaal about 5000 families of European extraction — about 40,000 persons, in- cluding young children. They had obtained independence, but they were far from being a united people. When Pretorius conducted the negotiations which led to the signing of the Sand River Convention he did so without consulting the volksraad, and Potgieter's party accused him of usurping power and aiming at domination over the whole country. However, the volks- raad, at a meeting held at Rustenburg on the i6th of March 1852, ratified the convention, Potgieter and Pretorius having been publicly reconciled on the morning of the same day. Both leaders were near the end of their careers; Potgieter died in March and Pretorius in July 1853. Whatever their internal dissensions the Boers were united 194 TRANSVAAL [THE FIRST REPUBLIC in regard to what they considered their territorial rights, and in the interval between the signing of the Sand River Convention and the death of Pretorius an incident occurred significant alike of their claims to jurisdiction over enormous areas and of their manner of treating the natives. Within a few weeks of the signing of the convention Pretorius had asked the British authorities to close the " lower road " to the interior, that is the route through Bechuanaland, opened up by Moffat, Living- stone and other missionaries. Pretorius alleged that by this means the natives were obtaining firearms. At the same time the Transvaal Boers claimed that all the Bechuana country belonged to them, a claim which the British government of that day did not think it worth while to contest. No boundary west- ward had been indicated in the Sand River Convention. The Barolong, Bakwena and other Bechuana tribes, through whose lands the " lower road " ran, claimed however to be independent, among them Sechele (otherwise Setyeli), at whose chief kraal — Kolobeng — Livingstone was then stationed. Sechele was regarded by the Boers as owing them allegiance, and in August 1852 Pretorius sent against him a commando (in which Paul Kruger served as a field cornet), alleging that the Bakwena were harbouring a Bakatla chief who had looted cattle belonging to Boer farmers. It was in this expedition that Livingstone's house was looted. There was little fighting, but the commando carried off between two and three hundred native women and children — some of whom were redeemed by their friends, and some escaped, while many of the children were apprenticed to farmers. Sechele's power was not broken, and he appealed for British protection, which was not then granted. The incident was, however, but the first step in the struggle for the possession of that country (see BECHUANALAND). It served to strengthen the unfavourable impression formed in England of the Transvaal Boers with regard to their treatment of the natives; an impression which was deepened by tidings of terrible chastisement of tribes in the Zoutpansberg, and by the Appren- tice Law passed by the volksraad in 1856 — a law denounced in many quarters as practically legalizing slavery. On the death of Andries Pretorius his son Marthinus W. Pretorius (q.v.) had been appointed his successor, and to the younger Pretorius was due the first efforts to end the discord and confusion which prevailed among the burghers — a discord heightened by ecclesiastical strife, the points at issue being questions not of faith but of church government. In 1856 a series of public meetings, summoned by Pretorius, was held at different districts in the Transvaal for the purpose of dis- cussing and deciding whether the time had not arrived for substituting a strong central government in place of the petty district governments which had hitherto existed. The result was that a representative assembly of delegates was elected, Pstchcf- empowered to draft a constitution. In December stroom this assembly met at Potchefstroom, and for three Assembly, weeks was engaged in modelling the constitution 1856. Of tne country. The name " South African Republic " was adopted as the title of the state, and the new constitution made provision for a volksraad to which members were to be elected by the people for a period of two years, and in which the legislative function was vested. The administrative authority was to be vested in a president, aided by an executive council. It was stipulated that mem- bers both of the volksraad and council should be members of the Dutch Reformed Church, and of European blood. No equality of coloured people with the white inhabitants would be tolerated either in church or state. In reviewing an incident so important in the history of the Transvaal as the appointment of the Potchefstroom assembly it is of interest to note the gist of the Complaint among the Boers which led to this revolution in the government of the country as it had previously existed. In his History of South Africa Theal says: " The community of Lydenburg was accused of attempting to domineer over the whole country, without any other right to pre-eminence than that of being composed of the earliest inhabitants, a right which it had forfeited by its opposi- tion to the general weal." In later years this complaint was precisely that of the Uitlanders at Johannesburg. To conciliate the Boers of Zoutpansberg the new-born assembly at Potchef- stroom appointed Stephanus Schoeman, the commandant- general of the Zoutpansberg district, commandant-general of the whole country. This offer was, however, declined by Schoeman, and both Zoutpansberg and Lydenburg indignantly repudiated the new assembly and its constitution. The execu- tive council, which had been appointed by the Potchefstroom assembly, with Pretcrius as president, now took up a bolder attitude: they deposed Schoeman from all authority, declared Zoutpansberg in a state of blockade, and denounced the Boers of the two northern districts as rebels. Further to strengthen their position, Pretorius and his party unsuccessfully endeavoured to bring about a union with the Orange Free State. Peaceful overtures having failed, Pretorius and Paul Kruger placed themselves at the head of a commando which crossed the Vaal with the object of enforcing union, but the Free State compelled their with- 0/ drawal (see ORANGE FREE STATE). Within the Transvaal the forces making for union gained strength Pretolius- notwithstanding these events, and by the year 1860 Zoutpansberg and Lydenburg had become incorporated with the republic. Pretoria, newly founded, and named in honour of the elder Pretorius, was made the seat of government and capital of the country. The ecclesiastical efforts at unity had not been equally successful. The Separatist Reformed Church of Holland had sent out a young expositor of its doctrines named Postma, who, in November 1858, became minister of Rustenburg. In the following year a general church assembly endeavoured to unite all the congregations in a common government, but Postma's consistory rejected these overtures, and from that date the Separatist (or Dopper) Church has had an independent existence (see ante, § Religion). Paul Kruger, who lived near Rustenburg, became a strong adherent of the new church. Pretorius, while still president of the Transvaal, had been elected, through the efforts of his partisans, president of the Orange Free State. He thereupon (in February 1860) obtained six months' leave of absence and repaired to Bloemfontein, in the hope of peacefully bringing about a union between the two republics. He had no sooner left the Transvaal than the old Lydenburg party, headed by Cornelis Potgieter, landdrost of Lydenburg, protested that the union would be much internal more beneficial to the Free State than to the people of Dissen- Lydenburg, and followed this up with the contention sloas- that it was illegal for any one to be president of the South African Republic and the Free State at the same time. At the end of the six months Pretorius, after a stormy meeting of the volksraad, apparently in disgust at the whole situation, resigned the presidency of the Transvaal. J. H. Grobelaar, who had been appointed president during the temporary absence of Pretorius, was requested to remain in office. The immediate followers of Pretorius now became extremely incensed at the action of the Lydenburg party, and a mass meeting was held at Potchef- stroom (October 1860), where it was resolved that : (a) the volksraad no longer enjoyed its confidence; (6) that Pretorius should remain president of the South African Republic, and have a year's leave of absence to bring about union with the Free State; (c) that Schoeman should act as president during the absence of Pretorius; (d) that before the return of Pretorius to resume his duties a new volksraad should be elected. If at this stage of their existence the real ambition of the Transvaal Boers was to found a strong and compact republican state, their conduct in opposing a scheme of union with the Orange Free State was foolish to a degree. The events of the year 1860, as well as of all the years that followed down to British annexation in 1877, show that licence rather than liberty, a narrow spirit of faction rather than patriotism, were the dominant in- stincts of the Boer. Had the fusion of the two little republics which Pretorius sought to bring about, and from which apparently the Free State was not averse, actually been accomplished in 1860, it is more than probable that a republican state on liberal THE FIRST REPUBLIC] TRANSVAAL 195 lines, with some prospect of permanence and stability, might have been formed. But a narrow, distrustful, grasping policy on the part of whatever faction might be dominant at the time invariably prevented the state from acquiring stability and security at any stage of its history. The complications that ensued on the action of the Pretorius party subsequent to his resignation were interminable and complicated. Some of the new party were arraigned for treason and fined; and for several months there were two acting presidents and two rival governments within the Transvaal. At length Commandant Paul Kruger called out the burghers of his district and entered into the strife. Having driven Schoeman and his followers from Pretoria, Kruger invaded Potchefstroom, which, after a skirmish in which three men were killed and seven wounded, fell into his hands. He then pursued Schoeman, who doubled on his opponent and entered Potchefstroom. A temporary peace was no sooner secured than Commandant Jan Viljoen rose in revolt and engaged Kruger's forces. Viljoen's commando, with which Pretorius was in sympathy, was known as the Volksleger, or Army of the People. Kruger's force called itself the Staatsleger or Army of the State. Pretorius in 1863 resigned his Free State presidency and offering himself as mediator (not for the first time) succeeded at length in putting a period to the confused series of intestine quarrels. In January 1864 a conference, which lasted six days, was held between the parties and an agreement was reached. This was followed by a new election for president, and once more Pretorius was called upon to fill that office. Kruger was appointed commandant-general. Civil strife for a time was at an end, but the injuries inflicted on the state were deep and lasting. The public funds were exhausted; taxes were impossible to collect; and the natives on the borders of the country and in the mountains of the north had thrown off all allegiance to the state. The prestige of the country was practically gone, not only with the world outside, but, what was of still more moment, with her neighbour the Free State, which felt that a federation with the Transvaal, which the Free State once had sought but which it now forswore, was an The Charge ev*' av°ided and not an advantage lost. A charge of Slavery frequently laid at the door of the Boers, at that time against the and since, was that of enslaving the black races. Boers. T\i\s charge was not without some justification. It is true that laws prohibiting slavery were in existence, but the Boer who periodically took up arms against his own appointed government was not likely to be, nor was he, restrained by laws. Natives were openly transferred from one Boer to another, and the fact that they were described as apprentices by the farmers did not in the least alter the status of the native, who to all intents and purposes became the property of his master. These apprentices, mostly bought from slave traders when little children, formed, however, a very small proportion of the native population, and after some fifteen years' servitude were usually allowed their freedom. Natives enjoying tribal government were not enslaved, but nothing could exceed in ferocity the measures taken to reduce recalcitrant tribes to submission. Educa- tion, as need hardly be said, was in the 'sixties at a very low ebb, and nothing approaching the standard of a high school existed. The private tutor was a good deal in demand, but his qualifications were of the slightest. An unsuccessful European carpenter or other mechanic, or even labourer, not infrequently occupied this position. At the various churches such elementary schools as existed were to be found, but they did not profess to teach more than a smattering of the three " R's " and the principles of Christianity. In 1865 an empty exchequer called for drastic measures, and the volksraad determined to endeavour to meet their liabilities Zoutpans- an(^ Pr°vide for further contingencies by the issue berg Native of notes. Paper money was thus introduced, and Rising, in a very short time fell to a considerable discount. 1865-8. jn tnjs same year the farmers of the Zoutpansberg district were driven into laagers by a native rising which they were unable to suppress. Schoemansdal, a village at the foot of the Zoutpansberg, was the most important settlement of the district, and the most advanced outpost in European occupation at that time in South Africa. It was just within the tropics, and was situated in a well-watered and beautiful country. It was used as a base by hunters and traders with the interior, and in its vicinity there gathered a number of settlers of European origin, many of them outcasts from Europe or Cape Colony. They earned the reputation of being the most lawless white inhabitants in the whole of South Africa. When called upon to go to the aid of this settlement, which in 1865-1866 was sore pressed by one of the mountain Bantu tribes known as the Baramapulana, the burghers of the southern Transvaal objected that the white inhabitants of that region were too lawless and reckless a body to merit their assistance. In 1867 Schoemansdal and a considerable portion of the district were abandoned on the advice of Com- mandant-general Paul Kruger, and Schoemansdal finally was burnt to ashes by a party of natives. It was not until 1869 that peace was patched up, and the settlement arrived at left the mountain tribes in practical independence. Meanwhile the public credit and finances of the Transvaal went from bad to worse. The paper notes already issued had been constituted by law legal tender for all debts, but in 1868 their power of actual purchase was only 30% compared with that of gold, and by 1870 it had fallen as low as 25%. Civil servants, who were paid in this depreciated scrip, suffered considerable distress. The revenue for 1869 was stated as £31,511; the expenditure at £30,836. The discovery of gold at Tati led President Pretorius in April 1868 to issue a proclamation extending his territories on the west and north so as to embrace the goldfield and all Efforts to Bechuanaland. The same proclamation extended obtains Transvaal territory on the east so as to include part SeaPort- of Delagoa Bay. The eastern extension claimed by Pretorius was the sequel to endeavours made shortly before, on the initia- tive of a Scotsman, to develop trade along the rivers leading to Delagoa Bay. It was also in accord with the desire of the Trans- vaal Boers to obtain a seaport, a desire which had led them as early as 1860 to treat with the Zulus for the possession of St Lucia Bay. That effort had, however, failed. And now the proclamation of Pretorius was followed by protests on the part of the British high commissioner, Sir Philip Wodehouse, as well as on the part of the consul-general for Portugal in South Africa. The boundary on the east was settled by a treaty with Portugal in 1869, the Boers abandoning their claim to Delagoa Bay; that on the west was dealt with in 1871. The Sand River Convention of 1852 had notdefined the western border of the state, and the discovery of gold at Tati to the north- west, together with the discovery of diamonds on the Vaal in 1867, offered Pretorius every inducement to extend his boundary. Although to-day the great diamond mines are south of the Vaal River, the early discoveries of diamonds were made chiefly on the northern bank of the Vaal, near the site of the town now known as Barkly West. This territory was claimed by the South African Republic, by Barolong and Batlapin Bechuanas, by Koranas, and also by David Arnot, on behalf of the Griqua captain, Nicholas Waterboer. To settle the boundary question an arbitration court was appointed consisting of a Transvaal landdrost, A. A. O'Reilly, on behalf of the South African Republic, and John Campbell on behalf of the other claimants, with Lieutenant-Governor Keate of Natal as referee. The judges disagreed, and the final decision, afterwards known as the Keate award, was given by the referee on the i7th of October 1871. The decision was in favour of Waterboer, who had, on the 25th of August 1870, before the appointment of the arbitration court, offered his territory to Great Britain, and it was understood by all the parties interested that that offer would be accepted. The award, admittedly just on the evidence before Keate, placed, however, outside the territory of the republic the Bloemhof district, in which district Boer farmers were settled, and over which the Pretoria government had for some years exercised jurisdiction. A few days after the publication of the Keate award Sir Henry Barkly, the British high commissioner, issued proclamations taking over Waterboer's territory under the * 196 TRANSVAAL [THE FIRST REPUBLIC title of Griqualand West (?.».)• The eastern boundary of the new territory was made to include the region between the Harts river and the Vaal, in which the diamond diggings were situated, but not the Bloemhof district. To this district Sir Henry Barkly asserted the British rights, but no steps were taken to enforce them and as a matter of fact the Bloemhof district continued to be part of the Transvaal. The award caused a strong feeling of resentment among the Boers, and led to the resignation of President Pretorius and his executive. The Boers now cast about to find a man who should have the necessary ability, as they said, to negotiate on equal terms with the British authorities should any future dis- pute arise. With this view they asked Mr (afterwards Sir Burgers John) Brand, president, of the Free State, to allow becomes them to nominate him for the presidency of the President, South African Republic. To this President Brand would not consent. He recognized that, even at this early stage of their history, the Transvaal Boers were filled with the wildest ideas as to what steps they would take in the future to counteract the influence of Great Britain. Brand intimated to many of the leading Transvaal Boers that in his opinion they were embarking on a rash and mistaken policy. He urged that their true interests lay in friendship with, not in hostility to, Great Britain and the British. Having failed with Brand, the Boers invited the Rev. Thomas Francois Burgers, a member of a well-known Cape Colony family and a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church, to allow himself to be nomi- nated. Burgers accepted the offer, and in 1872 was elected president. About this time gold reefs were discovered in the Zoutpansberg district near Marabastad, and a few gold seekers from Europe and Cape Colony began to prospect the northern portions of the Transvaal. The miners and prospectors did not, however, exceed a few hundred for several years. The appointment of Burgers to the presidency in 1872 was a new departure. He was able, active and enlightened, but he was a visionary rather than a man of affairs or sound judgment. Instead of reducing chaos to order and concentrat- ing his attention, as Brand had done in the Free State, on establishing security and promoting industry, he took up, with all its entanglements, the policy of intrigues with native chiefs beyond the border and the dream of indefinite expansion. In 1875 Burgers proceeded to Europe with the project of raising a loan for the construction of a railway to Delagoa Bay. He was empowered by the volksraad to raise £300,000, but with great difficulty he obtained in Holland the sum of £90,000 only, and that at a high rate of interest. With this inadequate sum some railway plant was obtained, and subsequently lay for ten years at Delagoa Bay, the scheme having to be abandoned for want of funds. On his return to the Transvaal in 1876 Burgers found that the conditions of affairs in the state was worse than ever. The acting-president had in his absence been granted leave by the volksraad to carry out various measures opposed to the public welfare; native lands had been indiscriminately allotted to adventurers, and a war with Sikukuni (Secocoeni), a native chief on the eastern borders of the country, was imminent. A commando was called out, which the president himself led. The expedition was an ignominious failure, and many burghers did not hesitate to assign their non-success to the fact that Burgers's views on religious questions were not sound. Burgers then proceeded to levy taxes, which were never paid; to enrol troops, which never marched; and to continue the head of a government which had neither resources, credit nor power of administration. In 1877 the Transvaal one-pound notes were valued at one shilling cash. Add to this condition of things the fact that the Zulus were threatening the Transvaal on its southern border, and the picture of utter collapse which existed in the state is complete. B. First Annexation by Great Britain. — This condition of affairs coincided with the second movement in South Africa for a confederation of its various colonies and states, a movement of which the then colonial secretary, the 4th earl of Carnarvon, was a warm advocate. As to the Transvaal in particular, it was felt by Lord Carnarvon " that the safety and prosperity of the republic would be best assured by its union with the British colonies." Sir Theophilus Shepstone (q.v.) was given a commission, dated the 5th of October, 1876, instructing him to visit the Transvaal and empowering him, if it was desired by the inhabitants and in his judgment necessary, to annex the country to the British crown. Sir Theophilus went to Pretoria in January 1877, with an escort of twenty-five mounted police, and entered into conferences with the president and executive as to the state of the country. By this time Burgers was no longer blinded by the foolish optimism of a visionary who had woven^ finespun theories of what an ideal republic might be. He had lived among the Boers and attempted to lead their govern- ment. He had found their idea of liberty to be anarchy, their native policy to be slavery, and their republic to be a sham. His was a bitter awakening, and the bitterness of it found expres- sion in some remarkable words addressed to the volksraad : " I would rather," said Burgers in March 1877, " be a policeman under a strong government than the president of such a state. It is you — you members of the Raad and the Boers — who have lost the country, who have sold your independence for a drink. You have ill-treated the natives, you have shot them down, you have sold them into slavery, and now you have to pay the penalty. . . . We should delude ourselves by entertaining the hope that matters would mend by-and-by. . . . Do you know what recently happened in Turkey? Because no civilized government was carried on there, the Great Powers interfered and said, ' Thus far and no farther.' And if this is done to an empire, will a little republic be excused when it misbehaves? . . If we want justice, we must be in a position to ask it with unsullied hands. ..." After careful investigation Shepstone satisfied himself that annexation was the only possible salvation for the Transvaal. He had gone to Pretoria hoping that the Transvaal volksraad would accept Carnarvon's federation scheme; but the federation proposals were rejected by the raad. Shepstone was willing to find some way other than simple annexation out of the diffi- culty, but none appeared to present itself. The treasury was empty, the Boers refused to pay their taxes, and there was no power to enforce them. A public debt of £215,000 existed, and government contractors were left unpaid. Sir Theophilus Shepstone, finding that the raad would not adopt any remedial measures, on the 12th of April 1877 issued a proclamation annex- ing the country. The proclamation stated (among other things) : " It is the wish of Her Most Gracious Majesty that it [the state] shall enjoy the fullest legislative privileges compatible with the circumstances of the country and the intelligence of its people." The wisdom of the step taken by Shep-BriWsA stone has been called in question. For many years Annexation, subsequently the matter was so surrounded with**77- the sophistry of English party politics that it was difficult for Englishmen to form any impartial opinion. The history of the Transvaal is more complete and better understood to-day than it was in 1877, and no one who acquaints himself with the facts will deny that Shepstone acted with care and moderation. The best evidence in favour of the step is to be found in the publicly expressed views of the state's own president, Burgers, already quoted. Moreover, the menace of attack on the Zulu side was a serious one, however able the Boers may have been to meet a foe who fought in the open, and who had been beaten by them in previous wars. Even before annexation had occurred, Shepstone felt the danger so acutely that he sent a message to Cetywayo, the Zulu chief, warning him that British annexation was about to be proclaimed and that invasion of the Transvaal would not be tolerated. To this warning Cetywayo, who, encouraged by the defeat of the Boers at Sikukuni's hands, had already gathered his warriors together, replied: "I thank my father Somtseu [Shepstone] for his message. I am glad that he has sent it, because the Dutch have tired me out, and I intended to fight with them . . . and to drive them over the Vaal. ..." A still further reason for Shepstone's annexation, given by Sir Bartle Frere, was that Burgers had already sought alliance with European powers, and Shepstone had no reason to doubt that if Great Britain refused to interfere, Germany would intervene. Moreover, apart from the attitude FIRST ANNEXATION] TRANSVAAL 197 of President Burgers, which cannot be said to have been one of active opposition, a considerable number of the Boers accepted the annexation with complacency. Burgers himself left the Transvaal a disappointed, heart-broken man, and a deathbed statement published some time after his decease throws a lurid light on the intrigues which arose before and after annexation. He shows how, for purely personal ends, Kruger allied himself' with the British faction who were agitating for annexation, and to undermine him and endeavour to gain the presidency, urged the Boers to pay no taxes. However this may be, Burgers was crushed; but as a consequence the British government and not Paul Kruger was, for a time at least, master of the Transvaal. In view of his attitude before annexation, it was not surprising that Kruger should be one of the first men to agitate against it afterwards. The work of destruction had gone too far. The plot had miscarried. And so Kruger and Dr Jorissen, by whom he was accompanied, were the first to approach Lord Carnarvon with an appeal for revocation of the proclamation. Lord Carnarvon's reply was that the act of annexation was an irrevo- cable one. Unfortunately the train of events in England favoured the intrigues of the party who wished the annexation cancelled. In 1878 Lord Carnarvon resigned, and there were other evidences of dissension in the British cabinet. Kruger, who since the annexation had held a salaried appointment under the British Government, again became one of a deputation to England. His colleague was Piet Joubert. They laid their case before Sir Michael Hicks Beach (who had succeeded Lord Carnarvon) but met with no success. Sir Michael, however, in a despatch dated September the i6th 1878, reiterated the intention of the British cabinet to grant the state " to the utmost practicable extent, its individuality and powers of self-government under the sovereignty of the queen." On the occasion of Kruger's second mission to endeavour to get the annexation revoked Sir T. Shepstone determined to dispense with his further services as a government servant, and terminated the engagement. In the beginning of 1879 Shepstone was recalled and Colonel Owen Lanyon, who had served in Bechuana- land and was then administrator of Griqualand West, was appointed administrator in the Transvaal. In the meantime, the Zulu forces which threatened the Transvaal had been turned against the British, and the disaster of Isandhlwana occurred. Rumours of British defeat soon reached the Transvaal, and Agitation encouraged the disaffected party to become bolder for lade- in their agitation against British rule. Thus Sir peadence. Bartle Frere wrote at the time: " All accounts from Pretoria represent that the great body of the Boer population is still under the belief that the Zulus are more than a match for us, that our difficulties are more than we can surmount, and that the present is the favourable opportunity for demanding their independence." In April Frere visited Pretoria and conferred with the Boers. He assured them that they might look forward to complete self-government under the Crown, and at the same time urged them to sink political differences and join hands with the British against their com- mon enemy, the Zulus. The Boers, however, continued to agitate for complete independence, and, with the honourable exception of Piet Uys, a gallant Boer leader, and a small band of followers, who assisted Colonel Evelyn Wood at Hlobani, the Boers held entirely aloof from the conflict with the Zulus, a campaign which cost Great Britain many lives and £5,000,000 before the Zulu power was finally broken. In June Sir Garnet Wolseley went to South Africa as commander of the forces against the Zulus, and as high commissioner " for a time," in the place of Sir Bartle Frere, of the Transvaal and Natal. Meantime Frere's proposals to fulfil the promises made to grant the Boers a liberal constitution were shelved. After the " settle- ment " of the Zulu question, Sir Garnet Wolseley proceeded to Pretoria and immediately organized an expedition against Sikukuni, who throughout the Zulu campaign had been acting under the advice of Cetywayo. Sikukuni's stronghold was captured and his forces disbanded. Sir Garnet Wolseley now assured the Boers at a public gathering that so long as the sun shone the British flag would fly at Pretoria. In May 1880 he returned to England, having established in the Transvaal a legislative council with powers so limited as to con- vince many of the Boers that there was no intention of fulfilling Shepstone's promises. Meanwhile events in Great Britain had once more taken a turn which gave encouragement to the dis- affected Boers. Already in November 1879 Gladstone had conducted his Midlothian campaign. In one speech, referring to Cyprus and the Transvaal, he said: " If those acquisitions were as valuab.'e as they are valueless, I would repudiate them, -because they were obtained by means dishonourable to the character of our country." And in another speech he said that the British had insanely placed them selves EHect ot Mr in the strange predicament of the free subjects of a Gladstone's monarchy going to coerce the free subjects of a. Speeches la republic. Expressions such as these were trans- aw/aaA lated into Dutch and distributed among the Boers, and they exercised a good deal of influence in fanning the agitation already going on in the Transvaal. So keenly were the Midlothian speeches appreciated by the Boers that the Boer -committee wrote a letter of thanks to Gladstone, and expressed the hope that should a change in the government of Great Britain occur, " the injustice done to the Transvaal might find redress." In April 1880, this change in the British Government did occur. Gladstone became prime minister, and shortly afterwards Frere was recalled. Could events be more auspicious for the party seeking retrocession? On being directly appealed to by Kruger and Joubert, Gladstone however replied that the liberty which they sought might be " most easily and promptly conceded to the Transvaal as a member of a South African Confederation." This was not at all what was wanted, and the agitation continued. Meanwhile in the Transvaal, concurrently with the change of prime minister and high commissioner, the administrator, Colonel Lanyon, began vigorously to enforce taxation among the Boers. Men who would not pay taxes to their own appointed governments, and who were daily expecting to be allowed to return to that condition of anarchy which they had come to regard as the normal order of things, were not likely to respond willingly to the tax-gatherer's demands. That many of them refused payment in the circumstances which existed was natural. In November matters were brought to a head by the wagons of a farmer named Bezuidenhout being seized in respect of the non-payment of taxes, and promptly retaken from the sheriff by a party of Boers. Lanyon began to recognize that the position was becoming grave, and telegraphed to Sir George Colley, the high commissioner of South-East Africa, for military aid. This, however, was not immediately available, and on the I3th of December the Boers in public meeting at Paardekraal resolved once more to proclaim the South African Republic, and in the meantime to appoint a triumvirate, consisting of Kruger, Pretorius and Joubert, as a provisional government. Within three days of the Paardekraal meeting a letter was sent to the administrator demanding the keys of the government offices. Formal proclamation of the republic was made on the i6th of December (Dingaan's Day) at Heidelberg. Hostilities forthwith began. Meanwhile pressure was put on the British prime minister to carry out the policy he had avowed while out of office. But it was not until Great Britain was suffering from the humiliation of defeat that he was convinced that the time for granting that retrocession had arrived. The first shots fired were outside Potchefstroom, which was then occupied by a small British garrison (see POTCHEFSTROOM). On the zoth of December some 240 men under Colonel Anstruther, chiefly belonging to the 94th Regiment, while marching from Lydenburg to Pretoria, were surprised at Bronkhorst Spruit, and cut up by the Boer forces. Half the men were killed and wounded; the other half including some officers, were taken prisoners. Captain Elliot, one of the prisoners, who had been released on parole, was shot dead by Boers while crossing the Vaal, and Captain Lambert, another paroled prisoner who accompanied Elliot, was also shot, 198 TRANSVAAL [FIRST ANNEXATION but escaped. Pretoria, Rustenberg, Lydenburg, and other smaller towns had been placed in a position of defence under the direc- tions of Colonel Bellairs, who remained in command at Pretoria, the garrison consisting of a small number of troops and the loyal inhabitants. Sir George Colley, with about 1400 men_ marched towards the Transvaal frontier, but before reaching it he found, on the 24th of January 1881, that the Boers had already invaded Natal and occupied Laing's Nek. He pitched his camp at Ingogo. Having been defeated at Laing's Nek, and suffered considerable loss in an engagement near Ingogo, HUJ?I88I. Colley took a force to the top of Majuba, a mountain overlooking the Boer camp and the nek. He went up during the night, and in the morning was attacked and overwhelmed by the Boers (Feb. 27). Of the 554 men who constituted the British force on Majuba, 92 were killed and 134 wounded, Sir George Colley himself being amongst those who were slain. Ten days previous to the disaster at Majuba Sir Evelyn Wood had arrived at Newcastle with reinforcements. On Colley's death he assumed command. Negotiations had been opened with the Boers before the attack on Majuba and the British cabinet refused to allow that disaster to influence their action. On the 6th of March a truce was concluded and on the 2ist terms of peace were arranged between the Boer triumvirate and Sir Evelyn Wood. The most important of these terms were that the Transvaal should have complete internal self-government under British suzerainty and that a British resident should be stationed at Pretoria. Another article reserved to her majesty " the control of the external relations of the said state, including the conclusion of treaties and the conduct of diplomatic inter- course with foreign powers," and the right to march troops through the Transvaal. The boundaries of the state were defined, and to them the Transvaal was strictly to adhere. These terms practically conceded all that the Boers demanded, and were never regarded as anything else than surrender either by the Boers or the loyalists in South Africa. The agreement had hardly been concluded when Sir Frederick Roberts arrived at the Cape with 10,000 troops, and after spending forty-eight hours there returned to England. In the meantime, while the British general was making a treaty under the instructions of British ministers on the frontier, the beleaguered garrisons of Pretoria, Potchefstroom, and other smaller towns were gallantly holding their own. The news of the surrender reached Pretoria through Boer sources, and when first received there was laughed at by the garrison and inhabi- tants as a Boer joke. When the bitter truth was at length realized, the British flag was dragged through the dust of Pretoria streets by outraged Englishmen. Presently there assembled in Pretoria a commission to elaborate the terms of peace. On the one side were the Boer triumvirate, on the other Sir Evelyn Wood, Sir Hercules Robinson (Frere's successor in the high com- missionership), and Sir J. H. de Villiers, chief justice of Cape Colony, while President Brand of the Orange Free State gave the commission the benefit of his advice. The terms agreed upon were drawn up in the form of a convention and signed (Aug. 3). The preamble to the Pretoria Convention of 1881 Cvaventloa. contained in brief but explicit terms the grant of 'self-government to the Boers, subject to British suzerainty. In later years, when the Boers desired to regard the whole of this convention (and not merely the articles) as cancelled by the London Convention of 1884, and with it the suzerainty, which was only mentioned in the preamble, Mr Chamberlain, a member of the cabinet of 1880-1885, pointed out that if the preamble to this instrument were considered cancelled, so also would be the grant of self-government. The government of the state was handed over to the triumvirate on the 8th of August and was continued in their name until May 1883, when Kruger was elected president. C. From the Retrocession to i8gg. — The retrocession of the Transvaal was a terrible blow to the loyalists. The Boers, on the other hand, found themselves in better plight than they had ever been before. Their native foes had been crushed by British forces; their liabilities were consolidated into a debt to Great Britain, to be repaid at convenience and leisure — as a matter of fact, not even interest was paid for some time. If ever a small state was well treated by a large one, the Transvaal was so in the retrocession of 1881. Unfortunately, this magnanimity was forthcoming after defeat It appeared as though a virtue had been made of a necessity, and the Boers never regarded it in any other light. The new volksraad had scarcely been returned and the Pretoria Convention ratified (Oct. 25) before a system of government concessions to private individuals was started. These concessions, in so far as they prejudiced the commerce and general interests of the inhabitants, consisted chiefly in the granting of mono- polies. Among the first monopolies which were granted in 1882 was one for the manufacture of spirituous liquor. The system continued steadily down to 1899, by which time railways, dynamite, spirits, iron, sugar, wool, bricks, jam, paper and a number of other things were all of them articles of monopoly. In 1882 also began that alteration of the franchise law which subsequently developed into positive exclusion of practically all save the original Boer burghers of the country from the franchise. In 1881, on the retrocession, full franchise rights could be obtained after two years' residence; in 1882 the period of residence was increased to five years. Meanwhile the land- hunger of the Boers became stimulated rather than checked by the regaining of the independence of their country. On the western border, where the natives were of less warlike character than those on their southern and northern frontiers, intrigues were already going on with petty tribal chiefs, and the Boers drove out a portion of the Barolongs from their lands, setting up the so-called republics of Stellaland and Goshen. This act called forth a protest from the isth Lord Derby (now secretary of state for the colonies), stating that he could not recognize the right of Boer freebooters to set up govern- ments of their own on the Transvaal borders. This protest had no effect upon the freebooters, who issued one proclamation after another, until in November 1883 they united the two new republics under the title of the " United States of Stella- land." Simultaneously with this " irresponsible " movement for expansion, President Kruger proceeded to London to interview Lord Derby and endeavour to induce him to dis- pense with the suzerainty, and to withdraw other clauses in the Pretoria Convention on foreign relations and natives, which were objectionable from the Boer point of view. Moreover, Kruger requested that the term " South African Republic " should be substituted for Transvaal State. The result was the London Convention of the 2 7th of Feb- ruary 1884. In this document a fresh set of articles was substituted for those of the Pretoria Convention of 1881. In the articles of the new convention the boundaries were once more defined, concessions being made to the Transvaal on the Bechuanaland frontier, and to them the republic was bound to " strictly adhere." In what followed it must always be remembered that Lord Derby began by emphatically rejecting the first Boer draft of a treaty on the ground that London no treaty was possible except between equal sove- Coavea- reign states. Moreover, it is undeniable that Lord a°a>ls84- Derby acted as though he was anxious to appear to be giving the Boers what they wanted. He would not formally abolish the suzerainty, but he was willing not to mention it; and though, in substituting new articles for those of the Pretoria Convention he left the preamble untouched, he avoided anything which could commit the Boer delegates to a formal recognition of that fact. On the other hand,, he was most indignant when in the House of Lords he was accused by Lord Cairns of impairing British interests and relinquishing the queen's suzerainty. He declared that he had preserved the thing in its substance, if he had not actually used the word; and this view of the matter was always officially maintained in the colonial office (which, significantly enough, FIRST ANNEXATION] TRANSVAAL 199 dealt with Transvaal affairs) whatever the political party in power. Unfortunately, the timid way in which it was done made as ineffaceable an impression on Kruger even as the surrender after Majuba. Article 4 stated : " The South African Republic will conclude no treaty or engage- ment with any state or nation, other than the Orange Free State, nor with any native tribe to the eastward or westward of the Republic, until the same has been approved by her Majesty the Queen." The other article to which the greatest interest was subse- quently attached was art. 14: " All persons, other than natives, conforming themselves to the laws of the South African Republic (a) will have full liberty, with their families, to enter, travel, or reside in any part of the South African Republic ; (b) they will be entitled to hire or possess houses, manufactories, warehouses, shops and premises; (c) they may carry on their commerce either in person or by any agents whom they may think fit to employ; (d) they will not be subject, in respect of their persons or property, or m respect of their commerce or industry, to any taxes, whether general or local, other than those which are or may be imposed upon citizens of the said Republic." Notwithstanding the precise fixing of the boundaries of the republic by the London Convention, President Kruger Territorial endeavoured to maintain the Boer hold on Goshen Expansion and Stellaland, but the British government on Efforts. this p0mt proved firm, and an expedition set out in 1884 under Sir Charles Warren, broke up the freebooters' two states, and occupied the country without a shot being fired (see BECHUANALAND). The expedition cost Great Britain a million and a half, but the attempt at farther extension west- wards was foiled, and a little later treaties with Lobenguela and the grant to Cecil Rhodes and his co-directors of a charter for the British South Africa Company put a check on designs the Boers held to expand northward (see RHODESIA). On the eastern border a similar policy of expansion was followed by the Boers, and in this instance with more success. Follow- ing up the downfall of the Zulu power after the British conquest in 1879, several parties of Boers began intriguing with the petty chiefs, and in May 1884, in the presence of 10,000 Zulus, they proclaimed Dinizulu, the son of Cetywayo, to be king of Zulu- land (see ZULULAND). As a " reward " for their services to the Zulus, the Boers then took over from them a tract of country in which they established a "New Republic." In 1886 the " New Republic " with limits considerably narrowed, was recognised by Great Britain, and the territory became incor- porated with the Transvaal in 1888. Their eastern boundary, in the teeth of the spirit of the conventions, and with but scant observance of the letter, was by this means considerably extended. A similar policy eventually brought Swaziland almost entirely under their dominion (see SWAZILAND). At the same time President Kruger revived the project of obtaining a seaport for the state, one of the objects of Boer ambitions since 1860 (vide supra). Kruger endeavoured to acquire Kosi Bay, to the north of Zululand and only 50 m. east of the Swazi frontier. Meanwhile, events occurring within the state augured ill for the future of the country. In 1884 a concession to a number of Hollander and German capitalists of all rights to make railways led to the formation of the Netherlands Rail- way Company. This company, which was not actually floated Economic till 1887, was destined to exercise a disastrous in- Deveiop- fluence upon the fortunes of the state. Gold meats: GoU digging had hitherto enjoyed in the Transvaal but a precarious existence. In 1883 the discovery of Hoodie's Reef near the Kaap Valley ltd to a considerable influx of diggers and prospectors from the colonies and Europe, and by 1884 the Sheba Mine had been opened up, and Barberton, with a population of 5000 inhabitants, sprung into existence. In 1886 the Rand goldfields, which had just been discovered, were proclaimed and Johannesburg was founded. From that time the gold industry made steady progress until the Rand gold mines proved the richest and most productive goldfield in the world. As the industry prospered, so did the European population increase. The revenue of the state went up by leaps and bounds. At the end of 1886 Johannesburg ' consisted of a few stores and some few thousand inhabitants. In October 1896 the sanitary board census estimated the popula- tion as 107,078, of whom 50,907 were Europeans. The wealth which was pouring into the Boer state coffers exceeded the wildest dreams of President Kruger and his followers. Land went up in value, and farms, many of them at comparatively remote distances from the goldfields, were sold at enormously enhanced prices. In fact, so attractive did this sale of land become to the Boers that they eventually parted with a third of the whole land area of the country to Uitlander purchasers. Yet in spite of the wealth which the industry of the Uitlanders was creating, a policy of rigid political exclusion and restriction was adopted towards them. An attempt was made in 1888, after the conference held between Cape Colony, the Orange Free State and Natal, to induce the Transvaal to enter a customs union. #e/a#ons Kruger would have none of it, although by so doing with the rest he could have obtained permission for a settlement of South at and railway to Kosi Bay. A convention to this At"ca' effect was signed in August 1890, the Transvaal being allowed three years in which to take advantage of its provisions. Kruger's design at this time was to bring the whole of the external trade of the state, which was growing yearly as the gold industry developed, through Delagoa Bay and over the Nether- lands railway. His hostility towards Great Britain and even Cape Colony led him to adopt a commercial policy both narrow and prejudicial to the interests of the gold industry. In the appointment of F. W. Reitz as president of the Orange Free State (January 1889) on the death of Sir John Brand, Kruger recognized a new opportunity of endeavouring to cajole the Free State. Brand had arranged, in the teeth of the strongest protests from Kruger, that the Cape railway should extend to Bloemfontein and subsequently to the Vaal river. Kruger now endeavoured to control the railway policy of the Free State, and induced that republic to agree to a treaty whereby each state bound itself to help the other whenever the inde- pendence of either should be threatened or assailed, unless the cause of quarrel was, in the eyes of the state called in to assist, an unjust one (see ORANGE FREE STATE). In 1890 a feeling of considerable irritation had grown up among the Uitlanders at the various monopolies, but par- ticularly at the dynamite monopoly, which pressed 3 ,. . Oligarchical solely and with peculiar seventy upon gold miners. Restrictions. Requests for consideration in the matter of the franchise, and also for a more liberal commercial policy in the matter of railways, dynamite and customs dues, began to be made. In response Kruger enacted that the period of qualification for the full franchise should now be raised to ten years instead of five. He at the same time instituted what was called a second chamber, the franchise qualifications for which were easier, but which was not endowed with any real power. During this year Kruger visited Johannesburg, and what was known as " the flag incident " occurred. He had by this time rendered himself somewhat unpopular, and in the evening the Transvaal flag, which flew over the land- drost's house, was pulled down. This incensed Kruger so much that for many years he continued to quote it as a reason why no consideration could be granted to the Uitlanders. By 1892 the Uitlanders began to feel that if they were to obtain any redress for their grievances combined constitutional action was called for, and the first reform move- ment began. The Transvaal National Union was formed. This consisted at the outset chiefly of mercantile and professional men and artisans. The mining men, especially the heads of the larger houses, did not care at this juncture to run the risk of political agitation. The Hon. J. Tudhope, an ex-minister in the Cape government, was elected chairman of the union. The objects of this body were avowed from the outset. They desired equal rights for all citizens, the abolition of monopolies and abuses, together with the maintenance of the state's independence. In the furthering of this policy Tudhope was supported by Charles Leonard and his brother 2OO TRANSVAAL [RETROCESSION TO 1899 James Leonard, at one time attorney-general of Cape Colony. Both the Leonards, as well as many of their followers, were South Africans by birth. They, in common with the great bulk of the Uitlanders, recognized that the state had every right to have its independence respected. But they asserted that a narrow and retrogressive policy, such as Kruger was following, was the very thing to endanger that independence. The soundness of these views and the legitimacy of Uitlander aspirations were recognized by a few Boer officials at Pretoria. Some prominent burghers even spoke at Uitlander meetings in favour of the Uitlander requests. At a later date, Chief Justice Kotze, when on circuit, warned the Boers that in its retrogressive action the government was undermining the grondwet or constitution of the state. It soon became evident that one course, and one only, lay open to President Kruger if he desired to avert a catastrophe. It was to meet in a friendly spirit those men who had by their industry converted a poor pastoral country into a rich industrial one, who represented more than half the inhabitants, who paid more than three- fourths of the revenue, and who were anxious to join him as citizens, with the rights of citizenship. He chose a course diametrically opposite. In an interview accorded to seven delegates from the National Union, in 1892, he told Charles Leonard to " go back and tell your people that I shall never give them anything. I shall never change my policy. And now let the storm burst." In 1894 there occurred an incident which not only incensed the Uitlanders to fury, but called for British intervention. A number of British subjects resident in Commaa- the Transvaal, in spite of their having no political deeriagia- status, were commandeered to suppress a native cldeat,l894. rising. This led to a protest, and eventually a visit to Pretoria, from Sir Henry Loch the high commissioner. In the negotiations which followed, President Kruger at length agreed to extend " most favoured nation " privileges to British subjects in reference to compulsory military service, and five British subjects who had been sent as prisoners to the front were released. This result was not, however, achieved before President Kruger had done his utmost to induce Sir Henry Loch to promise some revision in favour of the Transvaal of the London Convention. Following this incident came a further alteration in the franchise law, making the franchise practically impossible to obtain. At a banquet given in honour of the German emperor's birthday in Pretoria in January 1895, Kruger referred in glowing terms to the friendship of Germany for the Transvaal, which in the future was to be more firmly established than ever. This speech was public evidence of what was known to be going on behind the scenes. The German consul at Pretoria at this Flirtation juncture as a volatile, sanguine man, with visionary ideas of the important part Germany was to play in the future as the patron and ally of the South African Republic, and of the extent to which the Bismarckian policy might go in abetting an anti-British campaign. Whether he deceived himself or not, he led President Kruger and the Boers to believe that Germany was prepared to go to almost any length in support of the Transvaal if any opportunity occurred. His in- fluence was an undoubted factor in the Kruger policy of that time. The Delagoa Bay railway being at length completed to Pretoria and Johannesburg, Kruger determined to take steps to bring the Rand traffic over it. The Netherlands railway incident began by putting a prohibitive tariff on goods from the Vaal river. Not to be coerced in this manner, the Rand merchants proceeded to bring their goods on from the Vaal by wagon. Kruger then closed the drifts (or fords) on the river by which the wagons crossed. He only reopened them after the receipt of what was tantamount to an ultimatum on the subject from Great Britain. In May 1895, on the urgent representations of Sir Henry Loch, the British government annexed Tongaland, including Kosi Bay, thus making the British and Portuguese boundaries contermi- nous on the coast of south-east Africa. In the previous month certain native territories between Tongaland and Swaziland had been annexed by Great Britain. The Boers, who had failed to fulfil the conditions under which they might have secured Kosi Bay, nevertheless resented this action, which Boer Road took away from them all chance of obtaining a to the Sea seaport. Kruger telegraphed that " this annexation Blocted- cannot be regarded by this government otherwise than as directed against this republic. They must therefore regard it as an unfriendly act, against which they hereby protest." The protest was unheeded, the British government having realized the international complications that might ensue had the Transvaal a port of its own. At this time the Uitlanders formed a majority of the popula- tion, owned half the land and nine-tenths of the property, and they were at least entitled to a hearing. When Uitlander in August 1895 they forwarded one of their manyfle/orm petitions praying for redress of their grievances Movement. and an extension of the franchise, their petition, with over 35,000 signatures, was rejected with jeers and insult. One member of the Raad, during a debate in the chamber, called upon the Uitlanders to " come on and fight " for their rights if they wanted them. The words were but the utterance of an individual Raad member, but they were only a shade less offensive than those used by Kruger in 1892, and they too accurately describe the attitude of the Boer executive. In September a meeting of the chambers of mines and commerce was held at Johannesburg, and a letter on various matters of the greatest importance to the mining industry was addressed to the Boer executive. It was never vouchsafed an answer. What the next step should be was freely discussed. Some urged an appeal to the Imperial government; but others, especially men of colonial birth and experience, objected that they would be leaning on a broken reed. That men who had still the memory of Majuba in their hearts should have felt misgiving is not to be wondered at. At this juncturrf (October 1895) came overtures to the leading Uitlanders from Cecil Rhodes, then prime minister of Cape Colony, and from Dr Jameson, leading to the Jameson Raid. To one or two men this scheme, subsequently known as The the Jameson Plan, had been revealed in the pre- "Jameson vious June, but to the majority even of the small pltta-" group of leaders it was not known till October or November 1895. The proposition came in a tempting hour. Rhodes and Jameson, after considerable deliberation, came to the conclu- sion that they might advantageously intervene between Kruger and the Uitlanders. They induced Alfred Beit, who was an old personal friend of Rhodes, and also largely interested in the Rand gold mines, to lend his co-operation. They then submitted their scheme to some of the Uitlander leaders. Be- tween them it was arranged that Jameson should gather a force of 800 men on the Transvaal border; that the Uit- landers should continue their agitation; and that, should no satisfactory concession be obtained from Kruger, a com- bined movement of armed forces should be made against the government. The arsenal at Pretoria was to be seized; the Uitlanders in Johannesburg were to rise and hold the town. Jameson was to make a rapid march to Johannesburg. Mean- while, in order to give Kruger a final chance of making concessions with a good grace, and for the purpose of stating the Uitlander case to the world, Charles Leonard, as chairman of the National Union, issued a historic manifesto, which concluded as follows: — We have now only two questions to consider: (a) What do we want? (6) How shall we get it? I have stated plainly what our grievances are, and I shall answer with equal directness the question, What do we want? We want: (l) the establishment of this republic as a true republic; (2) a grondwet or constitution which shall be framed by competent persons selected by representatives of the whole people and framed on lines laid down by them — a constitution which shall be safeguarded against hasty alteration; (3) an equitable franchise law, and fair representation; (4) equality of the Dutch and English languages; (5) responsibility to the heads of the great departments of the legislature; (6) removal of religious disabilities; (7) independence of the courts of justice, with adequate and secured remuneration of the judges; (8) liberal and comprehensive education ; RETROCESSION TO 1899] TRANSVAAL 2OI (9) efficient civil service, with adequate provision for pay and pension ; (10) free trade in South African products. That is what we want. There now remains the question which is to be put before you at the meeting of the 6th of January, viz. How shall we get it? To this question I shall expect from you an answer in plain terms according to your deliberate judgment. The Jameson conspiracy fared no worse and no better than the great majority of conspiracies in history. It failed in its immediate object. Jameson did not obtain more than 500 men. Johannesburg had the greatest difficulty in smuggling in and distributing the rifles with which the insurgents were to be armed. The scheme to seize the Pretoria fort had to be abandoned, as at the time fixed Pretoria was thronged with Boers. Finally, to make confusion worse confounded, Jameson, becoming impatient of delay, in spite of receiving direct messages from the leaders at Johannesburg teLing him on no account to move, marched into the Transvaal. The policy of delay in the execution of the plot which the Uitlander leaders found themselves compelled to adopt was determined by a variety of causes. Apart from the difficulty of obtaining arms, a serious question arose at the eleventh hour which filled some of the Uitlanders with mistrust. The reform leaders in the Transvaal, down to and including the Johannesburg rising, had always recognized as a cardinal principle the maintenance of the independence of the state. From Cape Town it was now hinted that the movement in which Jameson was to co-operate should, in Rhodes's view, be carried out under the British flag. A meeting of Uitlander leaders was hastily summoned on the 2 5th of December. Two messengers were that night despatched to interview Rhodes, who then gave the assurance that the flag question might be left to a plebiscite of the inhabitants of the Transvaal1 (see Blue-book, 1897, 165, p. 21). It was determined nevertheless to postpone action; however, on the 2gth of December, Jameson started, and the news of his having done so reached Johannes- burg from outside sources. A number of leading citizens were at once formed into a reform committee. In the absence of Collapse of Charles Leonard, who had been sent as one of the Jameson delegates to Cape Town to interview Rhodes, Raid. Lionel Phillips, a partner in Messrs Eckstein & Co., the largest mining firm on the Rand, was elected chairman. Phillips had been for three years in succession chairman of the chamber of mines, and he had persistently for several years tried to induce Kruger to take a reasonable view of the require- ments of the industry. Under the supervision of the reform committee, such arms as had been smuggled in were distributed, and Colonel Frank Rhodes was given charge of the armed men. A large body of police was enrolled, and order was maintained throughout the town. On the 2nd of January 1896 Jameson, who found himself at Doornkop in a position surrounded by Boers, surrendered. Jameson and his men were conveyed to Pretoria as prisoners, and subsequently handed over to the high commissioner (Sir Hercules Robinson, who had succeeded Sir Henry Loch in June 1895). Significant of the attitude of Germany — whose "flirtation" with the Transvaal has been noted — was an open telegram sent by the emperor William II. the day after the surrender of TheKalser,s Jameson congratulating Kruger that " without Telegram, appealing to the help of friendly powers" he had repelled the raiders. The British government rejoined by commissioning a flying squadron and by calling attention to the London Convention, reserving the supervision of the foreign relations of the Transvaal to Great Britain. In Johannes- 1 Jameson, speaking at Durban on the gth of August 1910, declared that the raid was not racial in the sense usually understood, but an effort towards federation. During the raid he carried a letter containing the names of the proposed new executive, and had the raid succeeded it was proposed to make General Lukas Meyer (d. 1902) president. Jameson subsequently explained that Rhodes and he in designating " an eminent Dutchman " as president of " the new provincial republic " had had no communication with Meyer on the subject. Neither he (Jameson) nor Rhodes had any knowledge of a proposal, to which General Botha had publicly referred, that Charles Leonard should be president. (See the Cape Times Weekly Edition, Sept. 7, 1910, p. 15.) burg meanwhile the Kruger government regained control. The whole of the reform committee (with the exception of a few who fled the country) were arrested on a charge of high treason and imprisoned in Pretoria. In April, at the trial, the four leaders — Lionel Phillips, Frank Rhodes, J. H. Hammond and George Farrar, who in conjunction with Charles Leonard had made the arrangements with Jameson — were sentenced to death, the sentence being after some months' imprisonment commuted to a fine of £25,000 each. The rest of the committee were each sentenced to two years' imprisonment, £2000 fine or another year's imprisonment, and three years' banishment. This sentence, after a month's incarceration, was also com- muted. The fine was exacted, and the prisoners, with the exception of Woolls Sampson and W. D. (Karri) Davies, were liberated on undertaking to abstain from politics for three years in lieu of banishment. Messrs Sampson and Davies, refusing to appeal to the executive for a reconsideration of their sentence, were retained for over a year. Sir Hercules Robinson was unfortunately in feeble health at the time, and having reached Pretoria on the 4th of January, he had to conduct negotiations under great physical TheSur- disadvantage. He had no sooner learnt of the raid reader of in Cape Town than he issued a proclamation through Johaaaes- Sir Jacobus de Wet, the British resident at Pretoria, burg' warning all British subjects in Johannesburg or elsewhere from aiding and abetting Jameson. This was freely distributed among the public of Johannesburg. While in Pretoria the high commissioner in the first instance addressed himself to inducing Johannesburg to lay down its arms. He telegraphed to the reform committee that Kruger had insisted " that Johannesburg must lay down arms unconditionally as a precedent to any discussions and consideration of grievances." On the following day, the 7th of January, Sir Hercules tele- graphed again through the British agent, who was then at Johannesburg, saying: " That if the Uitlanders do not comply with my request they will forfeit all claims to sympathy from Her Majesty's government and from British subjects through- out the world, as the lives of Jameson and the prisoners are now practically in their hands." The* two thousand odd rifles which had been distributed among the Uitlanders were then given up. With regard to the inducements to this step urged upon the reform committee by the high commissioner, it is only necessary to say with reference to the first that the grievances never were considered, and with reference to the second it subsequently appeared that one of the conditions of the surrender of Jameson's force at Doornkop was that the lives of the men should be spared. It was after the Johannesburg disarmament that Kruger had sixty-four members of the reform committee arrested, announcing at the same time that his motto would be " Forget and forgive." Sir Hercules Robinson, in response to a message from Mr Chamberlain, who had been secretary of state for the colonies since July 1895, urging him to use firm language in reference to reasonable con- cessions, replied that he considered the moment inopportune, and on the isth of January he left for Cape Town. In 1897 he was succeeded in the high commissionership by Sir Alfred Milner. In the period which intervened between the Jameson raid and the outbreak of the war in October 1899 President Kruger's administration continued to be what it had been; that is to say, it was not merely bad, but it got progressively worse. His conduct immediately after Johannesburg had given up its arms, and while the reform committee were in prison, was distinctly disingenuous. Instead of discussing grievances, as before the Johannesburg disarmament he had led the high commissioner to believe was his intention, he proceeded to request the withdrawal of the London Convention, because, among other things, " it is in- jurious to dignity of independent republic." When Kruger found that no concession was to be wrung from the British government, he proceeded, instead of considering grievances, to add considerably to their number. The Aliens Expulsion 202 TRANSVAAL [RETROCESSION TO 1899 and Aliens Immigration Laws, as well as the new Press Law, were passed in the latter part of 1896. In 1897 a decision of Chief Justice Kotze was overruled by an act of the volksraad. This led to a strong protest from the judges of the high court, and eventually led to the dis- missal of the chief justice, who had held that office for over twenty years, and during the whole of that time had been a loyal and patriotic friend to his country. An 'industrial commission appointed during this year by President Kruger fared no better than the high court had done. The commission was deputed to inquire into and report on certain of the griev- ances adversely affecting the gold industry. Its constitution for this purpose was anomalous, as it consisted almost entirely of Transvaal officials whose knowledge of the requirements of the industry was scanty. In spite of this fact, however, the commission reported in favour of reform in various directions. They urged, among other things, due enforcement of the liquor law, more police protection, the abolition of the dynamite concession, and that foodstuffs should be duty free. These recommendations made by President Kruger's own nominees were practically ignored. In 1898, to strengthen his relations with foreign powers, Kruger sent the state secretary, Dr Leyds,1 to Europe as minister plenipotentiary, his place on the Transvaal executive being taken by Mr Reitz, the ex-president of the Free State. At home Kruger continued as obdurate as ever. In January 1899 Mr Chamberlain pointed out in a despatch to President Kruger that the dynamite monopoly constituted a breach of the London Convention. To help the Transvaal government out of its difficulty, and to make one more effort towards conciliation, the financial houses of Johannesburg offered to lend the Transvaal government £600,000 wherewith to buy out the dynamite company, and so terminate the scandal and bring some relief to the industry. The offer was not accepted. Meantime Sir Alfred Milner had also endeavoured to induce the Transvaal government to grant the necessary reforms, but his efforts were equally unavailing (see MILNER, VISCOUNT). In March the Uitlanders, hopeless of ever obtain- ing redress from President Kruger, weary of sending petitions to the Raad only to be jeered at, determined to invoke inter- vention if nothing else could avail, and forwarded a petition to n.^, , Queen Victoria. This petition, the outcome of Petition to i , TT.. , , the Queen. tne second Uitlander movement for reform, was signed by 21,000 British subjects, and stated the Uitlander position at considerable length. The following extract conveys its general tenor: — The condition of your Majesty's subjects in this state has become well-nigh intolerable. The acknowledged and admitted grievances, of which your Majesty's subjects complained prior to 1895, not only are not redressed, but exist to-day in an aggravated form. They are still deprived of all political rights, they are denied any voice in the government of the country, they are taxed far above the requirements of the country, the revenue of which is misapplied and devoted to objects which keep alive a continuous and well- founded feeling of irritation, without in any way advancing the general interest of the state. Maladministration and peculation of public moneys go hand in hand, without any vigorous measures being adopted to put a stop to the scandal. The education of Uitlander children is made subject to impossible conditions. The police afford no adequate protection to the lives and property of the inhabitants of Johannesburg; they are rather a source of danger to the peace and safety of the Uitlander population. In response to this appeal, Mr Chamberlain, in a despatch dated the loth of May, proposed a conference at Pretoria. Six days before Sir Alfred Milner had telegraphed to London a summary of the situation, comparing the position of the Uitlanders to that of helots and declaring the case for inter- vention to be overwhelming. Neither of these despatches was made public at the time. But on the very day Mr Cham- berlain wrote his despatch the friends of the Transvaal govern- ment in Cape Colony and the Orange Free State invited Sir 1 Dr W. J. Leyds, a Hollander born in Java in 1859, went out to the Transvaal in 1884 as attorney-general and was, in 1887, made government commissioner for the Netherlands (S. A.) railway. In 1890 he became state secretary and in that position was regarded as Kruger's light-hand man. Alfred Milner to meet President Kruger at Bloemfontein, hoping to be able to exert pressure on both parties and to arrange a settlement as favourable as possible to Bloem- the Transvaal. The conference opened on the fonteia 3ist of May and closed on the sth of June. It no C"fl/e™»«. sooner opened than it was evident that Kruger had come to obtain, not to grant, concessions. He offered, it is true, a seven years' franchise law in place of the five years' franchise which Sir Alfred Milner asked for. But apart from the relief suggested being entirely inadequate, it was only to be given on certain conditions, one of which was that all future disputes which might arise between the Transvaal and the Imperial government should 'be referred to a court of arbitration, of which the president should be a foreigner. No arrangement was possible on such terms. Meanwhile feeling was running high at Johannesburg and throughout South Africa. Meetings were held in all the large towns, at which resolutions were passed declaring that no solution of the Transvaal question would be acceptable which did not provide for equal political rights for all white men. Sir Alfred Milner urged the home government strongly to insist upon a minimum of reform, and primarily the five years' franchise; and Mr Chamberlain, backed by the cabinet, adopted the policy of the high com- missioner. (A. P. H.; F. R. C.) D. The Crisis of 1899. — A state of extreme diplomatic tension lasted all the summer. The British public, in whom there had always been the latent desire to retrieve the surrender to the Boers which had followed the disaster at Majuba, were at last awakened by the ministerialist press to the necessity of vindicating British influence in South Africa, and the govern- ment soon found that, in spite of a highly articulate Radical minority, the feeling of the country was overwhelmingly behind them. It was not then realized either by the public or the government how seriously, and with what considerable justifi- cation, the Boers believed in their ability, if necessary, to sweep the British " into the sea." President Kruger had every expectation of large reinforcements from the Dutch in the two British colonies; he believed that, whatever happened, Europe would not allow Boer independence to be destroyed; and he had assured himself of the adhesion of the Orange Free State, though it was not till the very last moment that President Steyn formally notified Sir Alfred Milner of this fact. The Boers profoundly despised the military power of Great Britain, and there was no reason why they, any more than Germany or France, should contemplate the possibility of the empire standing together as a whole in such a cause. In England, on the other hand, it was thought by most people that if a firm enough attitude were adopted Mr Kruger would " climb down," and the effect of this error was shown partly in the whole course of the negotiations, partly in the tone personally adopted by Mr Chamberlain. It was only later that it was seen that if Great Britain intended effectually to champion the Uitlander cause, the moment for a test of strength had inevitably arrived. Negotiations could only bring the conflict a little nearer, delay it a little longer, or supply an opportunity to either side to justify its action in the eyes of the world. The conditions of the problem were such that unless Great Britain were to accept a humiliating rebuff, any correspondence, however skilfully conducted, was bound to bring into greater prominence the standing causes of offence between the two sides. The exchange of despatches soon led to a complete impasse. The persistent attempt of the South African Republic to assert its full indepen- dence, culminating in a formal denial of British suzerainty, made it additionally incumbent on Great Britain to carry its point as to the Uitlander grievances, while, from Mr Kruger's point of view, the admission of the Uitlanders to real political rights meant the doom of his oligarchical regime, and appeared in the light of a direct menace to Boer supremacy. The fran- chise, again, was an internal affair, in which the convention gave Great Britain no right to interfere, while if Great Britain relied on certain definite breaches of the convention, satisfaction for which was sought in the first place in such a guarantee of WAR OF 1899-1902] TRANSVAAL 203 amendment as the Uitlander franchise would involve, the Boer answer was an offer of arbitration, a course which Great Britain could not accept without admitting the South African Republic to the position of an equal. Here was material enough for an explosion, even if personal misunderstandings and aggravations, adding fuel to the fire, had not naturally occurred (or even been deliberately plotted) during the negotiations. But the truth was that the Boers thought they stood to gain by fighting, while the British, though not expecting war, and acting up till the last month or so on the assumption that serious military preparations were either unnecessary or sufficiently unlikely to be necessary to make them politically inexpedient, had with no less confidence committed themselves to a policy which was impracticable on peaceful terms. After July the tactics of the Boer executive were simply directed towards putting off a crisis till the beginning of October, when the grass would be growing on the veld, and meanwhile towards doing all they could in their despatches to put the blame on Great Britain. At last they drafted, on the 27th of September, an ultimatum to the British government. But, although ready drafted, many circumstances conspired to delay its presentation. Meanwhile, the British war office began to act. Certain departmental details were despatched to South Africa to form a working nucleus for military bases, and early in September the cabinet sanctioned the despatch to Natal from India of a mixed force, 5600 strong, while two battalions were ordered to South Africa from the Mediterranean. Sir George White was nominated to the chief command of the forces in Natal, and sailed on the i6th of September, while active preparations were set on foot in England to prepare against the necessity of despatching an army corps to Cape Town, In which case the chief command was to be vested in Sir Redvers Buller. Fortunately, although the draft of an ultimatum was lying in the state secretary's office in Pretoria, the Boers, unprepared in departmental arrangements which are necessary in large military operations, were unable to take the field with the promptitude that the situation demanded. They con- sequently forfeited many of the advantages of the initiative. The military strength of the two republics was practically an unknown quantity. It was certain that, since the troublous times of 1896, the Transvaal had greatly increased its arma- ments; but at their best, except by a very few,1 the Boers were looked upon by British military experts as a disorganized rabble, which, while containing many individual first-class marksmen, would be incapable of maintaining a prolonged resistance against a disciplined army. As was to be subsequently shown, the hostilities were not confined to opposition from the fighting strength of the two little republics alone; the British had to face Dutch opposition in their own colonies. The total fighting strength of the Boer republics is difficult to ascertain exactly. General Botha stated that there were 83,000 burghers from 15 to 65 years of age on the commando lists. Lord Kitchener put the total number of combatants on the Boer side at 95,000 (Cd. 1790, p. 13). The British official History of the War gave the number as 87,000; another calculation, based on the number killed, taken prisoner and surrendered, made the total 90,000. In the second (1901) rebellion of the Cape Dutch about 8000 joined the burgher forces. The number of Boers in the field at any one period was probably little more than 40,000. But the fact that it was to a large extent a struggle with a nation in arms doubled the numbers of the force that the Transvaal executive was able to draw upon. The bulk of the Dutch levies were organized on the burgher system — that is, each district was furnished with a commandant, who had under him field-cornets and assistant field-cornets, who administered the fighting capacity of the district. Each field-cornet, who, with the commandant, was a paid official of the state, was responsible for the arms, equipment and attendance of his commando. 1 Lord Wolseley foresaw the strength of the Boers. Writing on the I2th of September 1899 he said, " If this war comes off it will be the most serious war England has ever had " (see Military Life of the Duke of Cambridge, ii. 421). The plan of campaign which found favour with the Boers, when they determined to put their differences with Great Britain to the test by the ordeal of the sword, was to attack all the principal British towns adjacent to their own borders; at the same time to despatch a field army of the necessary dimensions to invade and reduce Natal, where the largest British garrison existed. It is not too much to suppose that the executive in Pretoria had calculated that the occupation of Durban would inspire the entire Dutch nation with a spirit of unanimity which would eventually wrest South Africa from the British. On paper the scheme had everything to recom- mend it as the expedient most likely to bring about the desired end. But the departmental executive could not launch the Natal invading force as early as had been anticipated, and it was not until the gth of October that the ultimatum was pre- sented to Sir (then Mr) Conyngham Greene, the British agent at Pretoria. The scheduled demands were as follow : — " a. That all points of mutual difference shall be regulated by the friendly course of arbitration, or by what- The ever amicable way may be agreed upon by the ultimatum. government with Her Majesty's Government. " b. That the troops on the borders of this republic shall be instantly withdrawn. " c. That all reinforcements of troops which have arrived in South Africa since the ist of June 1899 shall be removed from South Africa within a reasonable time, to be agreed upon with this government, and with a mutual assurance and guarantee on the part of this government that no attack upon or hostilities against any portion of the posses- sions of the British Government shall be made by the republic during further negotiations within a period of time to be subsequently agreed upon between the governments, and this government will, on compliance therewith, be prepared to withdraw the armed burghers of this republic from the borders. " d. That Her Majesty's troops now on the high seas shall not be landed in any part of South Africa." To these demands the Transvaal government required an answer within 48 hours. There could be only one reply, and on Wednesday, the nth of October 1899, at five o'clock p.m., a state of war existed between the British government and the two Boer republics. On the following day the Boer attack on an armoured train at Kraaipan, a railway station in Cape Colony south of Mafeking and close to the western frontier of the Transvaal, witnessed the first hostile shot of a bloody war, destined to plunge South Africa into strife for two years and a half. (H. CH.) E. The War of 1899-1902. — For the purposes of history the South African War may be conveniently divided into five distinct periods. The first comprises the Boer invasion, terminating with the relief of Ladysmith on the 28th of February. The second, the period of Boer organized resistance, may be said to have finished with the occupation of Komati Poort in October 1900 (a month after Lord Roberts's formal annexation of the Trans- vaal) and the flight of President Kruger. The third may be characterized as a period of transition; it marks the adoption jn earnest of a guerrilla policy on the part of the enemy, and an uncertain casting about on the part of the British for a definite system with which to grapple with an unfore- seen development. This phase endured up to the failure of the Middelburg negotiations in March 1901. The next stage was that which saw the slow building up of the blockhouse system and the institution of small punitive columns, and may be considered to have extended until the close of 1901. The fifth, and last period — which, after all other expedients had failed, finally brought the residue of uncaptured and unsurrendered burghers to submission — was the final development of the blockhouse system, wedded to the institution of systematic driving " of given areas, which operations were in force until the 3ist of May 1902, when peace was ratified at Pretoria. The first of these periods saw the severest fighting of the 204 TRANSVAAL [WAR OF I89SHI902 campaign. It opened with the investment of Mafeking by a Transvaal force under P. A. Cronje and the envelopment of Kimberley by Free State commandos under General Wessels. But these were minor operations. The main Boer effort was made in Natal, where their forces were commanded by P. J. Joubert, while Lieut.-General Sir George White was the British commander-in-chief. The northern part of Natal presented two faces of a triangle to the two enemies, the short base being formed by the Tugela river. Close to the head of the triangle at Dundee and Glencoe was posted a small British force under Major-General Sir W. Penn Symons. Against this force there advanced a Boer force under Lukas Meyer from the east, and, more slowly, the foremost portion of the main Boer army from the north, while at the same time other Transvaalers descended upon the railway between Glencoe and Ladysmith, and the Free Staters from the passes of the Drakensberg advanced towards Ladysmith, the British centre of operations at which the reinforcements sent from India gathered. On the aoth of Octo- ber the Dundee brigade vigorously and successfully attacked Talana Hill, and drove back Lukas Meyer, but this success was dearly bought. Symons was mortally wounded, and 226 officers and men were killed and wounded. Half the mounted men lost their way in attempting to pass the enemy's flank and were taken, and the brigade, threatened to its left rear by Joubert's advance and by the force that had seized the railway, only escaped being enveloped by retreating upon Ladysmith, where it arrived in an exhausted state on the 26th of October. Meanwhile Sir George White had discovered the Boer force on the railway, and, though anxious on account of the advance of the Free Staters, on the 2ist, stimulated by the news of Talana, he sent out a force of all arms under General (Sir John) French to drive the Boers from Elandslaagte and so to clear. Symons's line of retreat. This was accomplished by French and his subordinate, Colonel (Sir) Ian Hamilton, in the action of Elandslaagte on the 2ist of October (British losses, 258 all ranks). But on the 22nd the Free Staters' advance caused the victorious force to be recalled to Ladysmith, and the third action north of that town, Rietfontein (24th), was only a demonstration to cover the retire- ment of the Dundee force. By the 2pth of October all the British forces at the front and their reinforcements had fallen in on Ladysmith, which the Transvaalers on the north and east and the Free Staters on the west side began to invest. Before the junction of the two allied wings was complete Sir George White attempted by a general attack to break up their line. The result of this decision was the battle of Lombard's Kop, outside Ladysmith, in which the whole of the available British force was engaged. The engagement was disastrous to the British, who had undertaken far too comprehensive an attack, and the Natal Field Force was obliged to fall back upon Ladysmith with the loss of 1500 men, including a large number of prisoners belonging to the left column under Lieut. -Colonel F.R.C. Carleton,who were cut off at Nicholson's Nek and forced to surrender by a mixed force of Transvaalers and Free Staters under Christian de Wet. From that day the r61e of the Natal Field Force was changed from that of a mobile field army into that of a garrison, and two days later it was completely isolated, but not before General French had succeeded in escaping south by train, and the naval authorities had been induced by Sir George White's urgent appeals to send into the town a naval brigade with a few guns of sufficient range and calibre to cope with the heavy position artillery which Joubert was now able to bring into action against the town. General Sir Redvers Buller, who had been appointed to the supreme command in South Africa as soon as it was perceived that war was imminent — his force being one army Bauer's ,. . . ., ,. . . . , . J Arrival. corps in three divisions, the divisional generals being Lord Methuen, Sir W. Gatacre and Sir C. F. Clery— arrived in Cape Town, ahead of his troops, on the day following Lombard's Kop. The situation which presented itself was deli- cate in the extreme. In Natal practically the whole of the avail- able defence force was swallowed up by the steady success of the invasion; on the western frontier two British towns were isolated and besieged; and Boer commandos were on the point of in- vading Cape Colony, where the Dutch population seemed on the verge of rebellion. The army corps was about to arrive, practi- cally as a whole unit, in South Africa; but it was evident that the exigencies of the situation, and the widely divided areas of invasion, would at least defer, the execution of the plan which had been formed for an invasion of the Orange Free State from Cape Colony. The first duty was to effect the relief of the British forces which had been rendered immobile, and another duty imposed by political circumstances was to relieve Kimberley (where Cecil Rhodes was), while the prospect of rebellion forbade the complete denudation of the central part of the colony. Thus Sir Redvers Buller had no choice but to disintegrate the army corps. Clery and some brigades were sent to Natal ; Gatacre with less than a brigade, instead of a division, was despatched to Queenstown, Cape Colony; while Lord Methuen, with a division, was sent off to relieve Kimberley. As November wore on, the situation did not improve. Cape Colony was invaded; while in Natal a flying column of Boers, pushing down from the Tugela, for a short time isolated the newly-arrived force under General (Sir) H. J. T. Hildyard, which opposed Joubert's advance on Pietermaritzburg at Estcourt. The situation in Natal seemed so serious that on the 22nd of November Sir Redvers Buller left Cape Town and sailed for Durban. In the meantime Lord Methuen had commenced his march to the relief of Kimberley. He encountered resistance at Belmont on the 23rd, but attack- ing resolutely he drove the Boers out of their strong Failures of positions. Two days later he won another action at Methuen Enslin. Still persevering he moved on to the Modder, ^dOaMcre. where he was seriously opposed by De la Rey and P. A. Cronje, the latter having posted down from Mafeking with 2000 men and arrived on the previous night. The Boers, who held a river line, kept the British attack at bay all day, but eventually fell back, relinquishing the position after dark, as their right had been turned by General Pole-Carew's brigade. It was a long and wearing fight, in which the British lost 485 killed and wounded, and what was more serious, Lord Methuen (himself wounded) found that his force had exhausted its forward momentum, and that he would have to collect supplies and reinforcements on the Modder before fighting his next battle. The extent of the opera- tions and the gravity of the situation now began to be felt in England; every available man was called up from the reserves, and the war office made what at the time appeared to be ade- quate provision for the waste which it was seen would occur. On the 30th of November the mobilization of a sixth division was ordered, offers of colonial aid were accepted, and every facility provided for local recruiting in the South African ports. Thus in the early days of December confidence was considerably restored. Buller was arranging for the relief of Ladysmith, which had already shown its spirit by two successful sorties against the besiegers' batteries. In every theatre the British strength was consolidating. But the full significance of the situation presented by thfse two small nations in arms had not yet been appreciated. The confidence restored by the lull during the early part of December was destined to be roughly shattered. On the loth of December Gatacre essayed a night march and attack upon the enemy's position at Stormberg, and, misled by his guides in unknown ground, was himself surprised and forced to return with a loss of 719. On the following day Lord Methuen delivered an attack upon Cronje's position be- tween the Upper Modder river and the Kimberley road, a line of kopjes called Spytfontein and Magersfontein. In a night attack on Magersfontein hill the Highland brigade came under heavy fire while still in assembly formation, and lost its general, A. G. Wauchope, and 750 men, and in the battle by day which followed the other brigades were unable to retrieve the failure, the total losses amounting to about 950. But even this could be suffered with equanimity, since Buller was about to bring his own force into play, and Buller, it was confidently supposed, would not fail. He had collected at Chieveley in Natal a brigade of mounted men, four brigades of infantry and six batteries of artillery, and he carried with him the trust alike of the army and the nation. WAR OF 1899-1902] TRANSVAAL 205 On the 1 5th of December Buller made his effort and failed. Behind the Tugela at Colenso were Louis Botha's forces Butler's covering the siege of Ladysmith, and, imperfectly Failure. acquainted with the topography, Buller sent a Lord Roberts force to turn Botha's left, in conjunction with a seat out. frontai attack. But the flank attack became entangled in mass in a loop of the river and suffered heavily, and two batteries that formed part of the frontal attack came into action within a few hundred yards of unsuspected Boer trenches, with the result that ten guns were lost, as well as in all some noo men. Buller then gave up the fight. The full nature of the failure was not realized by the British public, nor the spirit in which the general had received the finding of fortune. He lost heart, and actually suggested to White the surrender of Ladysmith, believing this to be inevitable and desiring to cover White's responsibility in that event with his own authority; but White replied that he did not propose to surrender, and the cabinet at home, aware of Buller's despondency, appointed Field Marshal Lord Roberts to the supreme command, with Major- General Lord Kitchener as his chief of staff. A wave of military enthusiasm arose throughout the empire, and as the formation of a seventh division practically drained the mother-country of trained men, a scheme for the employment of amateur soldiers was formulated, resulting in the despatch of Imperial Yeomanry and Volunteer contingents, which proved one of the most striking features of the South African campaign. Pending the arrival of Lord Roberts and reinforcements, the situation in South Africa remained at a deadlock: the three besieged towns — Mafeking, Kimberley and Ladysmith — still held their own, but no headway was made by the relief columns; all they could do was to stand on the defensive. The only bright spot, as far as the British were concerned, was to be found in northern Cape Colony, where General French, with two cavalry brigades and details, by his skilful tactics and wonderful activity kept at arm's length a superior force of the enemy in the vicinity of Colesberg, an achievement the more noteworthy since he had pitted against him both De la Rey and De Wet, two of the three men of military genius produced by the war on the Boer side. On the 6th of January the Boers in Natal made a desperate attempt to storm Ladysmith. The garrison, though already weakened by priva- tion and sickness, made a stubborn resistance, and after one of the fiercest engagements of the war, repulsed the attack at Caesar's Camp and Wagon Hill with severe loss to the enemy, itself having 500 casualties. When Lord Roberts arrived in Cape Town on the loth of January 1900 the three garrisons were still invested, and the relieving forces were still maintaining their role of passive resist- ance, while at the same time restraining the Dutch in Cape Colony. The commander-in-chief's first duty was to create a field army out of the tangle of units in Cape Colony. In the meantime, Sir Redvers Buller, who had been reinforced by Sir Charles Warren and the sth division, essayed a second attempt to cross the Tugela, by turning the Boer left. But much time was consumed and the plan underwent several modifications before its execu- tion began in earnest on the i6th of January. Warren was placed in command of the main body, which crossed the Tugela at Trichardt's Drift on the I7th and i8th. The mounted troops engaged a Boer force north-west of the point of passage, but were brought back to take part in a general right wheel of the forces of the Tugela, pivoting on Trichardt's Drift. But meantime the mobile enemy, whose original flank had been turned, had gathered at the new centre of gravity, and the upshot of several days' fighting was the retreat of the British. They had penetrated the enemy's right centre by the seizure of Spion Kop, but the force there became the target for the concentrated attacks of the Boers, and, after suffering heavily, was withdrawn (Jan. 24, 1900), with a loss of 1700 men. By the ist of February Lord Roberts had matured his plans and begun to prepare for their execution. On the 3rd of February he ordered a demonstration against the right of the Boer position at Spytfontein-Magersfontein to cover the withdrawal Splon Kop. of General French and the cavalry from before Colesberg, and the concentration of his army at Modder River, disregarding another set-back in Natal to Sir Redvers Buller, who had against his advice made a third attempt to relieve Ladysmith on the 5th of February, and failed to make good the purchase which he secured across the Tugela (Vaal Krantz). Lord Roberts's plan was first to concentrate to his left, taking every measure to induce the Boers to believe that the original scheme of invasion by the centre would now be re- sumed, and in this purpose he succeeded so well that his field army with the necessary transport for a cross-country march was assembled between the Orange and the Modder without serious mishap. Cronje at the new centre of gravity was not reinforced, all available Boers drawing down towards Colesberg. The concentration effected, Cronje still believed that the relief of Kimberley was the object of the gathering behind Modder River, and therefore held on to his Magersfontein kopje. The relief of Kimberley was indeed urgent, for dissensions between Rhodes and the military authori- ties had become acute. But to this part of the task only the cavalry division assembled under French was assigned. The army itself was to force Cronje into the open and then advance on Bloemfontein from the west. Roberts began his operations on the nth of February. French started from Ramdam (near Graspan) eastward on that day, intending to make a wide sweep round Cronje's immobile army. Skirmishing with De Wet in the first stages of their ride, the cavalry brigades crossed the Modder at Klip Drift on the i3th. Cronje sent only detach- ments to oppose them, but these detachments were broken through by a sword-in-hand charge of the whole division, and Kimberley was relieved on the isth. The infantry, meeting with great difficulties in its crossing of the Riet at Waterval owing to the country and its own unwieldy transport, followed ij to 2 days later. But Cronje had now realized his danger, and slipped away westward behind French and in paardcje/_ front of the leading infantry at Klip Drift. This was deflected by Kitchener westward to follow up the Boer rearguard, and after some delay the remainder of the infantry, at first fronting northwards, swerved westward likewise, while French from Kimberley, with such of his men as he could mount on serviceable horses, headed off Cronje in the north-west. The result, after one premature and costly assault on Cronje's lines had been made by Kitchener, was the surrender of 4000 Boers at Paardeberg with their leader on the 29th of February, the anniversary of Majuba. At the same moment came in news at last of the relief of Ladysmith. It was part of Roberts's purpose to relieve the pressure in Natal by his own operations. Buller began his fourth advance on the I4th of February, and though this wasnetfe/0/ checked the foothold gained was not abandoned, La,iyslnUb. and a fifth and last attempt (Pieter's Hill) was successful. Ladysmith was relieved on the 28th of February. It had fared worst of all the beleaguered garrisons, and its 22,000 inhabitants were almost at their last gasp when relief came. The casualties from shell-fire had been few, but those from sickness were very heavy. Buller's operations, too, had cost at Colenso noo men, at Spion Kop 1 700, at Vaalkrantz 400, and now in the last long-drawn effort 1600 more — over 5000 in all. But the tide of war had changed. The Natal invaders fell back to the mountains which enclose the north of the colony; Oliver and Schoeman retired from Cape Colony before the small forces of Gatacre and Clements; and the presidents of the republics, realizing that the British Empire was capable of more resistance than they had calculated upon, put forward feelers aiming at the restoration of the status quo before the war. These proposals were rejected by Lord Salisbury: there could be no end now but a complete destruction of the Boer power. The surrender of Cronje and the relief of Ladysmith for the time being paralysed the Boer resistance. Two half-hearted attempts were made on the 7th and loth of March, at Poplar Grove and Driefontein, to stem Lord Roberts's advance upon 206 TRANSVAAL [WAR OF 1899-1902 Bloemfontein, President Kruger himself arriving on the scene to give confidence to his burghers; but the demoralization was so great that neither the military genius of the few Capture of nor jjje personal influence of the president could footeln. bolster up an adequate resistance, and on the i3th of March 1900 Lord Roberts's army marched into the Free State capital. This great move was persevered in and accomplished, in spite of the fact that at the very outset of the cross-country march (February 13) the great body of transport which had been collected at Ramdam had been cut off by De Wet (who had stayed on the Riet after French had shaken him off). It was therefore only made possible at all by reducing the rations of the fighting men to a minimum and by undertaking the risks of changing the line of communi- cation three times. Naturally and necessarily the capture of Bloemfontein was followed by a period of reaction. It w,as not until the 29th of March that the new railway communi- cation recommenced to feed the army. In the meantime rebellion had broken out in the Prieska district of Cape Colony, which was promptly quelled by Lord Kitchener. The halt at Bloemfontein was marked by the publication of proclamations, offering protection to the burghers, which, however, the invaders had not yet the power to fulfil. The enforced halt was unfor- tunate; it not only resulted in a bad outbreak of enteric, but it gave the Boers time to recuperate, and by the beginning of April they again took the initiative. The death of their commandant- general, Piet Joubert, on the 28th of March, seemed to mark a change in the fortunes of the Republican army. Christian De Wet, who had first come into prominence as the captor of Lord Roberts's convoy at Waterval, and was now operating east and south-west of Bloemfontein in order to counteract the influence of Roberts's numerous flying columns which rode hither and thither offering peace, added to his laurels by ambushing Broadwood's mounted brigade and horse artillery at Sannah's Post, just outside Bloemfontein, on the 3ist of March. Four days later he reduced a detachment at Reddersburg, and then went south and invested Colonel Dalgety and a mixed force at Wepener, which was relieved after ten days by General Hunter's Ladysmith division, brought round to Aliwal North from Natal. These successes, if they retarded Roberts's progress, at least enabled him to rearrange his forces in accordance with the new situation at leisure, and to re-establish his trans- port, rail and wheeled, and on the ist of May the main army moved northwards upon the Transvaal capital. The main advance was taken with one cavalry and three infantry divisions (the cavalry commanded by French, and the infantry divisions by Generals Tucker, Pole- Carew and Ian Hamilton). Rundle's division took the right of the advance; Methuen and Hvnter moving from Kimberley, formed the left. Kelly Kenny, Colvile and Chermside held the communications based on Bloemfontein. A flying column de- tached from Hunter, under Mahon, in conjunction with Colonel H. C. O. Plumer's Rhodesian levies from the north, on the I7th of May relieved Mafeking, where Colonel (Lieut. -General Sir) R. S. S. Baden-Powell had throughout shown a bold front and by his unconventional gaiety as well as his military measures had held off the assault until the last. The same day the Natal Field Force under Buller moved up into the Biggarsberg and occupied Dundee. On the loth of May Lord Roberts had crossed the Sand River; on the i2th of May he entered Kroonstad. After a halt of eight days at Kroonstad, the main army again moved forward, and, meeting but small resistance, marched without a halt into Johannesburg, which was occupied on the 3ist of May, the Orange Free State having been formally annexed ^y proclamation three days earlier. On the 3Oth of May President Kruger fled with the state archives, taking up his residence at Waterval Boven on the Komati Poort line. The gold mines were now securely in the possession of the British, and on the sth of June Lord Roberts's army occupied the capital of the Transvaal practically without resistance, setting free about 3000 British prisoners of war detained there. It had been anticipated that the occupation of both the Relief of Mafeklag. capitals would have brought the hostilities to a close, but this was not the case, and though after the 5th of June regular re- sistance was at an end, the army of occupation had still to face two years of almost unprecedented par- tisan warfare. On the Sth of June Sir Redvers Buller, who had made a long halt after the relief of Ladysmith and reorganized his army and its line of communication, forced his way over Alleman's Nek, and on the following day occupied Laing's Nek, the Natal gate to the Transvaal, while the field marshal fought a widespread battle against Botha, De la Rey and Kemp at Diamond Hill, 20 m. east of Pretoria. The object of this action was to push back the Boers from the neighbourhood of Pretoria, but no sooner was this done than the ncrth-western Transvaal became active, in spite of Hunter's and Baden-Powell's advance from Mafeking through this district. As the British line of operations now extended eastward from Pretoria, the advance of these Boers to the Magaliesberg threatened their rearward communications, and as Buller had moved far more slowly than the main army there was not as yet an alternative line through Natal. Most serious of all was the pressure between Bloemfontein and the Vaal, where the Free Staters, under De Wet and other commanders, had initiated the guerrilla as soon as Botha and the Transvaalers retired over the Vaal and ceased to defend them by regular operations. Large forces had been left behind during the advance on Johannesburg for the protection of the railway and the conquered terri- tory, and these were now reinforced from Kimberley and elsewhere as well as from detachments of the main army. These, under Sir Archibald Hunter and Sir Leslie Rundle, successfully herded Prinsloo with 4°°o Free Staters into the Brandwater Basin (July 29) — a very satisfactory result, but one seriously marred by the escape of De Wet, who soon afterwards raided the Western Transvaal and again escaped between converging pursuers under Kitchener, Methuen, Smith- Dorrien, Ian Hamilton and Baden-Powell. Before this Lord Roberts had initiated a movement from Pretoria to sweep down to Komati Poort on the Portuguese frontier, in which Buller, advancing across country from the south, was to co-operate. On the 26th to 27th of August the combined forces engaged and defeated Botha in the action of Belfast or Bergendal, with the result that the enemy dispersed into the bush-veld north of the Middelburg railway. On the 3oth of August the remainder of the British prisoners were released at Nooitgedacht. On the 6th of September Buller, crossing the track of the main army at right angles, occupied Lydenburg in the bush-veld, and five days later the aged presi- dent of the republic took refuge in Lourenco Marques. On the I3th of September Barberton was occupied by French, and on the 2 sth Komati Poort by Roberts's infantry. From October the military operations were confined to attempts to reduce guerrilla commandos which had taken the field. Mr Kruger, deserting his countrymen, left for Europe in a Dutch man-of-war, and General Buller sailed for Europe. The Boer leaders definitely decided upon a guerrilla and a wearing policy, deliberately dispersed their field army, and then swelled and multiplied the innumerable local com- mandos. On the 2 5th of the month the ceremony of annexing the Transvaal was performed at Pretoria. In November the prevailing opinion was that the war was over, and Lord Roberts, who had been appointed commander-in-chief at home, left South Africa, handing over the command to Lord Kitchener. Then followed a long period of groping for a means to cope with the development of guerrilla ipfiv, to bear) given to the leg or pedestal of a small side table, generally in marble, and carved with winged lions or griffins set back to back, each with a single leg, which formed the support of the pedestal on either side. In Pompeii there was a fine example in the house of Cornelius Rufus, which stood behind the impluvium. These side tables were known as mensae vasariae and were used for the display of vases, lamps, &c. Sometimes they were supported on four legs, the example at Pompeii (of which the museums at Naples and Rome contain many varieties) had two supports only, one at each end of the table. The term is also applied to a single leg with lion's head, breast and forepaws, which formed the front support of a throne or chair. TRAPPISTS, Cistercian monks of the reform instituted by Armand J. le B. de Ranee (s running, so that there may be just sufficient resistance to expand the net. The regu- lation of speed, seeing that beam trawls are worked only from sailing vessels, is a matter of difficulty; when, however, there is a sufficiency of wind much can be done by an adjustment of the length of tow rope. Lowering the trawl is also a matter of diffi- culty especially when wind and tide are contrary, as in that case the vessel tends to drift over the net: the apparatus is first got into position by paying out the rope attached to the trawl-heads in such proportions that the beam takes its proper position while close to the surface. These ropes, called " bridles, " are some 15 fathoms long: they meet and are shackled to the trawl warp, a manilla rope of 6 in. circumference, of which 150 fathoms are generally carried. The trawl being in proper position, the warp is allowed to run out and the trawl lowered to the bottom, the vessel slowly moving on meanwhile; usually the length of warp which is below the surface in towing is a few fathoms over three times the depth of water. The art of shooting the trawl lies in causing it to alight on its runners or shoes, with the net freely trailing behind : should the net be twisted, or the trawl alight on its beam, the trawl has been shot " foul, " and must be hauled and shot again. While towing, an experienced fisherman can tell by pressing his hand firmly on the warp outside the ship's bulwark whether the progress of the trawl over the bottom is satisfactory, any irregular progress over rough ground revealing itself in the character of the vibration of the warp. _ The trawl usually remains on the 'bottom for a whole tide, or six hours, and will in this time have passed over some 15 m. of ground. Hauling, a most lengthy and laborious process if carried out by hand-windlass, is in practically all modern fishing smacks carried out by a small steam capstan, the " steam man " as it is frequently called, a most efficient instrument with very compact engine housed under a small iron cover on the capstan's top. When the trawl comes alongside the heavy beam is secured by its two hiads, the net is hauled over the side bit by bit, by hand, until the cod end is reached, when a rope is passed round it above the bulging end which contains the catch, and then over a " tackle "or pulley, and so the cod end is hoisted inboard. The knot of the cod- line is untied, and the fish, mixed with various invertebrate animals, star-fish and rooted forms (confounded in the one term " scruff ") falls to the deck. A small trawl is often used from an open boat for shrimping. It closely resembles a beam trawl, but has no pockets. The usual dimensions of this net are about 15 ft. beam and 20 total length, of which about 4 ft. are taken by the cod € hrlmp end. The mesh is about half an inch square, but 'raw''s' where no restrictions are enforced it decreases to a considerably smaller size as the cod end is approached. The beam when in use is about a foot and a half above the ground. Shank nets are also srmilar to beam trawls in general shape, but differ in that the mouth is kept open by a rectangle of wood. Frequently the lower margin of the trawl's mouth is „. ... not in contact with the ground, being attached to a bar of wood which is fixed parallel to the bottom of the wooden rectangle and a few inches above it. A fish or prawn is thus disturbed by the bottom bar of the wood, and either jumps over it and below the net and so escapes, or over both bottom bar and middle bar into the net. The theory of the net's action is that the fish tends most frequently to take the former course, the crustacean the latter; and there is some evidence that this is partially realized in practice. Shank nets are sometimes worked from carts, when they are known as " Trollopers." Owing to their fine netting and the very shallow water in which they work, shrimp trawls are exceedingly destructive to very small fish. Johnstone 1 has found for instance that in a two mile haul of a shrimp trawl on the Lancashire coast 567 small plaice are caught on an average, beside great numbers of whiting, dabs, soles and other fish. In most parts of the English coast regulations are in force as to the mesh, size of beam and length of haul cf shrimp nets, and shrimpers working on the beach are ordered to sort their catch at the water's edge, returning as many young fish alive as possible. The proportion saved by these means is not known with accuracy ; it is much greater in the case of short hauls than in longer ones. A shrimp trawl is usually kept down from half an hour to an hour, or when not subject to regulation rather longer. It is seldom towed for a longer period than 2 hours, the speed being somewhat under two miles per hour on an average, though subject to variation. The beam trawl has been described at some length because its structure is somewhat more simple than that of the trawl now in more general use; the importance of the net Decayof as an engine of capture has undoubtedly declined Beam greatly within the past generation. Some interest- Trawling ing figures collected by the British Board of Agriculture and Fisheries prove this incontestably. In 1893 the number of first-class British sailing from trawlers was 2037, and their average net tonnage steamers- 57-4; in 1900 they numbered 925, with a net tonnage of 41-1, and from that year up to 1906 (the last year quoted in these returns) they never again reached a thousand in number or a tonnage of 40 tons net; on the other hand, there were in no one of the years quoted as few as 800 first-class sailing trawlers registered, nor did the average tonnage sink below 37, about which figure it remained constant. It is obvious therefore that about 1894 beam trawling began to decline, and that after a time this decline lost most of its power, the number of boats and size of boats having sunk to a condition in which they fulfilled a certain function, which for some years has remained fixed. The new factors which brought about this change went hand in hand. They were the invention of the otter trawl and the increasing use of steam in fishing vessels. The otter trawl has no rigid and heavy beam, but relies on the force with which it is towed through the water to keep it open, and it is a far more efficient instrument for the capture of all but small flat fish than the beam trawl. Owing to the second of these facts its employment inevitably spread, and owing to the first a sailing vessel needing at least a moderate breeze to give it the requisite speed for keeping a large net open was unsuitable for working it. Thus the introduction of the otter trawl un- doubtedly hastened the replacement of sails by steam as motive power for the great fishing fleets. That the adoption of steam would have occurred in any case is almost certain. The con- version of drift-net fishing vessels from sail to steam has gone on rapidly, though no radical change of gear has taken place, and presumably the same would have occurred in the case of trawlers had the otter trawl never have introduced. There 1 Johnstone, British Fisheries, p. 283 (London, 1905). TRAWLING, SEINING AND NETTING 219 were, for instance, nearly 200 steam fishing vessels of various descriptions working from English and Welsh ports in 1883; and the desire to exploit new and more distant grounds had un- doubtedly become powerful by 1894, and accounted to some extent for the increase of steam trawling about that time. Never- theless this increase is so sudden, that its occurrence at the time of the adoption of the otter trawl can scarcely be a coinci- dence. In 1893 there were 480 steam trawlers working from English and Welsh ports: in 1899 there were over a thousand. The subsequent history of British trawling is dominated by the steamers. Garstang has calculated from a study of market statistics that a steamer (between the years 1889 and 1898) caught on the average between four and seven times as much in a year as a sailing smack. Against this competition the smacks could not succeed; if it was profitable for the steamers to fish they could gradually eliminate the smacks, as has occurred at Grimsby. The line fishery also decreased owing to the increas- ing transfer of the haddock and some other fisheries to the trawlers. The change from masts and sails to steam has, how- ever, never been complete. The increased cost of building and running steamers made the handling o'f large catches a necessary condition of their profitable employment. A sailing trawler costs from £500 to £1200 to build: £1000 would probably be a fair average. A first-class steam trawler of the present day costs £10,000 or more, quite ten times as much, and about £5000 a year to run; and although the cost was less in the early years of steam trawling there was always an approach to these, pro- portions. On the other hand their rapidity and independence of wind made distance between fishing ground and port of landing a matter of minor consequence. These causes, combined with a very general belief in the exhaustion of the home-grounds — there seems no doubt that at all events the catch per vessel declined — led to the growth in size and power of the steamers, which were used for distant waters and the exploitation of new grounds. Thus in 1906 there were only 200 more steam trawlers than in 1899, but the average tonnage in the same period increased from 54. to nearly 62. To this increase in power and range of action of the steamers must be attributed the great increase in the quantity of trawled fish landed, since the engine of capture, the trawl, has changed but little since 1894: but another result occurred, namely a partial division of the area trawled between sail and steam. The grounds within easy reach of the English ports were left chiefly in the hands of the " smacks," the catches never being really very great, though possessing a high proportion of " prime " (i.e. valuable species of) fish. The persistence of Lowestoft and Ramsgate as smack ports speak for this. The longer voyages of the smacks, on the other hand, were gradually discontinued, and the distant grounds besides a multitude of new grounds were opened up by the steamers. Grimsby, Hull, Aberdeen, Milford, increased enor- mously in importance, and now send vessels to the north of Russia, to the coast of Africa and far into the Atlantic. Steam trawling died at Yarmouth, the place of its birth; sailing trawlers disappeared from Grimsby, one of their greatest strongholds, but a port near cheap coal, deep water, and a market for fish from more distant grounds. FIG. i. — Diagrammatic; showing an Otter trawl in use. (For the sake of clearness, the size of the otter-boards is exaggerated, and the length of the warps and size of the ship diminished.) The essential features of the otter trawl are that the mouth is kept open by two large wooden boards, whose position when in use corresponds to that of the trawl heads in a beam trawl no beam being used. The action of these boards Z."e Otter resembles that of a kite. A kite dragged through T"J * still air, owing to the position ol the point of attach- .** ment of the string, takes up an oblique position, in which it is acted on by forces in two directions, viz. that exerted through the string, pulling forward, and that exerted by the resistance of the air in front of the kite, which, being perpendicular to the kite's surface, acts in an upward and backward direction. The resultant ol these two forces necessarily acts in a direction between them, and the kite accordingly ascends. Constrain the kite to move in a horizontal plane, and the same forces would cause it to move not upwards, but to the side. A trawl board is practically a kite made to move on its side. The trawl boards resemble massive wooden doors strengthened by iron bands. In action they move with their short edges vertical and their long edges horizontal, one in each case in contact with the sea bottom : the front bottom corner of each board is rounded off, so that the board resembles a sleigh runner. Four strong chains, which meet in one iron ring, are attached to each board by ring- bolts, and to each ring a wire warp, by which the trawl is towed, is shackled. The ringbolts are about the same distance from the centre of the board, but the two chains attached to the after-ring- bolts of the board ate longer than the two fore-chains. The trawl board when towed thus takes up an oblique position as regards the line in which it is towed, though remaining vertical to the ground. The force with which it is towed urges it forward , the resistance of the water urges it in a direction perpendicular to its surface, viz. backwards and to the side; it accordingly moves in an intermediate direction, going forward by tending to diverge from the line of towing. Meanwhile the other trawl-board is diverging in a similar manner but in the opposite direction, and the mouth of the net, being attached to the hinder end of the boards, is thus pulled both right and left until stretched to its utmost, and the net is thus held open. The margin of the net which forms its upper lip is lashed to a rope called the headline : and the resistance of the water to the net's progress causes this to assume an arched form, the centre of the headline being probably some 10 or 15 ft. from the ground. It has been calculated by Fulton, who experimented on the subject, that the distance between the boards of an otter trawl of oo ft. headline is about 60 ft., owing to this arching upwards and backwards of the upper margin of the net. The loss in the spread of the net is, however, compensated for very largely, as far as certain round fish are concerned, by the increase in height of the mouth, the fish which are swimming near but not actually on the bottom tending to "strike upward when disturbed. Indeed, the raising of the headline is accentuated occasionally by glass spheres or other buoyant objects to its centre; corks are still used in this way, but otherwise the practice has not been generally adopted in commercial trawling. The earliest use of the otter board appears to have been due to Hearder, an electrician and inventor who designed it about 1860. It was little used except by amateurs working by steam yachts (to whom doubtless the ease with which it could be stowed away recommended it), until the late 'eighties, when Danish fishermen used otter boards to spread their plaice seines. In 1894 a patent was taken out by Scott of Granton for an otter trawl which differed from the most modern forms chiefly in possessing rigid bars or brackets instead of chains. Chains replaced the bars in the form used by Nielsen, a Dane, in 1895. Although numerous variants have since arisen, no essential difference in the trawl has been generally adopted. The trawl boards, or as they are frequently called " doors, are of deal, 8 to 9 ft. long, and 4 to 5 ft. high; they are liberally shod and strengthened with iron, and are about 3 in. thick. „ _ . The net is fastened to eyes placed at the top and bottom Sfruct^l" of the after-end of the board but not to any intermediate fhe Boards point. This is to allow the part of the water swirling past the board to escape: the entry of the whole of the water upon which the net's mouth advances would cause too great a resistance. Two warps are used, one to each trawl board. These are com- posed of wire rope 2\ in. round, and when the trawl is inboard lie roiled up .on the separate drums of a steam winch. _. Waros As wire can be run off or wound in on either drum separately, the adjustment of the lengths is much simplified. In the larger trawlers a thousand fathoms of warp is carried on each drum, and the warp is designed to stand a breaking strain of 23 tons. The main form of net is that of the beam trawl. We have, as in that net, a coarse meshed netting used near the mouth, a decrease in size of mesh as the net narrows, and a bag fheNet or cod end whose end is fastened by a cod line passed through its final meshes. The only essential difference lies in the net behind the headline. This has not, as in the beam trawl, a straight margin, but a curved one, the pointed sides of the net being termed the "top wings" of the trawl, the corresponding parts of the bottom being in both trawls the bottom wings. The ground 220 TRAWLING, SEINING AND NETTING rope resembles that in the beam-trawl, but is in some cases furnished with chains or " dangles " or with " bobbins." Bobbins are heavy cylindrical wooden rollers, threaded on the wire warp which forms the core of the ground rope : they are of two sizes (the larger a foot through) placed alternately to ensure freedom of rotation. Their object is to surmount or crush obstacles which, by catching the ground rope, might capsize the trawl boards and destroy the success of the haul; they are accordingly used only on rough ground. The chains are fastened to the ground rope in loops, to give it weight, and are used on very soft ground to ensure the trawl's effectually dislodging the fish. The headline is a rope some 3 in. in circumference. The meshes are, from knot to knot when drawn taut, from 53 to nearly 6 in. in the square and wings, 5 to 4^ in. above, and 5 to rather over 3 in. below in the extreme back of the under batings called the " belly," about 2^ in. in the cod end. The successful shooting of the net is a matter of great skill. The paying out of the net, the lowering of the boards, the running out „, . . of unequal lengths of the two warps to square the ti°N tf trawl into proper position and ihe subsequent lowering of the whole to the bottom, resemble the corresponding operations with the beam trawl. The fore warp is then drawn close to the quarter of the vessel and shackled to the after-warp close to the vessel's side, and the vessel proceeds on her course at a speed of some 2j or 2j m. per hour. The length of haul made varies enormously. On a ground where fish is very abundant, as in the early days of Iceland fishing, it may be half an hour or less : on the Eastern Grounds, off Denmark, where the great English fleets usually work, it is about 3 hours. When about to haul, the fore warp is released from the shackle and the vessel is immediately steered towards the side from which the trawl has been towed, while the warps are rapidly wound in; the warps thus speedily come to stand at right angles to the vessel. If this were not the case they might probably foul the vessel's propeller, with very serious and possibly fatal consequences to her safety. The trawl boards, having been drawn right up to their powerful iron supports or gallows, remain suspended there if the trawl is to be re-shot while the net is emptied; they are otherwise lowered between the gallows and the bulwark, and secured. The hauling in of the catch occurs as in the beam-trawl. Trawlers carry a trawl en each side of the deck, and in continuous trawling these are worked alternately. On each side of the deck a square enclosure called a pound is made for the reception of the fish falling from the cod end, by fitting planks turned on their sides into stanchions grooved for their reception. The fish is sorted into baskets in the pound, cleaned and packed in trunks in ice in the hold or fish-room. A noteworthy method of trawling is the custom of 50 or 60 boats fishing together in a fleet. All these vessels will trawl as _. . directed by an " admiral," in proximity to a " mark- boat," whose position is known to the owners from *' day to day, and the fish is daily fetched to market by fast " carriers." There are four such fleets of British vessels work- ing in the North Sea. It is also worthy of mention that wireless telegraphy has recently been fitted to several German trawlers and drifters, which can thus communicate with the fishery protection cruisers, who pass on information concerning the fishery, and with the shore. The practice will doubtless spread, although as yet the distance over which a message can be sent by these vessels is very small. The use of steam has not only increased the radius of action of the vessel, but by facilitating the process of hauling enables trawling n .. to be carried out in greater depths. The sailing kd vessels rarely work in greater depths than 30 fathoms. The steam vessels work frequently (e.g. south of Ireland) In over 200 fathoms. Commercial trawling in 500 fathoms is not unknown, and the Irish research vessel " Helga " works in as much as 800 fathoms. The movable nets resembling trawls are seines, from which trawls were in all probability developed. The seine is an extremely ancient net, used by Phoenicians, Greeks and other Mediterranean peoples, the word seine being derived from the Greek name (trayriVTi) for the appli- ance. In essence it is a long strip of netting with a buoyed headline and weighted ground rope. It is taken out in a boat some little distance from the shore, paid out during the boat's progress, and the lines attached to the ends being then brought back to the shore, the net is hauled up on the beach. From this simple form, which is still in use for the capture of smelts and other small fish, numerous develop- ments have occurred. Before mentioning the details of a few of the chief of these it may be said that the changes mainly con- sist in the formation of a purse or pocket in the middle of the net, somewhat resembling the cod end of a trawl, and in the working of the net from boats or ships instead of from the sea. Seines. The boat is anchored during the hauling, the net being drawn to it. A net with a wide spread, furnished with a purse, drawn over the sea bottom to a boat, is obviously very near a trawl in its action. When in the late 'eighties Danish fishermen fastened otter boards to their plaice-seines, and allowed the boat to drift, the seine was dragged by, not to the boat, and when Petersen used a similar arrangement, presently to be described, dragged like a trawl, the evolution of a trawl from a seine was practically complete. Some such process, with the use of a beam instead of otter boards, probably occurred in the past and resulted in the beam trawl. Pilchard seines, as the most elaborate forms of simple seines, may be briefly described. The pilchards approach certain parts of the Cornish coast, notably St Ives and Penzance, in pnchard shoals which are eagerly awaited; and when they are seines sufficiently near two boats start out on the fishery. One carries a short seine, the stop net, which has previously been joined to the large seine, and shoots this net as it rows towards shore. The other rows along the shore, shooting its net as it goes. Ultimately the boats turn to meet each other, and when they do so the ends of the long seine are joined, the stop net removed, and the circle of netting towed to the beach until its ground rope touches the bottom. The p-lchards are then removed at leisure by a smaller seine called a tuck-net — seine being a word which in the west of England is confined to nets worked from the beach. This net is very deep in the middle, and as the foot rope is drawn well in in hauling, a floor is formed for it as it approaches the boat from which it is worked, a simple form of purse or bag resulting. The pilchards are dipped out in large baskets. In a good catch this process of "tucking" out the fish may be carried on for some days. The long seine used may be 200 fathoms long, and is about 6 fathoms deep at the ends and 8 fathoms in the middle. The tuck-net is about 80 fathoms long, 8 deep at the ends and 10 fathoms in the middle. The meshes are larger at the ends or wings than in the middle, as in the trawl, bringing a tuck-net from 30 down to 42 the yard. The seine is far more used in the United States than in the British Islands, its operations being so successful that complaints have in some cases been made that local fisheries for certain purse species have been entirely destroyed owing to the Seines diminution of the fish which it has brought about. It is used in water of any depth, for the purpose of catching mackerel. Rings are fastened to the ground rope, and by means of a rope passed through these rings the lower margin of the net is drawn together, converting the circle of netting into a complete basin- shaped purse. The slack of the net is then gradually drawn in, the fish collecting in the last of the net (the fullness or " bunt ") to be reached. Purse seines are also used in Japan, where there is also in use a net which is a combination of seine and pound-net. A long wall of netting forms a " leader " to the fish, and ends in an oval enclosure formed by a purse seine with incompletely closed ends. Two anchored boats, to which the seine is lashed, keep it extended. On hauling, the opening is closed and the slack of the net hauled into one boat, which approaches the other, until the final portion containing the fish is brought to the surface. The pockets of seines, though answering the same purpose as those of trawls in preventing the escape of the fish, „ resemble not the pockets but the cod end of the latter net. In the filets de bceuf of the Mediterranean the pocket is a very long bag, trailing behind the arms of the seine, and constricted for some distance before joining it. It is without " flapper " or other valve. (After Drcchscl.) FIG. 2. — Diagram of a Danish Plaice-seine at work. Most efficient pocketed seines are used in Denmark for the capture of eels and plaice. In both these nets the depth increases rapidly as soon as the extreme wings are left, and is very great in the TRAWLING, SEINING AND NETTING 221 Danish Seines. Eel Drag- setae. • middle. Thus when in action but little of the net is vertical; the ground and head ropes, though not parallel, tend to become so, and the net trails in a curve behind them. Seen from above, the whole front margin of the net is semicircular, but the net itself is shaped like the hinder part of a trawl : in fact, did the headline of a trawl lie not in front but exactly over the ground rope, the two nets would be almost identical. The eel drag-seine is worked from a boat, in shallow water. The extreme ends or wings are attached to two short spars, which in use are upright, and each of these is furnished with a line top and bottom which meet and are attached to the ropes by which the net is hauled in. The total length of the net is about 140 ft. from wing to wing, the length of the bag 30 ft., the depth at mouth is 20 ft. opening, the depth at the ends 6 or 8 ft. The eel drift-net resembles the preceding, but is not drawn to an anchored boat, but drifts with the boat; it has accordingly Bel Drift- to ^e ma^e much smaller, its arms being each about net 24 ft. — or a total length of 50. The wings were some- times kept apart by the use of a floating spar, to the ends of which the seine was attached by short ropes, the spar itself being towed. A funnel-shaped valve leads into the bag. Petersen's trawl was designed by Dr Petersen for use in deep water, and for the capture of rapidly moving animals. It is es- f sentially a drift-seine of the preceding pattern, worked s w;tn two smau otter boards instead of a beam, and furnished with but a single warp, to which the otter boards are attached by shorter ropes or bridles. When used in very deep water these are prevented from twisting by attaching at the point of their junction with the warp a glass float and a leaden weight. This net is undoubtedly highly suitable for great depths. It is probably the " trawl " which it has been reported has been repeatedly used in the great depth of 2900 fathoms from the Norwegian research vessel " Michael Sars," in the course of the cruise in the Atlantic carried out in 1910 by Sir John Murray and Dr Hjort. It is practically a small otter trawl with the square cut out, leaving only wings, back part of batings and cod end, which last is envered by a funnel of netting. The meshes, in the net first constructed by Dr Petersen, were about a centimetre square in the wings and 8 millimetres square in the bag. The arms were each 24 ft. long, the bag about 16 ft. The boards were 29 in. by 32 in., and J in. thick. Gjass floats are frequently used with this trawl, to keep up the headline. The Danish plaice-seine resembles the eel-seine in form, but is much larger, each arm being about 180 ft. long; the bag is 20 ft. Danish 'ong- ^he ^rag 'ines are a'so mucn longer, sometimes Plaice-seine reacnmg to I2oo fathoms. These nets are worked from a very large number of boats, Esbierg being the chief North Sea port engaged in the fishery. The vessels are yawl rigged, of the size of all but the krgest smacks, and each is now furnished with a motor-boat. The boat takes the net to a considerable distance from the parent vessel, which is anchored, and shoots it in a wide curve. The drag lines are then brought back to the smack for hauling. By this method plaice are captured alive, and are kept in large floating fish-boxes until required. Next in importance to trawling among the English fisheries is the use of drift-nets for mackerel, herrings and pilchards. It is undoubtedly the most common method of net- fishing on the coasts of the British islands, but no- where is it so general as in Scotland. There are, however, great drift fisheries on the eastern and southern coasts of England, and an important mackerel fishery mainly at the western end of the channel, though owing to a high import duty on mackerel levied by France this is now of far less importance. The value of the mode of fishing technically known as " drifting or driving " will be understood when it is remembered that it is the only method by which such fishes as herrings, mackerel and pil- chards, which generally swim at or near the surface, can be readily caught in the open sea, at any distance from land, and in any depth of water, so long as there is sufficient for the floating of the nets in the proper position. The term "drift-net" is de- rived from the manner in which the nets are worked. They are neither fixed nor towed within any precise limits of water, but are cast out or " shot " at any distance from the land where there are signs of fish, and are allowed to drift in whichever direction the tide may happen to take them, until it is thought desirable to haul them in. The essential principle of the working of the drift-net is that it forms a long wall or barrier of netting hanging for a few fathoms perpendicularly in the water, but extending for a great length horizontally, and that the fish, meeting these nets and trying to pass them, become meshed; they force their heads and gill-covers through the meshes, but Drift Nets, can go no farther; and as the gill-covers catch in the sides of the mesh, the fish are unable to withdraw and escape. Whether it be mackerel, herring or pilchard, the manner in which the net works is the same; the variations which exist relate only to the differences in habits and size of the fish sought after. The nets used are light cotton nets, each about 30 yards long and 10 or 12 deep, and when designed for herring have a mesh of about an inch square, pilchard nets being smaller and mackerel nets larger in mesh. These nets are laced end to end in a long row, the whole row, called a "fleet" or "train" of nets being, in the case of the large herring boats, as much as 3$ miles long. One of the long edges of the net is fastened to a rope corked at regular intervals, whose purpose is to keep that part uppermost. This edge is called the " back " of the net. The corks are, however, not sufficient to keep the whole net from sinking, and this is done by buoys called " bowls, " which are attached to the back rope at intervals. It is always a matter of uncertainty at what depth the fish may be found, and a deal of judgment is needed in deciding what length of rope should be used in attaching the buoys. In the herring fishery of the English east coast the British boats usually work in somewhat shallower water than the foreign drifters, and set their nets at about 4 fathoms from the surface, the foreigners, lying outside them, using deeper-set nets. It is found convenient to colour certain of the bowls distinctively to indicate their position in the " fleet. " Otherwise they are coloured to show ownership. Drift-net fishing is with rare exceptions only carried on at night. The time for beginning is just before sunset, and the nets are then got into the water by the time it is dark. A likely place to fish is known (though there is much uncertainty in the matter) by signs recognizable only to the practised eye. An obvious one is the presence of many sea-birds, or of the fish themselves. But besides these the appearance and even the smell of the water furnishes a guide. In the case of the mackerel these signs have been shown by G. E. Bullen (Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. viii. 269) to be due to the character of the microscopic organisms in the water, some of which furnish the food of the mackerel, others of which it avoids. If fish is believed to be present the vessel is sailed slowly before the wind and if possible across the tide; then the net is shot or thrown out over the vessel's quarter, the men being distributed at regular stations, some hauling up the net from below, others throwing it over and taking care that it falls so that the foot is clear of the corked back; others, again, looking after the warp which has to be paid put at the same time, and seeing that the seizings are made fast to it in their proper places. When it is all overboard, and about 15 or 20 fathoms of extra warp, called the " swing-rope, " given out, the vessel is brought round head to wind by the warp being carried to the bow; the sails are then taken in, the mast lowered, a small mizen set to keep the vessel with her head to the wind, and the regu- lation lights are hoisted to show that she is fishing. A few of the hands remain on deck to keep a look out, and the vessel and nets are left to drift wherever the wind and tide may take them. It is very rarely that there is an absolute calm at sea ; and if there is the faintest breath of air stirring the fishing boat will of course feel it more than the buoys supporting the nets ; she will consequently drift faster, and being at the end of the train, extend the whole fleet of nets. In rough weather, as the strain may be greater, more rope is used. The first net in the train is often hauled after an hour to enable the men to judge whether the position is a good one. When the whole are hauled, the nets are taken in and the fish shaken out in the same orderly way as in shooting, each man having his own proper duty. The sailing drifter is fast disappearing, giving place to the steam drifter. These vessels, though costing far more (£2500 to £3000 against £400 only) catch more fish, have a greater radius of action, reach market more quickly and are independent of weather. It has been calculated that a thousand square feet of herring netting used by a steamer catch 43$ cwt. of herring, while a sailing vessel catches 20 cwt. with the same area of netting; and the steamer-caught fish, being more quickly delivered, fetches a better price. It may be noted that of recent years herring have been caught at the bottom in considerable quantities by the trawl. The fishing of herring is thus increasing in variety of method, as well as in intensity. Such sailing boats as tend to remain are long shore boats, and such drifters as have been fitted with petrol motors. Stationary nets, being of very small importance relatively to the preceding, must be dismissed more shortly. They are of four main kinds, viz.: stake nets, pound and kettle nets, stow and bag nets, trammel- nets and hose nets. Stake nets are usually set between tide-marks, or in shallow water, and, as their name implies, are kept up by stakes placed at intervals. They are generally set across the direction of the tide. They act as gill nets, and are chiefly used Stake Nets. n America. In some cases a conical bag instead of a flat net occupies the space between every two stakes, forming a series of simple bag nets. This form is used on the German shores of the North Sea. 222 TRAY— TRAZ-OS-MONTES In another modification the net is supported on the stakes, which is some 200 ft. long, does not act as a gill net but as a " leader, " _ . . and one of its ends passes through a narrow opening i' ? v< 'nto a circular enclosure surrounded by a similar e"'wall of staked netting. The bag net and fly net for the capture of the salmon are merely elaborated forms of this type. The pound is roofed by netting, in the fly net, and in the bag net, which is floated — not staked — floored also. It is wedge-shaped, narrowing gradually from the entrance end, and divided incompletely by oblique internal walls or valves of netting into side compartments. The bag net just described is practically a floating stake net. A simpler form is used in the Elbe, consisting of a pyramidal net Stow Nets whose mouth is held open by its sides being attached to spars, weighted at one end and buoyed at the other. This is the simplest form of stow net. The stow net is used in the Thames and Wash ; it is specially designed for the capture of sprats, although many young herrings are sometimes caught, and it is worked most extensively at the entrance of the Thames. The stow net is a gigantic funnel-shaped bag having nearly a square mouth, 30 ft. from the upper to the lower side, and 21 ft. wide. It tapers for a length of about 90 ft. to a diameter of 5 or 6 ft., and further diminishes to about half that size for another 90 ft. to the end of the net. The whole net is therefore about iSoft. or 60 yards long. The upper and lower sides of the square mouth are kept extended by two horizontal wooden spars called " balks," and the lower one is weighted so as to open the mouth of the net in a perpen- dicular direction when it is at work. The size of the meshes varies from if in. near the mouth to i in. towards the end, where, however, it is again slightly enlarged to allow for the greater pressure of the water at that part. The mode of working the net is very simple. Oyster smacks are commonly used in this fishery, although shrimping boats are also employed in it in the Thames. The smack takes up a position at the first of the tide where there are signs of fish, or in such parts of the estuary as are frequented by the sprats during that part of the season; she then anchors, and at the same moment the net is put overboard and so handled that it at once takes its proper position, which is under the vessel. It is kept there by a very simple arrangement. Four ropes leading, one from each end of the two balks, and therefore from the four corners of the mouth of the net, are united at some little distance in front, forming a double bridle, and a single mooring rope leads from this point of union to the vessel's anchor; so that the same anchor holds both the vessel and the net. The net is kept at any desired distance from the bottom by means of two ropes, one from each end of the upper balk to the corresponding side of the smack, where it is made fast. The open mouth of the net is thus kept suspended below the vessel, and the long mass of netting streams away astern with the tide. The strain of this immense bag-net by the force of the tide is often very great, but if the vessel drags her anchor, the net being made fast to the same mooring, both keep their relative positions. Here they remain for several hours till the tide slackens, the vessel's sails being all taken in and only one hand being left on deck to keep watch. The way in which the fish are caught hardly requires explanation. The sprats, swimming in immense shoals, are carried by the tide into the open mouth of the net and then on to the small end, where they are collected in enormous numbers; from this there is no escape, as the crowd is constantly increasing, and they cannot stem the strong tide setting into the net. The first thing to be done in taking in the net is to close the mouth, and this is effected by means of a chain leading from the bow of the vessel through an iron loop in the middle of the upper balk down to the centre of the lower one, and by heaving in this chain the two balks are brought together and ultimately hoisted out of the water under the vessel's bowsprit. The net is then brought alongside and overhauled till the end is reached, and this is hoisted on board. The rope by which it is closed having been cast off, the sprats are then measured into the hold of the vessel by about three bushels at a time, until the net has been emptied. The quantity of sprats taken in this manner by many scores of fishing craft during the season, which lasts from November to February, is in some years simply enormous; the markets at Billingsgate and elsewhere are inundated with them, and at last in many years they can only be disposed of at a nominal price for manure; and in this way many hundreds of tons are got rid of. The stow boats do not generally take their fish on shore, but market boats come off to them and buy the fish out of the vessel's hold, and carry it away. The mode of working is the same in the Solent and the Wash as that we have described in the Thames and large quantities of sprats are landed by the Southampton boats. " Whitebait," or young sprats, mixed with some young herring and other small fish, are caught in the Thames by a net which is practically nothing else but a very small stow net, and it is worked in essentially the same manner. An interesting form of stow net is used in the Channels of the Frisian Island, chiefly during the rush of the ebb-tide, for the capture of rays (principally Raja clavata, the Thornback) which are highly valued by the Dutch. It consists of a net shaped like an otter trawl, furnished with otter boards, which are attached to ropes passed to the ends of long booms which project from the sides of the vessel using the net, and also to the two anchors by which the former is anchored. The remaining stationary nets to be mentioned partake of the nature of traps. The trammel net consists of three nets joined together at the top, bottom and sides. The whole T system of nets hangs vertical, the head line being Jatm buoyed and the ground line weighted. The two outer "'**• nets are much smaller than the inner net, but of wide-meshed netting, whereas the inner net is of very small mesh. Consequently, a fish meeting an outer net passes through it, strikes the fine-meshed net and forces it before it through one of the meshes of the farther wide-meshed net; it is thus in a small pocket from which it cannot escape. The hose net is a long cylindrical net from which trap-like pockets open. The main cavity is kept open by rigid rings. The hose nets are set between tide marks, at low water, so that the tide runs through them; and they are emptied at Hose Net. next low tide. While unimportant compared with the huge quantity of fish landed from sea-going vessels, the catch of the ip-shore nets described is of importance in respect of the kinds of fish taken, whitebait and pilchards, for instance, being not otherwise obtained, while salmon, though taken in rivers as well as in estuaries and along the coast, is very rarely captured at sea. AUTHORITIES. — Brabazon, The Deep-Sea and Coast Fisheries of Ireland (1848); Holdsworth, Deep-Sea Fishing and Fishing Boats (London, 1874); Z. L. Tanner, Bulletin United States Fishery Commission (1896), vol. xvi.; Garstang, ibid., vol. vi.; Kyle, Journal of the Marine^ Biological Association of the United Kingdom, new series, vol. vi. (London); Cunningham, ibid., vol. iv. ; Petersen, Report of the Danish Biological Association, vol. viii. (Copenhagen, 1899) ; Hjort, Report on Norwegian Fisliery and Marine Investigation, vol. i. (Christiania, 1900); Mittheilungen- Deutscher Seefischer- Verein, various numbers; Fulton, Reports of the Scottish Fishery Board, igth Report (1900); and in other numbers; Report and Minutes of Evidence of the Committee, " appointed to inquire into the scientific and statistical investigations now being carried on in rela- tion to the fishing industry of the United Kingdom." (London 1908). (J. O. B.) TRAY, a flat receptacle with a raised edge used for a variety of purposes, chiefly domestic. The tray takes many forms — oblong, circular, oval, square — and is made in a vast number of materials, from papier mache to the precious metals. Duke Charles of Lorraine had a pen-tray of rock crystal standing on golden feet; Marie -Antoinette possessed a wonderful oval tray, silver gilt and enamelled, set with 144 cameos engraved with the heads of sovereigns and princes of the house of Austria, and their heraldic devices. The tea-tray is the most familiar form; next to it comes the small round tray, usually of silver or electro- plate, chiefly used for handing letters or a glass of wine. When thus employed it is usually called a " waiter." The English tea-trays of the latter part of the i8th century were usually oval in shape and sometimes had handles; mahogany and rosewood were the favourite materials. Sheraton and Shearer, among other cabinet-makers of the great English period, are credited with trays of this type. These were succeeded in the early and mid-Victorian period by trays of japanned iron, which possessed no charm but had the virtue of durability. Sheffield plate snuffer-trays of satisfying simplicity were made in large numbers, and are now much sought after. TRAZ-OS-MONTES (i.e. across the Mountains), an ancient frontier province in the extreme N.E. of Portugal, bounded on the N. and E. by Spain, S. by the river Douro which separates it from Beira, and W. by the Gerez, Cabreira and Marao Moun- tains, which separate it from Entre-Minho-e-Douto. Pop. (1900), 427,358; area, 4,163 sq. m. For administrative purposes Traz-os-Montes was divided in 1833 into the districts of Braganza (q.v.) and Villa Real (q.v.). The surface is generally moun- tainous, although there are tracts of level land in the veigas or cultivated plains of Chaves and Miranda do Douro, and in the cimas or plateau region of Mogadouro. The highest peak is Marao (4642 ft.). The province belongs to the basin of the Douro and is chiefly drained by its tributaries the Tua, Tamega and Sabor. Its inhabitants belong to the old Portuguese stock, and resemble the Spaniards of Galicia in physical type, dialect and character. The Paiz do Vinho (see OPORTO) is the chief wine-growing district in Portugal; other products are silk, maize, wheat, rye, hemp, olive oil and honey. There are important mineral springs and baths at Vidago and Pedras TREACLE— TREASON 223 Salgadas. The principal towns are Braganza, Chaves and Villa Real. TREACLE, the thick viscid syrup obtained in the early processes of refining sugar, the uncrystallizable fluid obtained in the process of procuring refined crystallized sugar being known as " golden syrup " and the drainings from the crude sugar as " molasses " (see SUGAR: Manufacture). The word was pro- perly and first used for a medical compound of varying ingre- dients which was supposed to be a sovereign remedy against snake bites or poison generally. A well-known specific was Venice treacle, Theriaca Andromachi, a compound of a large number of drugs reduced to an electuary,1 a medicinal com- pound prepared with honey, which dissolves in the mouth. The old French triacle, of which " treacle," earlier " triacle," is an adaptation, is a corruption of theriague, Latin theriaca, Greek dr/piaKo. (sc. (t>apfj,a.Ka) , literally drugs used as an antidote against the bite of poisonous or wild animals (dripiov, dim, of drjp, wild beast). The word " triacle " came to be used ot any remedy or antidote. The composition of electuaries with honey or syrup naturally transferred the name to the most familiar syrup, that obtained from the drainings of sugar. TREAD-MILL, a penal appliance introduced by Sir William Cubitt in 1818 and intended by him as a means of employing criminals usefully. It was a large hollow cylinder of wood on an iron frame, round the circumference of which were a series of steps about 7? in. apart. The criminal, steadying himself by hand-rails on either side, trod on these, his weight causing the mill to revolve and compelling him to take each step in turn. In the brutalizing system formerly in vogue the necessary resistance was obtained by weights, thus condemning the offender to useless toil and defeating the inventor's object. The tread-mill, however, was subsequently utilized for grinding corn, pumping water and other prison purposes. The speed of the wheel was regulated by a brake. Usually it revolved at the rate of 32 ft. per minute. The prisoner worked for 6 hours each day, 3 hours at a time. He was on the wheel for 15 minutes and then rested for 5 minutes. Thus in the course of his day's labour he climbed 8640 ft. Isolation of prisoners at their work was obtained by screens of wood on each side of the mill, con- verting the working space into a separate compartment. Each prisoner was medically examined before going to the mill. By the Prison Act 1865 every male prisoner over 16, sentenced to hard labour, had to spend three months at least of his sentence in labour of the first class. This consisted primarily of the tread-mill, or, as an alternative, the crank. The latter consisted of a small wheel, like the paddle-wheel of a steamer, and a handle turned by the prisoner made it revolve in a box partly filled with gravel. The amount of gravel regulated the hard labour; or the necessary resistance was obtained by a brake, by which a pressure, usually of 12 Ib, was applied. The prisoner had to make 8000 or 10,000 revolutions during his 6 hours' work, according to his strength, the number being registered on a dial. The crank too, however, was subsequently made to serve useful purposes. Both tread-mill and crank have gradually been abolished; in 1895 there were 39 tread-mills and 29 cranks in use in English prisons, and these had dwindled down to 13 and 5 respectively in 1901. They are now disused. The fundamental idea of Cubitt's invention, i.e. procuring rotary motion for industrial purposes by the weight of men or animals, is very old. " Tread- wheels," of this type, usually consist of hollow cylinders, round the inner surface of which a horse, dog or man walks, foothold being kept by slabs of wood nailed across at short intervals. TREASON (Fr. trahist>n,La,t. troditio), a general term for the crime of attacking the safety of a sovereign state or its head. The law which punishes treason is a necessary consequence of the idea of a state, and is essential to the existence of the state. Most, if not all, nations have accordingly, at an early period of their history, made provision by legislation or otherwise for its punishment. The principle is universal, though its 'Electuary (Lat. electuarium), is probably derived from Gr. v, used in the same sense, from &Xe(x«"i to lick out. application has led to differences of opinion. What would have been a capital crime at Rome under Tiberius may be no offence at all in England. It is to the advantage of the state and the citizen that what is treason and what is not should be clearly defined, so that as little as possible discretionary power, apt to be strained in times of popular excitement, should be left to the judicial or executive authorities. The importance of this was seen by Montesquieu. Vagueness in the crime of treason, says he, is sufficient to make the government degen- erate into despotism.2 At the same time, it may be observed that despotic governments have not always left the crime un- defined. The object of Henry VIII., for instance, was ralher to define it as closely as possible by making certain acts treason which would not have been so without such definition. In both ancient and modern history treason has generally been a crime prosecuted by exceptional procedure, and visited with afflictive as distinguished from simple punishments (to use the terminology of Bentham). Roman Law. — In Roman law the offences originally falling under the head of treason were almost exclusively those com- mitted in military service, such as in England would be dealt with under the Army Act. The very name perdtiellio, the name of the crime in the older Roman law, is a proof of this. Perduelles were, strictly, public enemies who bore arms against the state; and traitors were regarded as having no more rights than public enemies. The Twelve Tables made it punishable with death to communicate with the enemy or to betray a citizen to the enemy. Other kinds of pcrducllio were punished by interdiction of fire and water. The crime was tried before, a special tribunal, the duumviri perduellionis, perhaps the earliest permanent criminal court existing at Rome. At a later period the name of perducllio gave place to that of laesa majeslas, deminula or minula majeslas, or simply majeslas. The lex Julia majeslalis, to which the date of 48 B.C. has been conjecturally assigned, continued to be the basis of the Roman law of treason until the latest period of the empire, and is still, with the law of perduellio, the basis of the law of British South Africa as to treason. The original text of the law appears to have still dealt with what were chiefly military offences, such as sending letters or messages to the enemy, giving up a standard or fortress, and desertion. With the empire the law of majeslas received an enormous development, mainly in the reign of Tiberius, and led to the rise of a class of professional informers, called delatores.3 The conception of the emperor as divine4 had much to do with this. It became a maxim that treason was next to sacrilege5 in gravity. The law as it existed in the time of Justinian is contained chiefly in the titles of the Digest 6 and Code7 " Ad legem Juliam majestatis." The definition given in the Digest (taken from Ulpian) is this: " majestatis crimen illud est quod adversus populum Romanum vel'adversus securitatem ejus committitur." Of treasons other than military offences, some of the more noticeable were the raising of an army or levying war without the command of the emperor, the questioning of the emperor's choice of a successor, the murder of (or con- spiracy to murder) hostages or certain magistrates of high rank, the occupation of publ'c places, the meeting within the city of persons hostile to the state with weapons or stones, incitement to sedition or administration of unlawful oaths, release of prisoners justly confined, falsification of public documents, and failure of a provincial governor to quit his province at the expiration of his office or to deliver his army to his successor. The intention (voluntas) was punishable as much as an overt act (effeclus) .8 The reported opinions as to what was not treason 2 Esprit des lois, bk. xii. c. 7. 3 See Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire, iii. 467, v. 141. 4 " Principes instar deorum esse " are .the words of Tacitus. 5 This crime was called laesa majestas divina in later law. 6 xlviii. 4. ' ix. 8. 8 A similar provision was contained in the Golden Bull of Charles IV. c. 24. In English law, with the one exception of a statute of 1397 (21 Ric. II. c. 3) repealed in the first year of Henry IV., 224 TREASON show the lengths to which the theory of treason was carried. It was not treason to repair a statue of the emperor which had decayed from age, to hit such a statue with a stone thrown by chance, to melt down such a statue if unconsecrated, to use mere verbal insults against the emperor, to fail in keeping an oath sworn by the emperor or to decide a case contrary to an imperial constitution. Treason was one of the publica judicia, i.e. one of those crimes in which any citizen was entitled to prosecute. The law deprived the accused in a charge of treason of his ordinary remedy for malicious prosecution, and also took from him the privilege (which those accused of other crimes generally possessed) of immunity from accusation by women or infamous persons, from liability to be put to the torture, and from having his slaves tortured to make them testify against him (see TORTURE). The punishment from the time of Tiberius was death (usually by beheading)1 and confiscation of property, coupled with complete civil disability. A traitor could not make a will or a gift or emancipate a slave. Even the death of the accused, if guilty of treason of the gravest kind, such as levying war against the state, did not extinguish the charge, but the memory of the deceased became infamous, and his property was forfeited as though he had been convicted in his lifetime. English Law. — The law of England as to treason corresponds to a considerable extent with Roman law; in fact, treason is treated by Blackstone as the equivalent of the crimen laesae majestatis. The history of the crime in the two systems agrees in this that in both the law was settled by legislation at a com- paratively early period, and subsequently developed by judicial construction. In both, too, there were exceptional features distinguishing this crime from other offences.2 For instance, at common law treason was not bailable (except by the king's bench) nor clergyable, could not be cleared by sanctuary, and did not admit of accessories before or after the fact, for all were principals, nor could a married woman plead coercion by her husband. To stand mute and refuse to plead did not save the lands of the accused, as it did in felony, so that the peine forte et dure (see TORTURE) was unnecessary in treason. These severities were due to the conception of treason as a breach of the oath of allegiance. Other differences introduced by statute will be mentioned later. In some cases a statute simply affirmed the common law, as did the Treason Act 1351 to a great extent, and as did an act of 1534, depriving those accused of treason of the benefit of sanctuary. How far the Roman law was con- sciously imitated in England it is impossible to determine. It was certainly not adopted to its full extent, for many acts were majeslas which were never high treason, even in the most despotic periods. Treason was the subject of legislation in many of the pre-Conquest codes. The laws of Alfred3 and jEthelred4 punished with death any one plotting against the life of the king. The Leges Henrici Primi "6 put anyone slaying the king's messenger in the king's mercy. The crime was shortly defined by Glanvill, 6 and at a greater length by Britton,7 and by Bracton,8 who follows Roman law closely. The offence of high treason was not precisely defined by the common law (i Hale, 76), and until the passing of the Treason Act 1351 depended much on the opinions of the king and his judges. That statute appears to be the answer to a petition of the Commons in 1348 (i Hale, 87), praying for a definition of the offence of accroaching royal power, a charge on which several persons — notably Gaveston and the Despensers — had suffered. The offences made high treason by the statute which still remain an overt act has always been necessary. The difficulty of proving a mere intention is obvious. In French and German law the overt act (Attentat or Unternehmen) is as indispensable as in English. 1 To harbour a fugitive enemy was punishable only by deporta- tion, Dig., xlyiii. 19, 40. 1 The position of treason as a special crime prosecuted by special procedure is one common to most legal systems at some period of their existence. For instance, in Germany, by a constitution of Henry VII. the procedure was to be summary, sine strepitu et figura judicii. 3 c. 4. * v. 30. ' Ixxix. 2. •xiv. I. r cc. 20, 21, 22. 8 de Corona ii8&. are these: (i) to compass or imagine9 the death of the king,10 the queen or their eldest son and heir; (2) to violate the king's companion, or his eldest daughter unmarried, or the wife of his eldest son and heir; (3) to levy war against the king in his realm, or be adherent to the king's enemies in his realm, giving them aid and comfort in the realm or elsewhere (perduellio) ; (4) to slay the chancellor, treasurer, or the king's justices of the one bench or the other, justices in eyre, or justices of assize, and all other justices assigned to hear and determine, being in their places doing their offices. In all cases of treason not specified in the statute the justices before whom the case came are to tarry without going to judgment until the cause has been showed and declared before the king and his parliament whether it ought to be judged treason or felony. The statute, so far as it defines the offence of high treason, is still law. The statute also treated as high treason forgery of the great or privy seal, counterfeiting the king's coin and importing counterfeits thereof. These offences are now felonies. It also defined petty treason (now merged in wilful murder) as the slaying of a master by his servant, a husband by his wife, or a prelate by a man secular or religious owing him allegiance. The act of 1351 protects only the king's life, and its insufficiency was supplemented in periods of danger by legislation, often of a temporary nature. Under Richard II. many new offences were made treason,11 but the acts creating these new treasons were repealed at the earliest opportunity by the parliaments of his successors. The reign most prolific in statutory additions to the law of treason was that of Henry VIII. Legislation in this reign was little more than a register of the fluctuating opinions of the monarch. Thus, by one act of 1534 it was treason not to believe Mary illegitimate and Elizabeth legitimate; by another act of 1 536 it was treason to believe either legitimate; by an act of 1543 it was treason not to believe both legitimate. Another act of this reign (1545) shows that a class of men like the Roman delatores must have been called into existence by all the new legislation. The act made it felony to make anonymous charges of treason without daring to appear in support of them before the king or council. These acts were repealed in 1553 (i Mar. st. i. c. i. s. i.) and the act of 1351 was made the standard of the offence. Besides the acts of 1351 and 1553 the following statutes are still in force with respect to the substantive law of treason. By an obscurely penned statute of 1495 (11 Hen. VII. c. I. s. i) persons serving the king for the time being in war are not to be convicted or attainted of treason; see Steph., Dig. Cr. Law (6th ed.), article 56. This statute has been held not to apply in British South Africa. By an act of 1571 (13 Eliz. c. 2) as a counterblast to papal attacks on the right of Elizabeth to the English crown, it was declared that persons using in England papal bulls offering absolution and reconcili- ation to persons forsaking their due obedience to the English crown should be punishable as traitors. The penalties were abolished in 1846, but the acts against which the statute was aimed were declared to be still unlawful (see Steph., Dig. Cr. Law, 6th ed., p. 45«.). By an act of 1702 (i Anne st. 2. c. 21 s. 3) it is treason to endeavour to hinder the next successor to the crown from succeeding, and by the Succession to the Crown Act 1707 it is treason maliciously, advisedlv and directly by writing or printing to maintain and affirm that any person has a right to the crown otherwise than according to the Acts of Settlement and Union, or that the crown and parliament cannot pass statutes for the limitation of the succes- sion to the crown. By an act of 1796, made perpetual in 1817, the definition of treason is extended so as to include plots within or without Great Britain to cause the death or destruction, or any bodily harm tending to the death, destruction, maiming, or wounding, imprisonment or restraint of the king, if such plots are expressed by publishing any printing or writing, or by any overt act or deed. Since that date no new forms of treason have been created. There are many in- stances of offences temporarily made treason at different times. A 9 These words, according to Luders (Law Tracts, note ad fin.}, mean to attempt or contrive. 10 This by act of 1553 includes a queen regnant. 11 One reason for making offences treason rather than felony was no doubt to give the Crown rather than the lord of the fee the right to the real estate of the criminal on forfeiture. Had the offences been felony the king would have had only his year, day and waste on the estate escheating to the lord, as was the case in treason before the Statute of Treasons. TREASON 225 few of the more interesting may be briefly noticed. It was treason toattempt to appeal or annul judgments made by parliament against certain traitors (1398) ; to break a truce or safe-conduct (1414-1450) ; to hold castles, fortresses or munitions of war against the king (I552); to adhere to the United Provinces (1665); to return without licence if an adherent of the Pretender (1696); to correspond with the Pretender (1701); and to compass or imagine the death of the prince regent (1817). In addition to these, many acts of attainder were passed at different times. One of the most severe was that against Catherine Howard (1541), which went as far as to make it treasonable for any queen to conceal her ante-nuptial incontinence. Other acts were those against Archbishop Scrope, Owen Glendower, Jack Cade, Lord Seymour, Sir John Fenwick, James Stuart and Bishop Atterbury. In one case, that of Cromwell, Ireton and Bradshaw, an act of attainder was passed after the death of those guilty of the treason (1660), and their bodies were exhumed, beheaded and exposed. Acts of indemnity were passed to relieve those who had taken part in the suppression of rebellion from any possible liability for illegal proceedings. Three such acts were passed in the reign of William III. (1689-1690). Similar acts were passed after the Irish rebellion of 1798. The punishment of treason at common law was barbarous in the extreme.1 The sentence in the case of a man was that the Punish- offender be ]drawn on a hurdle to the place of execu- meat. tion, that there he be hanged by the neck but not till he be dead, and that while yet alive he be disembowelled and that then his body be divided into four quarters, the head and quarters to be at the disposal of the Crown.2 Until 1790 at common law a woman was drawn to the place of execution and there burned. In that year hanging was substituted for burning in the case of female traitors. In 1814 the part of the sentence relating to hanging and to disembowelling was altered to hanging until death supervened. Drawing and beheading and quartering after hanging were abolished in 1870. There is no legislation authorizing the execution of traitors within the walls of a prison as in the case of murder (see CAPITAL PUNISHMENT). The act of 1814 in the case of men enables the Crown, by warrant under the sign manual, countersigned by a secretary of state, to change the sentence to beheading. Attainder and forfeiture for treason are abolished by the Forfeitures Act 1870, except where the offender has been outlawed.3 The maximum penalty for a felony under the act of 1848 is penal servitude for life. In every pardon of treason the offence is to be particularly specified therein (see PARDON). Trials for treason in Great Britain and Ireland were at one time frequent and occupy a large part of the numerous volumes of the State Trials. Some of the more interesting may be mentioned. Before the Statute of Treasons were those of Gaveston and the Despensers in the reign of Edward II. on charges of accroaching the royal power. After the statute were those (some before the peers by trial or impeachment, most before the ordinary criminal courts) of Empson and Dudley, Fisher, More, the earl of Surrey, the duke of Somerset, Anne Boleyn, Lady Jane Grey, Sir Thomas Wyatt, Cranmer, the queen of Scots, Sir Walter Raleigh, Straff ord, Laud, Sir Henry Vane and other regicides, William Lord Russell, Algernon Sydney, the duke of Monmouth, and those implicated in the Pilgrimage of Grace, the Gunpowder, Popish, Rye House and other plots. Cases where the proceeding was by bill of attainder have been already mentioned. Occasionally the result of a trial was confirmed by statute. In some of these trials, as is well known, the law was considerably strained in order to insure a conviction. Since the Revolution there have been the cases of those who took part in the risings of 1715 and 1745, Lord George Gordon in 1780, Thomas Hardy and Home Tooke in 1794, the Cato Street conspira- tors in 1820, Thomas Frost in 1840, Smith O'Brien in 1848, and in 1903 Arthur Lynch, for adhering to, aiding and comforting the king's enemies in the South African war.4 The bulk of the treason 1 The exceptional character of the punishment, like that of the procedure, may be paralleled from Germany. The punishment of traitors by Frederick II. by wrapping them in lead and throwing them into a furnace is alluded to by Dante, Inferno, xxiii. 66. 1 See the sentence in full in Latin in R. v. Walcol, 1696, I Eng. Rep. 87. 3 Proceedings after the death of an alleged traitor might at one time have been taken, but only to a very limited extent as compared with what was allowed in Roman and Scots law. Coke (4 Rep. 57) states that there might have been forfeiture of the land or goods of one slain in rebellion on view of the body by the lord chief justice of England as supreme coroner. 4 1903, i K.B. 446. He was sentenced to death. The sentence was commuted to penal servitude for life. Lynch was released on licence after one year in prison and has since been pardoned. XXVII. 8 trials are reported in Howell's State Trials and the New Series of State Trials. The statute of 1351 as interpreted by the judges in these cases is still the standard by which an act is determined to be treason or not. The judicial interpretation has been sometimes strained to meet cases scarcely within the contemplation of the framers of the statute; e.g. it became established doctrine that a conspiracy to levy war against the king's person or to imprison or depose him might be given in evidence as an overt act of compass- ing his death, and that spoken words, though they could not in themselves amount to treason, might constitute an overt act, and so be evidence. Besides decisions on particular cases, the judges at different times came to general resolutions which had an appre- ciable effect on the law. The principal resolutions were those of *397 (confirmed 1398), of 1557, and those agreed to in the case of the regicides at the Restoration and reported by Sir John Kelyng. The effect of this legislation, according to Sir James Stephen, is that such of the judicial constructions as extend the imagining of the king's death to imagining his death, destruction or any bodily harm tending to death or destruction, maim or wounding, imprison- ment or restraint, have been adopted, while such of the constructions as make the imagining of his deposition, conspiring to levy war against him, and instigating foreigners to invade the realm, have not been abolished, but are left to rest on the authority of decided cases. The legislation in force in 1878 as to treason and kindred offences was collected by the late Mr R. S. Wright and its substance embodied in a draft consolidation bill (Parl. Pap. 1878 H. L. 178), and in 1879 the existing law was incorporated in the draft criminal codes of 1879. The code draws a distinction between treason and treasonable crimes, the former including such acts (omitting those that are obviously obsolete) as by the Treason Act 1351 and subse- quent legislation are regarded as treason proper, the latter including the crimes contained in the Treason Felony Act 1848. In the words of the draft (§ 76) " treason is (a) the act of killing Her Majesty, or doing her any bodily harm tending to death or destruction, maim or wounding, and the act of imprisoning or re- straining her; or (b) the forming and manifesting by an overt act an intention to kill Her Majesty, or to do her any bodily harm tending to death or destruction, maim or wounding, or to imprison or to restrain her; or (c) the act of killing the eldest son and heir-apparent of Her Majesty, or the queen consort of any king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ; or (d) the forming and manifesting by an overt act an intention to kill the eldest son and heir-apparent of Her Majesty, or the queen consort of any king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; or (e) conspiring with any person to kill Her Majesty, or to do her any bodily harm tending to death or destruction, maim or wounding, or conspiring with any person to imprison or restrain her; or (/) levying war against Her Majesty either with intent to depose Her Majesty from the style, honour and royal name of the Imperial Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland or of any other of Her Majesty's dominions or countries ; or in order by force or constraint to compel Her Majesty to change her measures or counsels, or in order to intimidate or over- awe both Houses or either House of Parliament ; or (g) conspiring to levy war against Her Majesty with any such intent or for any such purpose as aforesaid ; or (h) instigating any foreigner with frfrce to invade this realm or any other of the dominions of Her Majesty ; or (i) assisting any public enemy at war with Her Majesty in such war by any means whatsoever; or (j) violating, whether with her consent or not, a queen consort, or the wife of the eldest son and heir-apparent for the time being of the king or queen regnant." No amount of residence abroad exempts a British subject from the penalty of treason if he bears arms against the king,* unless he has become naturalized as the subject of a foreign state before the outbreak of the war in which he bears arms. To become naturalized as the subject of an enemy during a war is in itself an act of treason. It is well established that an alien resident within British territory owes local allegiance to the Crown and may be indicted for high treason, and there are numerous instances of prosecution of foreigners for treason. Such are the cases of Leslie, bishop of Ross, ambassador to Elizabeth from the queen of Scots (1584), the marquis de Guiscard in Queen Anne's reign and Gyllenborg, the ambassador from Sweden to George I. (1717). Proceedings against ambassadors for treason have never gone beyond imprisonment, more for safe custody than as a punishment. In 1781 La Motte, a Frenchman resident in England, was convicted of holding treasonable communi- cations with France, and in Canada American citizens were tried for treason for aiding in the rebellion of 1837-1838 (Forsyth, 200). Assistance by a resident alien to invaders of British territory is high treason even if the territory in question is in military occupation by the forces of the foreign power.6 Of the modes of trying high treason two are obsolete, viz. (i) by appeal in the common law courts, which ceased by Court and the effect of statutes between 1322 and 1399 and Place ot were finally abolished in 1819; (2) before the con- Trial. stable and marshal. The last instance of this mode of trial was an 6 Aeneas Macdonald's case, 18 St. Tr. 857; R. v. Lynch (1903) I K.B. 446 — see Mayne, Ind. Cr. Law (1896), pp. 459, 460. ' De Jager's case (1907) App. Cas. 326. 5 226 TREASON award of battle in 1631 in the case of Lord Reay.1 Four modes of trying high treason still remain, viz. impeachment, trial of a peer by his peers, trial by court-martial and trial by jury on indictment before the High Court or a court of assize or a special commission. The offence is not triable at quarter sessions. At common law and under the Great Charter a peer, and, by an act of 1442, a peeress in right of her husband, are triable for treason before the House of Lords, or, when parliament is not sitting, in the court of the lord high steward. The last trial of a peer for treason was that of Lord Lovat in 1746-1747 (iSHowell'sS/. Tr. 529). In the reign of Edward IV., and perhaps later, treason was at times tried by martial law. The issue of commissions of martial law in time of peace was in 1628 declared illegal by the Petition of Right. But the prerogative of the Crown to deal by martial law with traitors in time of war or open rebellion within the realm or in a British possession still exists.2 Treasons committed within the admiralty jurisdiction or out of the realm were originally triable only by the admiral or the constable and marshal according to the civil law, but were made triable accord- ing to the courts of the common law by the Offences at Sea Act 1536, and by acts of 1543, 1552' and 1797. Provision is made for the trial in British possessions of treasons committed in the admiralty jurisdiction (Offences at Sea Act 1806). Treasons committed within the realm are tried in the'High Court, the central criminal court or another court of assize, or by special commission, except in the case of peers. In two acts dealing with Ireland (of 1809 and 1833) it was provided that nothing in the acts was to take away the undoubted prerogative of the Crown for the public safety to resort to the exercise of martial law against open enemies and traitors, while actual war or insurrection is raging (see MARTIAL LAW).* Treason by persons subject to military law is triable by court-martial under the Army Act (1881) ss. 4, 41 (a), where the offence cannot with reasonable convenience be tried in a civil court, and treason by persons subject to naval discipline by court-martial under the Naval Discipline Act (1866) s. 7. The procedure in such trials is regulated by the acts. In certain cases of treason the procedure on the trial is the same as upon a charge of murder. Those cases, which are statutory ... exceptions from the statutory procedure prescribed * for the trial of high treason and misprision thereof, are : (a) Assassination or killing of the king, or any heir or successor of the king, or any direct attempt against his life or any direct attempt against his person whereby his life may be endangered or his person may suffer bodily harm (1800, 1814); (b) attempts to injure in any manner the person of the king (1842). In all other cases of treason the procedure is regulated by acts of 1695, 1708 and 1825. A copy of the indictment must be delivered to the accused ten days at least before his arraignment, with a list of the witnesses for the prosecution (1708) and a list of the petty jury, except in the High Court, where the petty jury list is to be delivered ten days before the trial (1825). 6 The accused is entitled to be defended by counsel, and on application to the court may have two counsel assigned to him (1695), a right extended in 1746 to impeach- ments for treason. Witnesses for the defence have since 1702 been examinable upon oath. The accused may by the Criminal Evidence Act 1898 consent to be called as witness for the defence. It' is doubtful whether the wife or husband of the accused is a compellable witness for the Crown (Archb. Crim. Pleading, 2jrd ed., 398). Prosecutions for treason must be begun within three years of the offence, except in cases of attempts to assassinate the king. The rules as to the indictment are stricter than in the case of felony and misdemeanour, much of the modern statutory power of amendment not extending to indictments for the graver offence. No evidence may be given of any overt act (vote de fail) not expressly stated in the indictment. The accused is entitled to peremptory challenge of thirty-five of the jurors summoned for the petty jury; but they need not now be freeholders. The accused can be "convicted only on his own confession in open court, or by the oath of two witnesses either both to the same overt act charged, or one to one overt act and the other to another overt act of the same treason. If two or more treasons of different kinds are charged on the same indictment, one witness to prove one treason and another to prove another are not sufficient for a lawful conviction. Persons charged with treason are not admitted to bail except by order of a secretary of state or by the High Court (k.b.d.) or a judge thereof in vacation '(Indictable Offences Act 18^.8, s. 23). Witnesses for the defence are examined on oath and their attendance is secured in the same way as that of witnesses for the Crown (1695, '7°)- 1 A case of treason out of the realm as to which alone the constable and marshal had jurisdiction (3 Howell's St. Tr. i). * See case of D. F. Marais (1902, App. Cas. 109). * There is no trace of recourse to the act of 1552. In 1903 Arthur Lynch was tried under the act of 1543 for high treason in South Africa, and Lord Maguire in 1645 for treason in Ireland (4 St. Tr. 653). 4 The decisions of courts of martial law appear not to be review- able by ordinary civil courts (re Marais, 1907, App. Cas. 109). 6 In these respects persons accused of treason are in a better position than those accused of felony. Misprision of treason consists in the concealment or keeping secret of any high treason, (a) This offence was in 1552 declared to be high treason (5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. n, s. 8), but the „. . former law was restored in 1553-1554 (i Mary st. i. c. I m'sP"slott s.i ;i &2 Ph.and Mary c. 10, 5.7). The definition is vague and the exact scope of the offence uncertain, but in strictness it does not include acts which in the case of felony would constitute an accessory after the fact. In the Queensland Code of 1899 (s. 38) every person is guilty of a crime who, knowing that any person intends to commit treason, does n6t give information thereof with all reasonable despatch to a justice or use other reasonable en- deavours to prevent the commission of that crime. The procedure for the trial of misprision of treason is the same as in the case of high treason. The punishment is imprisonment for life and forfeiture of the offender's goods and of the profits of his lands during his life. (Steph. Dig. Cr. Law, 6th ed., 121, 401.) The forfeitures are not abolished by the Forfeitures Act 1870. There is no case of prosecution of this offence recorded during the last century. The necessity of prosecutions for treason has been greatly lessened by a series of statutes beginning in 1744 which provide for the punishment as felonies of certain acts which offences might fall within the definition of treason, e.g. akin to piracies (1744, 18 Geo. II. c. 30), incitement to Treason. mutiny (1797), unlawful oaths, including oaths to commit treason (1797, 1812), and aiding the escape of prisoners of war (1812). By the Treason Act 1842 it is a high misdemeanour, punishable by penal servitude for seven years, wilfully to discharge, point, aim or present at the person of the king any gun or other arms, loaded or not, or to strike at or attempt to throw anything upon the king's person, or to produce any firearms or other arms, or any explosive or dangerous matter, near his person, with intent to injure or alarm him or to commit a breach of the peace.6 The offence is one of the few for which flogging may be awarded. By the Treason Felony Act 1848, s. I., it was made a felony within or without the United Kingdom to plot (a) to deprive or depose the king from the style, &c., of the imperial crown of the United Kingdom, (b) to levy war against the king in any part of the United Kingdom in order by force or constraint to change his measures or counsels or to put force or constraint on or to intimidate or overawe either or both houses of parliament, (c) to move or stir any foreigner with force to invade the United Kingdom or any of the king's dominions. The plot to be within the act must be expressed by publishing in printing or writing or by an overt act or deed. " Open and advised speaking," originally included as an alternative, was removed from the act in 1891. For other offences more or less nearly connected with treason reference may be made to the articles: LIBEL; OATHS; PETITION; RIOT; SEDITION. The act of 1848 does not abrogate the Treason Act of 1351, but merely provides an alternative remedy. But with the exception of the case of Lynch in 1903, all prosecutions in England for offences of a treasonable character since 1848 have been for the felony created by the act of 1848. The trials under the act, mostly in Ireland, are collected in vols. 6, 7 and 8 of the New Series of Stale Trials. The procedure in the case of all the offences just noticed is governed by the ordinary rules as to the trial of indictable offences, and the accused may be convicted even though the evidence proves acts constituting high treason. Scotland. — Treason included treason proper, or crimes against the Crown or the state, such as rebellion, and crimes which, though not technically treasonable, were by legislation punished as treason. Scottish procedure was as a rule less favourable to the accused than English. In one matter, however, the opposite was the case. Advocates compellable to act on behalf of the accused were allowed him by 1587, c. 57, more than a century before the concession of a similar indulgence in England. At one time trial in absence and even after death was allowed, as in Roman law. In the case of Robert Leslie, in 1540, a summons after death was held by the estates to be competent, and the bones of the deceased were exhumed and presented at the bar of the court.7 The act of 1542, c. 13 (rep. 1906), confined this revolting procedure to certain treasons of the more heinous kind. 8 This act was passed in consequence of a series of assaults on Queen Victoria. See 4 St. Tr. N. S. 1382; 7 St. Tr. N. S. 1130, and 8 Si. Tr. N. S. i. 7 In the one instance in England — that of Cromwell, Ireton and Bradshaw — where the bodies of alleged traitors were exhumed after death they were not brought to the bar of a court as in Scotland. TREASON 227 By the Treason Act 1708 trial in absence — the last instance of which had occurred in 1698 — was abolished. The same act assimilates the law and practice of treason to that of England by enacting that no crime should be treason or misprision in Scotland but such as is treason or misprision in England. The act further provides for the finding of the indictment by a grand jury as in England and that the trial is to be by a jury of twelve, not fifteen as in other crimes, before the court of justiciary, or a commission of oyer and terminer containing at least three lords of justiciary. To slay a lord of justiciary or lord of session sitting in judgment, or to counterfeit the great seal, is made treason. The act also contains provisions as to forfeiture, ' qualification of jurors and procedure, which are not affected by the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1887. The punishment is the same as it was in England before the Forfeitures Act 1870, which does not extend to Scotland; and attainder and forfeiture are still the effects of condemnation for treason in Scotland. One or two other statutory provisions may be briefly noticed. By acts of 1706 and 1825 the trial of a peer of Great Britain or Scotland for treason committed in Scotland is to be by a commission from the Crown, on indictment found by a grand jury of twelve. Bail in treason-felony is only allowed by consent of the public prosecutor or warrant of the high or circuit court of justiciary (Treason Felony Act 1848, s. 9). The term lese-majesty was some- times used for what was treason proper (e.g. in 1524, c. 4, making it lese-majesty to transport the king out of the realm, repealed in 1906), sometimes as a synonym of leasing-making. This crime (also called verbal sedition) consisted in the engendering discord between king and people by slander of the king.2 The earliest act against leasing-making eo nomine was in 1524. The reign of James VI. was pre-eminently prolific in legislation against this crime. It is now of no practical interest, as prosecutions for leasing-making have long fallen into desuetude. At one time, however, the powers of the various acts were put into force with great severity, especially in the trial of the earl of Argyll in 1681. The punishment for leasing-making, once capital, is now, by acts of 1825 and 1837, fine or imprisonment or both. Ireland. — The Treason Act 1351 was extended to Ireland by Poyning's law, but at the union there were considerable differ- ences between the Irish and the English law. The law and practice of Ireland as to treason were assimilated to those of England by acts of 1821 (i & 2 Geo. IV. c. 24), 1842 (5 & 6 Viet. c. 51), 1848(11 & 12 Vict.c. 12,3.2), and 1854 (17 & iSVict. c. 56). Prior to 1854 the provisions as to procedure in the English treason acts did not apply to Ireland (Smith O'Brien's case, 1848, 7 St. Tr. N. S. l). A series of enactments called the " Whiteboy Acts" (passed by the Irish and the United Kingdom parliaments between 1775 and 1831) was .intended to give additional facilities to the executive for the suppression of tumultuous risings, and powers for dealing with " dangerous associations" are given by the Criminal Law and Procedure (Ireland) Act 1887. Prosecutions for treason in Ireland were numerous in 1848. Since that date numerous prosecutions have taken place under the Treason Felony Act 1848. British Possessions. — Numerous temporary acts were passed in India at the time of the Mutiny, one of the most characteristic being an act of 1858 making rebellious villages liable to confiscation. By the Indian Penal Code, s. 121, it is an offence punishable by death or transportation for life and by forfeiture of all property to wage or attempt to wage war against the king. By s. 125 it is an offence punishable by transportation for life (as a maximum) to wage or attempt to wage war against any Asiatic government in alliance or at peace with the king or to abet the waging of such war. By s. 121 A., added in 1870, it is an offence punishable by transportation for life (as a maximum) to conspire within or without British India to commit an offence against s. 121 or to deprive the king of the sovereignty of British India or of any part thereof, or to overawe by criminal force or the show of criminal force the government of India or any local government in India. Other cognate offences are included in the same chapter (vi.) of the Criminal Code. The Penal Codes of Canada (1892, ss. 65-73) and New Zealand (1893, ss. 77-82) closely follow the provisions of the jEnglish draft code of 1879. Prosecutions for treason have been rare in Canada. Those of most note were in 1837, after the rebellion (see the Canadian Prisoners case, 1839, 9 Ad(olphus) El(les) [731]) and of Riel after 1 The provisions in the act as to forfeiture (now repealed) were, according to Blackstone (Comm. iv. 384), the result of a com- promise between the House of Lords, in favour of its continuance and the House of Commons, supported by the Scottish nation, struggling to secure a total immunity from this disability. 1 It is called by Hallam " the old mystery of iniquity in Scots law.' decisions of courts-martial were not reviewable by the ordinary courts and are also protected by acts of indemnity. A striking feature of colonial legislation is the great number of such acts passed the Red Riverrising in 1884 (see Riel v. R. 1885, 10 App. Cas. °75)- The Commonwealth parliament of Australia has not legislated on the subject of high treason, which is in Australia governed by the laws of the constituent states, i.e. by the law of England as it stood when they were colonized, subject to local legislation. In the codes of Queensland (1899) and West Australia (1902) the offence is defined in a form which is little more than a redrafting of the English statutes. The provisions of the Treason Felony Act 1848 have been adapted by legislation to New South Wales (1900), Queensland (1899) Western Australia (1902) and Tasmania (1868). In Victoria there is legislation as to procedure but none as to the substantive law of treason. In Mauritius the offence is regulated by the Penal Code of 1838, arts. 50761 (Mauritius Laws Revised, 1903, i. 372). In the Asiatic colonies treason is defined on the lines of the Indian Penal Code, i.e. Ceylon, Straits Settlements, and Hong- Kong. In the West Indies the law of treason is defined by code in Jamaica and in British Guiana (the code superseding the Dutch Roman law). In South Africa the law of treason is derived through Holland from the Roman law. It includes the crimen perduettionis, i.e. disturbing the security or independence of the state with hostile intent. This is spoken of as high treason, as distinct from the cnmen laesae majestaiis, in which the hostile intent need not be proved, and from vis publica, i.e. insurrection and riot involving danger to public peace and order. By a Cape law of 1853 passed during the Griqualand rebellion it is made treason to deliver arms or gunpowder to the king's enemies. The Treason Felony Act 1848 was also adopted in Natal in 1868. During the South African War of 1899-1902 many trials took place for treason, chiefly under martial law, including cases of British subjects who had joined the Boer forces. In some cases it was contended that the accused had been recognized by the British authorities as a belligerent (Louw. 1904, 21 Cape Supreme Court Reports, 36). The decisions of the ordinary courts are collected in Nathan, Common Law of South Africa, iv. 2425 (London, 1907). The ' e ordinary A striking after rebellions and native risings. ° Instances of such acts occur in the legislation of Canada, Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, New Zealand, St Vincent and Jamaica. The most important in the history of !aw is the Jamaica Act of 1866, indemnifying Governor Eyre for any acts committed during the suppression of the rising in the previous year. It was finally held that this act protected Eyre from being civilly sued or criminally prosecuted in England for acts done during the outbreak (Phillips v. Eyre, 1871, L. R. 6 Q. B. i). The validity of an act passed in 1906 after disturbances among the Kaffirs of Natal was unsuccessfully challenged in 1907 (Tilonko's case, 1907, App. Cas. 93). United States. — The law is based upon that of England. By art. 3, s. 3 of the constitution " treason against the United-States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted." By art. 2, s. 4 impeachment for and conviction of treason is a ground for removing the president, vice-president and other civil officers. The punishment by an act of 1790 was declared to be death by hanging. But during the Civil War an act (July 17, 1862) was passed, providing that the punishment should be death, or, at the discretion of the court, imprisonment at hard labour for not less than five years, and a fine of not less than 10,000 dollars to be levied on the real and personal property of the offender, in addition to disability to hold any office under the United States. The act of 1862 and other acts also deal with the crimes of inciting or engaging in rebellion or insurrection, criminal correspondence with foreign governments in relation to any disputes or contro- versies with the United States, or to defeat the measures of the government of the United States, seditions, conspiracy, recruiting soldiers or sailors and enlistment to serve against the United States. The act of 1790 further provides for the delivery to the prisoner of a copy of the indictment and a list of the jurors, for defence by counsel, and for the finding of the indictment within three years after the commission of the treason (see Story, Consti- tution of the United States, Rev. Stat. U.S. p. 1041). Treason against the United States cannot be inquired into by any state 228 TREASURE TROVE— TREASURY court, but the states may, and some of them have, their own constitutions and legislation as to treasons committed against themselves, generally following the lines of the constitution and legislation of the United States. In some cases there are differences which are worth notice. Thus the constitution of Mas- sachusetts, pt. i, § 25, declares that no subject ought in any case or in any time to be declared guilty of treason by the legislature. The same provision is contained in the constitutions of Vermont, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Alabama and others. In some states the crime of treason cannot be pardoned; in others, as in New York, it may be pardoned by the legislature, and the governor may suspend the sentence until the end of the session of the legislature next following conviction. In some states a person convicted of treason is disqualified for exercising the franchise. In New York conviction carries with it forfeiture of real estate for the life of the convict and of his goods and chattels. France. — By the Code Penal treason falls under the head of crimes against the safety of the state (bk. iii. tit. i. c. i). It is a capital offence for a Frenchman to bear arms against France (s. 75) or to plot with a foreign power or its agents to commit hostilities or under- take war against France whether war follows or not (s. 76), or to intrigue with the enemies of the state for facilitating their entry into French territory, or to deliver to them French ships or fortresses, or to supply them with munitions of war, or aid the progress of their arms in French possessions or against French forces by sea or land (s.?8). Germany. — The- Strafgesetzbuch distinguishes between high treason (Hochverrat) and treason (Landesverrat). The offences denominated high treason are (i) murder or attempt to murder the emperor or a federal sovereign in his own state, or during the stay of the offender in the sovereign's state (s.8o) ; (2) undertaking to kill, take prisoner, or deliver into an enemy's power, or make incapable of government a federal sovereign ; to change by violence the constitution of the empire or a state thereof or the successor to the throne therein; to incor- porate by force the federal territory or the territory of any such state with a foreign or another federal state (s. 81). The code treats as treason, but does not punish by death, the offences included in the French code (ss. 87-89), and under certain cir- cumstances punishes alien residents for these offences (s. 91). The code also punishes insults on the emperor and federal sovereigns (ss. 95, 97) under the name of Majestdtsbeleidigung. Italy.— Treason in the Penal Code 1888 (tit. i. c. i) includes direct acts to subject Italy or any part thereof to foreign domination or to diminish its independence or break up its unity (s. 104), to bear arms against the state (s. 105)) or intrigue with foreign states with the object of their levying war against Italy or helping them in such war (s. 106), or to reveal political or military secrets affecting the national independence (s. 107). Spain. — The Spanish code distinguishes between treason (lesa majestad) and rebellion (rebelion). Under the former are included assassination, or attempts on the life or personal liberty of the king (arts. 158, 159), or insults to the king (161, 162), and provisions are made as to attacks on the heir or consort of the sovereign (163, 164). Under rebellion are included violent attempts to dethrone the king or to interfere with the allegiance to him of his forces or any part of the realm (243). (W. F. C.) TREASURE TROVE, the legal expression for coin, bullion, gold or silver articles, found (Fr. trouiie) hidden in the earth, for which no owner can be discovered. In Roman law it was called thesaurus, and defined as an ancient deposit of money (vetus depositio pecuniae) found accidentally. Under the emperors half went to the finder and half to the owner of the land, who might be the emperor, the public treasury (fiscus) , or some other proprietor. Property found in the sea or on the earth has at no time been looked on as treasure trove. If the owner cannot be ascertained it becomes the property of the finder (see LOST PROPERTY). As the feudal system spread over Europe and the prince was looked on as the ultimate owner of all lands, his right to the treasure trove became, according to Grotius, jus commune et quasi gentium, in England, Germany, France, Spain and Denmark. In England for centuries the right to treasure trove has been in the Crown, who may grant it out as a franchise. It is the duty of the finder, and indeed of anyone who acquires knowledge, to report the matter to the coroner, who must forth- with hold an inquest to find whether the discovery be treasure trove or no. Although the taking of the find is not larceny until this be done, the concealment is an indictable offence still punish- able in practice, and formerly was held " akin both to treason and to larceny." In the statute De officio coronatoris 1276 (4 Edw. I. c. 2) the coroner is enjoined to inquire as to treasure trove both as to finders and suspected finders, " and that may be well perceived where one liveth riotously and have done so of long time." The Coroners Act of 1887 continues this power as heretofore. In Scotland the law is the same, but the concealment is not a criminal offence ; it is there the duty of the king's and lord treasurer's remembrancer, with the aid of the local procurator fiscal, to secure any find for the Crown, whose rights in this respect have been pushed to some length. Thus in 1888 a prehistoric jet necklace and some other articles found in Forfarshire were claimed by the authorities, though they were neither gold nor silver. The matter was finally compromised by the deposit of the find in the National Museum. By a treasury order of 1886 provision is made for the preservation of suitable articles so found in the various national museums and payment to the finders of sums in respect of the same. Also if the things are not required for this purpose they are to be returned to the finder. In India the Treasure Trove Act (16 of 1878) makes elaborate provision on the subject. It defines treasure as " anything of value hidden in the soil." When treasure over Rs. 10 is discovered, the finder must inform the collector and deposit the treasure or give security for its custody. Conceal- ment is a criminal offence. An inquiry is held upon notice; if declared ownerless the finder has three-fourths and the owner of the ground one-fourth. The government, however, has the right of pre-emption. In the United States the common law, following English precedent, would seem to give treasure trove to the public treasury, but in practice the finder has been allowed to keep it. In Louisiana French codes have been followed, so that one-half goes to finder and one-half to owner of land. Modern French law is the same as this, as it is also in Germany, in Italy and in Spain. In the latter country formerly the state had three- quarters, whilst a quarter was given to the finder. In Austria a third goes to the finder, a third to the owner of the land, and a third to the state, and provision is made for the possible purchase of valuable antiquities by the state. In Denmark treasure trove is known as " treasure of Denmark," and is the property of the king alone. In Russia the usage varies. In one or two of the governments, in Poland and the Baltic provinces, the treasure is divided, between the owner of the land and the finder, but throughout the rest of Russia it belongs exclusively to the owner of the land. This was also the law amongst the ancient Hebrews, or so Grotius infers from the parable of the treasure hid in a field (Matt. xiii. 44). See Blackstone's Commentaries; Chitty's Prerogatives of the Crown; R. Henslowe Wellington, The King's Coroner (1905-1906); Rankine on Landowner ship; Murray, Archaeological Survey of the United Kingdom (1896), containing copious references to the litera- ture of the subject. (F. WA.) TREASURY, a place for the storage of treasure (Fr. tresor, Lat. thesaurus, Gr. Onaavpos, store, hoard); also that depart- ment of a government which manages the public revenue. The head of the department was an important official in the early history of English institutions. He managed the king's hoard or treasury, and under the Med. Latin name of thesaurarius, i.e. treasurer, grew into increased importance in times when the main object of government seemed to be to fill the king's purse. He received the title of lord high treasurer (q.v.) and ranked as the third great officer of state. In course of time the English treasury grew into two departments of state (see EXCHEQUER). Since 1714 the office of lord high treasurer has been in com- mission, and his duties Rave been administered by a board, consisting of a first lord, a chancellor and four or more junior lords. The board itself never meets, except on extraordinary occasions, although until the commencement of the ipth century it was its practice to meet almost daily to discuss matters of financial detail. There were originally separate treasury boards for England, Scotland and Ireland, but the English and Scottish were united by the act of union, and that of Ireland was joined with the English in 1816. The first lord of the treasury (see MINISTRY) takes practically no part in the duties of the board, TREATIES 229 the office being to all intents and purposes a sinecure; it is usually held by the prime minister of the day. Indeed from 1783 to 1885 it was invariably so held, but in the latter year there was a departure from the practice, and again in 1887, 1891 and 1895. The junior lords of the treasury are also political rather than financial officers, acting as assistant whips in the House of Com- mons. There are two joint secretaries to the treasury, one of whom, the patronage secretary, is merely a political officer, acting as chief whip; the other is termed financial secretary and 'is the chancellor of the exchequer's chief assistant. All the above officers are members of the House of Commons and of the government. The salaries of the first lord of the treasury and of the chancellor of the exchequer are £5000 per annum; of the joint secretaries £2000 per annum each; of three of the junior lords £1000 per annum each, the other junior lords being unpaid. The vast bulk of the work of the treasury department is per- formed by the permanent staff, at whose head is the permanent secretary and auditor of the civil list, with a salary of £2500 per annum. The chancellor of the exchequer (see MINISTRY), as finance minister of the Crown, is the officer who is responsible to parliament for the carrying out of the business of the treasury. He performs practically the ancient duties of under-treasurer and presents the annual budget of revenue and expenditure. The treasury department of the United States is responsible for the finances of the government and the control of the currency. Its genesis was a treasury office of accounts estab- lished in 1776 for the purpose of examining and auditing accounts. In 1779 it was reorganized, but was abolished in 1781, on the election of Robert Morris as superintendent of finances, and in 1789 the present executive department of the treasury was established by act of Congress. Its scope is' more varied and complex than that of any other United States govern- ment department. It is presided over by a secretary, who is a member of the cabinet and has a salary of $12,000 per annum. He is assisted by three assistant secretaries, two of them having salaries of $5000 and the third a salary of $4500. The treasury department looks after the revenue administration of the United States, and has for this purpose a customs service division and an internal revenue division. There is also the division of the treasury, in the strictest sense of the word; bureaus of auditing and accounting, of currency and of banking and certain miscel- laneous bureaus, as the life-saving service, the public health and marine hospital service, the supervising architect and the bureau of engraving and printing. TREATIES. A treaty is a contract between two or more states. The Latin term " tractatus," and its derivatives, though of occasional occurrence in this sense from the ijth century onwards, only began to be commonly so employed, in lieu of the older technical terms " conventio publica," or " foedus," from the end of the i7th century. In the language of modern diplomacy the term " treaty " is restricted to the more impor- tant international agreements, especially to those which are the work of a congress; while agreements dealing with subordinate questions are described by the more general term " convention." The present article will disregard this distinction. The making and the observance of treaties is necessarily a very early phenomenon in the history of civilization, and the theory of treaties was one of the first departments of international law to attract attention. Treaties are recorded on the monu- ments of Egypt and Assyria; they occur in the Old Testament Scriptures; and questions arising under ffvv8fjKai and foedcra occupy much space in the Greek and Roman historians.1 Treaties have been classified on many principles, of which it will suffice to mention the more important. A " personal treaty," having reference to dynastic interests, is contrasted with a " real treaty," which binds the nation irrespectively 1For the celebrated treaty of 509 B.C. between Rome and Carthage, see Polybius iii. 22; and, on the subject generally, Barbeyrac's full but very uncritical Histoire des anciens traitez, (1739); Miiller-Jochmus, Geschichte des Volkerrechts im Alterthum (1848); E. Egger, £tudes historiques sur les traites publics chez les grecs et chez les remains (new ed., 1866). of constitutional changes; treaties creating outstanding obliga- tions are opposed to " transitory conventions," e.g. for cession of territory, recognition of independence, and the like, which operate irrevocably once for all, leaving nothing more to be done by the contracting parties; and treaties in the nature of a definite transaction (Rechts- geschdft) are opposed to those which aim at establishing a general rule of conduct (Rechtssatz). With reference to their objects, treaties may perhaps be conveniently classified as (i) political, including treaties of peace, of alliance, of cession, of boundary, for creation of international servitudes, of neutralization, of guarantee, for the submission of a controversy to arbitration; (2) commercial, including consular and fishery conventions, and slave trade and navigation treaties; (3) confederations for special social objects, such as the Zollverein, the Latin monetary union, and the still wider unions with reference to posts, tele- graphs, submarine cables and weights and measures; (4) relating to criminal justice, e.g. to extradition and arrest of fugitive seamen; (5) relating to civil justice, e.g. to the protection of trade-mark and copyright, to the execution of foreign judgments, to the reception of evidence, and to actions by and against foreigners; (6) promulgating written rules of international law, upon topics previously governed, if at all, only by unwritten custom, with reference e.g. to the peaceful settlement of inter- national disputes, or to the conduct of warfare. It must be remarked that it is not always possible to assign a treaty wholly to one or other of the above classes, since many treaties contain in combination clauses referable to several of them. The analogy between treaty-making and legislation is striking when a congress agrees upon general principles which are after- wards accepted by a large number of states, as, for instance, in the case of the Geneva conventions for improving the treatment of the wounded. Many political treaties containing " transi- tory conventions," with reference to recognition, boundary or cession, become, as it were, the title-deeds of the nations to which they relate.2 But the closest analogy of a treaty is to a contract in private law. The making of a valid treaty implies several requisites, (i) It must be made between competent parties, i.e. sovereign states. A " concordat," to which the pope, as a spiritual authority, is one of the parties, is therefore not a treaty, nor is a convention between a state and an individual, nor a convention between the rulers of two states with reference to their private affairs. Semi-sovereign states, such as San Marino or Egypt, may make conventions upon topics within their limited competence. It was formally alleged that an infidel state could not be a party to a treaty. The question where the treaty-making power resides in a given state is answered by the municipal law of that state. In Great Britain it resides in the executive (see the parliamentary debates upon the cession of Heligoland in 1890); sometimes, however, it is shared for all purposes, as in the United States, or for certain purposes only, as in many countries of the European continent, by the legislature, or by a branch of it. (2)There must be an expression of agreement. This is not (as in private law) rendered voidable by duress; e.g. the cession of a province, though extorted by overwhelming force, is nevertheless unimpeachable. Duress to the individual negotiator would, however, vitiate the effect of his signature. (3) From the nature of the case, the agreement of states, other than those the government of which is autocratic, must be signified by means of agents, whose authority is either express, as in the case of plenipotentiaries, or implied, as in the case of e.g. military and naval commanders, for matters, such as truces, capitulations and cartels, which are necessarily confided to their discretion. When an agent acts in excess of his implied authority, he is said to make no treaty, but a mere " sponsion," which, unless adopted by his govern- ment, does not bind it, e.g. the affair of the Caudine Forks 2 Cf. Sir Edward Hertslet's very useful collections entitled : The Map of Europe by Treaty (4 vols., 1875-1891), and The Map of Africa by Treaty (2 vols., 1894). 230 TREATIES (Livy ix. 5) and the convention of Closter Seven in 1757. (4) Unlike a contract in private law, a treaty, even though made in pursuance of a full power, is, according to modern views, of no effect till it is ratified. It may be remarked that ratification, though hitherto not thought to be required for " declarations," such as the Declaration of Paris of 1856, was expressly stipulated for in the case of those signed at the peace conferences of 1899 and 1907. (5) No special form is necessary for a treaty, which in theory may be made without writing. It need not even appear on the face of it to be a contract between the parties, but may take the form of a joint declaration, or of an exchange of notes. Latin was at one time the language usually employed in treaties, and it continued to be so employed to a late date by the emperor and the pope. Treaties to which several European powers of different nationalities are parties are now usually drawn up in French (the use of which became general in the time of Louis XIV.), but the treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748 and 1784 contain, as does the final act of the congress of Vienna, a protest against the use of this language being considered obligatory. French is, however, exclusively used in the treaties constitut- ing the great " international unions "; and bilingual treaties are sometimes accompanied by a third version in French, to be decisive in case of alleged variances between the other two. A great European treaty has usually commenced " In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity," or, when the Porte is a party, " In the name of Almighty God." (6) It is sometimes said that a treaty must have a lawful object, but the danger of accepting such a statement is apparent from the use which has been made of it by writers who deny the validity of any cession of national territory, or even go so far as to lay down, with Fiore, that " all should be regarded as void which are in any way opposed to the develop- ment of the free activity of a nation, or which hinder the exercise of its natural rights." (7) The making of a treaty is sometimes accompanied by acts intended to secure its better performance. The taking of oaths, the assigning of " conservatores pacis " and the giving of hostages are now obsolete, but revenue is mortgaged, territory is pledged, and treaties of guarantee are entered into for this purpose. A " transitory convention " operates at once, leaving no duties to be subsequently performed, but with reference, to conventions Duration. °^ otner kinds questions arise as to the duration of the obligation created by them; in other words, as to the moment at which those obligations come to an end. This may occur by the dissolution of one of the contracting states, by the object-matter of the agreement ceasing to exist, by full performance, by performance becoming impossible, by lapse of the time for which the agreement was made, by contrarius consensus or mutual release, by " denunciation " by one party under a power reserved in the treaty. By a breach on either side the treaty usually becomes, not void, but voidable. A further cause of the termination of treaty obligations is a total change of circumstances, since a clause " rebus sic stantibus " is said to be a tacit condition in every treaty.1 Such a con- tention can only be very cautiously admitted. It has been put forward by Russia in justification of her repudiation of the clauses of the Treaty of Paris neutralizing the Black Sea, and of her engagements as to Batoum contained in the Treaty of Berlin. The London protocol of 1871, with a view to prevent such abuses, lays down, perhaps a little too broadly, " that it is an essential principle of the law of nations that no power can liberate itself from the engagements of a treaty, nor modify the stipulations thereof, unless with the consent of the contracting powers, by means of an amicable arrangement." Treaties are in most cases suspended, if not terminated, by the outbreak of a war between the contracting parties (though the Spanish decree of the 23rd of April 1898 went too far when it asserted that the war with the United States had terminated " all conventions that have been in force up to the present between the two countries "), and are therefore usually revived in express terms in the treaty of peace. 1 Cf. Bynkershoek, Quest, sur pub. vol. ii. ch. 10. The rules for the interpretation of treaties are not so different from those applicable to contracts in private law as to need here a separate discussion. Collections of treaties are either (i.) general or (ii.) national. i. The first to publish a general collection of treaties was Leibnitz, whose Codex juris gentium, containing documents from 1097 to 1497, " ea quae sola inter liberos populos legum sunt loco " callecti appeared in 1693, and was followed in 1700 by the Mantissa. The Corps universel diplomatique du droit des gens of J. Dumont, continued by J. Barbeyrac and Rousset in thirteen folio volumes, containing treaties from A.D. 315 to 1730, was published in 1726-1739. Wenck's Corpus juris gentium recentissimi (3 vols. 8vo, 1781-1795) contains treaties from 1735 to 1772. The 8vo Recueil of G. F. de Martens, continued by C. de Martens, Saalfeld, Murhard, K. F. Samwer, K. Hopf, F. Stoerk and H. Triepel, com- menced in 1791 with treaties of 1761, and is still in progress. The series in 1910 extended to eighty-eight volumes; that for 1910 being the third of the Nouveau recueil general (23™° serie). See also the Recueil international des traites de xxf siecle (190^, sqq.), by Descamps en Renault, and the following periodical publications: Das Staats- archiv, Sammlung der officietten Actenstiicke zur Geschichte der Gegenwart (Leipzig, commencing in 1861); Archives diplomatiques (Stuttgart, since 1821); Archives diplomatiques, recueil mensuel de diplomatie et d'histoire (Paris, since 1861); and Hertslet's British and Foreign State Papers, from the Termination of the War of 1814 to the Latest Period, compiled at the Foreign Office by the Librarian and Keeper of the Papers (London, since 1819, and still in progress). ii. The more important collections of national treaties are those of MM. Neumann and de Plasson from 1855, and of the commission for modern history from 1903, for Austria; Beutner for the German Empire, 1883; C. Calvo for " 1'Ame'rique latine, " 1862-1869; de Clercq for France, 1864-1908; De Garcia de la Vega for Belgium, 1850, &c., Lagemans and Breukelman for the Netherlands, 1858, &c. ; Soutzo for Greece, 1858; Count Solar de la Marguerite for Sardinia, 1836-1861; Olivart for Spain, 1890, &c.; Da Castro for Portugal, 1856-1879; R_ydberg for Sweden, 1877; Kaiser, i86i,andEichmann, 1885, for Switzerland; Baron de Testa, 1864, &c., Aristarchi Bey 1873-1874, and Effendi Noradounghian, 1897-1903, for Turkey; F. de Martens for Russia (the 9 vols. published 1874-1907 contain the treaties made by Russia with Austria, Germany, Great Britain and France respectively) ; W. F. Mayers for China, 1877. The official publication for Italy begins in 1864 (see also the collection by Luigi Palma, 1879, &c.), for Spain in 1843, for Denmark in 1874. The treaties of Japan were published by authority in 1899. Those of the United States are contained in the Statutes at Large of the United States, and in the Treaties, Conventions, etc., between the United States of America and Other Powers, 1776-7 pop (Wash- ington, 1910); also in the collections of J. Elliott (1834) and H. Minot (1844-1850); see also Mr Bancroft Davis's Notes upon the Treaties of the United States with other Powers, preceded by a list of the Treaties and Conventions with Foreign Powers, chronologically arranged and followed by an Analytical Index and a Synoptical Index of the Treaties (1873). In England no treaties were pub- lished before the I7th century, such matters being thought " not fit to be made vulgar. " The treaty of 1604 with Spain was, how- ever, published by authority, as were many of the treaties of the Stuart kings. Rymer's Foedera was published, under the orders of the government, in twenty volumes, from 1704^ to 1732; but for methpdical collections of the earlier British treaties we are indebted to private enterprise, which produced three volumes in 1710-1713, republished witn a fourth volume in 1732. Other three volumes appeared in 1772-1781, the collection commonly known as that of C. Jenkinson (3 vols.) in 1785 and that of G. Chalmers (2 vols.) in !795- The recent treaties made by Great Britain, previously dis- persed through the numbers of the London Gazette or embedded in masses of diplomatic correspondence presented to parliament at irregular intervals, are now officially published as soon as ratified in a special 8vo. " Treaty Series " of parliamentary papers commenced in 1902. J. Macgregor published (1841-1844) eight volumes of commercial treaties, but the great collection of the commercial treaties of Great Britain is that of L. Hertslet, librarian of the foreign office, continued by his son, Sir Edward Hertslet, and later holders of the same office, entitled A Complete Collection of the Treaties and Conventions and Reciprocal Regulations at present subsisting between Great Britain and Foreign Powers, and of the Laws and Orders in Council concerning the same, so far as they relate to Commerce and Navigation, the Slave Trade, Post Office, &c., and to the Privileges and Interests of the Subjects of the Contracting Parties (24 vols., 1820-1907). Sir Edward Hertslet also commenced in 1875 a series of volumes containing Treaties and Tariff s regulating the Trade between Britain and Foreign Nations, and Extracts of Treaties between Foreign Powers, containing the Most Favoured Nation Clauses applicable to Great Britain. Both of these publica- tions are still continued. He also published, in 1891, Treaties, &c., concluded between Great Britain and Persia, and between Persia and Foreign Powers; and, in 1896, a similar work on treaties with China The treaties affecting British India are officially set out, with historical notes, in A Collection of Treaties, TREATIES 231 Engagements and Sannuds relating to India and Neighbouring Countries, by C. V. Aitchison. This work, with the index, extends to eight volumes, which appeared at Calcutta in 1862-1866. A continuation by A. C. Talbot was published in 1876, and it was brought up to date by the government of India in 1909. Useful lists of national collections of treaties will be found in the Revue de droit international for 1886, pp. 169-187, and in the Marquis Olivart's Catalogue de ma bibliotheque (1899-1910). It may be worth while to add a list of some of the more impor- tant treaties, now wholly or partially in force, some of which are List ot discussed under separate headings, especially those important to which Great Britain is a party, classified accord- TreaOes. jng to tnejr objects, in the order suggested above. i. The principal treaties affecting the distribution of territory between the various states of Central Europe are those of Westphalia (Osnabruck and Miinster), 1648; Utrecht, 1713; Paris and Hubertusburg, 1763; for the partition of Poland, 1772, 1793; Vienna, 1815; London, for the separation of Belgium from the Netherlands, 1831, 1839; Zurich, for the cession of a portion of Lombardy to Sardinia, 1859; Vienna, as to Schleswig- Holstein, 1864; Prague, whereby the German Confederation was dissolved, Austria recognizing the new North German Con- federation, transferring to Prussia her rights over Schleswig- Holstein, and ceding the remainder of Lombardy to Italy, 1866; Frankfort, between France and the new German Empire, 1871. The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire has been regulated by the Great Powers, or some of them, in the treaties of London, 1832, 1863, 1864, and of Constantinople, 1881, with reference to Greece; and by the treaties of Paris, 1856; London, 1871; Berlin, 1878; London, 1883, with reference to Montenegro, Rumania, Servia, Bulgaria and the navigation of the Danube. The encroachments of Russia upon Turkey, previous to the Crimean War, are registered in a series of treaties beginning with that of Kuchuk-Kainarji, 1774, and end:'ng with that of Adrianople in 1829. The independence of tUe United States of America was acknowledged by Great Britain in the treaty of peace signed at Paris in 1 7 83 . The boundary between the United States and the British possessions is regulated in detail by the treaties of Washington of 1842, 1846, 1871, 1903 and 1908. The territorial results of the war of 1898 between the United States and Spain are registered in the treaty of 1899, and those of the Russo-Japanese War in the treaty of Portsmouth of 1905. Various causes of possible misunderstanding between Great Britain and France were removed by the convention of 1904; and a similar treaty was concluded with Russia in 1908. The navigation of the Suez Canal is regulated by a treaty of 1888, and that of the future Panama Canal by one of 1901. The boun- daries of the territories, protectorates and spheres of influence in Africa of Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal have been readjusted by a series of treaties, especially between the years 1885 and 1894. Switzerland, Belgium, Corfu and Paxo and Luxemburg are respectively neutralized by the treaties of Vienna, 1815, and of London, 1839, 1864, 1867. A list of treaties of guarantee supposed to be then in force, to which Great Britain is a party, beginning with a treaty made with Portugal in 1373, was presented to parliament in 1859. Treaties of alliance were made between Great Britain and Japan in 1902 and 1905. ii. For the innumerable conventions, to which Great Britain is a party, as to commerce, consular jurisdiction, fisheries and the slave trade, it must suffice to refer to the exhaustive and skilfully devised index to vols. 1-21 of Hertslet's Commercial Treaties, published in 1905 as vol. 22 of the series. iii. The social intercourse of the world is facih'tated by con- ventions, such as those establishing the Latin monetary union, 1865; the international telegraphic union, 1865; the universal postal union, 1874; the international bureau of weights and measures, 1875; providing for the protection of submarine cables in time of peace, 1884; the railway traffic union, 1890. Such treaties, now very numerous, are somewhat misleadingly spoken of by recent writers (L. von Stein and F. de Martens) as constituting a " droit administratif international." iv. For the now operative treaties of extradition to which Great Britain is a party, it will be sufficient to refer to the article EXTRADITION. It may be observed that all of them, except the treaty of 1842, now, however, varied by one of 1889, with the United States, are subsequent to, and governed by, the provisions of 33 & 34 Viet. c. 52, The Extradition Act 1870. Before the passing of this general act it had been necessary to pass a special act for giving effect to each treaty of extradition. The most complete collection of treaties of extradition is that of F. J. Kirchner, L' Extradition, Recueil, &•<;. (London, 1883). v. General conventions, to which most of the European states are parties, were signed in 1883 at Paris for the protection of industrial, and in 1886 at Bern for the protection of literary and artistic, property, and, from 1899 onwards, a series of general treaties, to none of which is Great Britain a party, have been signed at the Hague, as the result of conferences, invited by the government of the Netherlands, for solving some of the more pressing questions arising out of " the conflict of laws." vi. Quasi-legislation by treaty has been directed mainly to encouraging the settlement of international disputes by peaceful methods, and to regulating the conduct of warfare. The first peace conference, held at the Hague in 1899, devoted much time to producing the generally accepted " Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes." An impor- tant achievement of this convention was the establishment at the Hague of an international tribunal, always ready to arbitrate upon cases submitted to it; and the convention recommended recourse not only to arbitration, but also to good offices and mediation, and to international commissions of inquiry. This convention has now been superseded by the revised and amplified edition of it adopted by the second peace conference in 1907. The provisions of neither convention are obligatory, but merely " facultative," amounting only to recommendations. Great efforts were made, especially in 1907, but without success, to draf c a generaUy acceptable convention, making resort to arbitra- tion compulsory, at any rate with reference to certain classes of questions. In the meantime, however, agreements of this nature between one power and another have multiplied rapidly within the last few years (see ARBITRATION). Certain bodies of rules intended to mitigate the horrors of war have received the adhesion of most civilized states. Thus the declaration of Paris, 1856 (to which, however, the United States, Venezuela and Bolivia have not yet formally acceded), prohibits the use of privateers and protects the commerce of neutrals; the Geneva conventions, 1864 and 1906, give protection to the wounded and to those in attendance upon them; the St Peters- burg declaration, 1868, prohibits the employment of explosive bullets weighing less than 400 grammes; and the three Hague declarations of 1899 prohibit respectively (i) the launching of projectiles from balloons, (2) the use of projectiles for spreading harmful gases, and (3) the use of expanding bullets. The second Hague conference, of 1907, besides revising the convention made by the first conference, of 1899, as to the laws of war on land, produced new conventions, dealing respectively with the opening of hostilities; neutral rights and duties in land warfare; the status of enemy merchant ships at the outbreak of war; the con- version of merchant ships into ships of war; submarine mines; bombardment by naval forces; the application of the Geneva principles to naval warfare; the rights of maritime capture; the establishment of an international prize court; and neutral rights and duties in maritime warfare. These conventions, as well as a republication of the first Hague declaration, which had in 1907 expired by efflux of time, have been already largely ratified. It were greatly to be wished that the official publication of treaties could be rendered more speedy and more methodical than it now is. The labours of the publicist would also be much lightened were it possible to consolidate the various general collections of diplomatic acts into a new Corps diplomatique universel, well furnished with cross references, and with brief annotations showing how far each treaty is supposed to be still in force. Literature. — In addition to the works already cited in the course of this article the following are for various reasons important: 232 TREATISE— TREBIZOND Joh. Lupus, De confederatione principum (Strassburg, 1511, the first published monograph upon the subject); Bodinus, Dissertatio de contractibus summarum pptestatum (Halle, 1696); Neyron, De vi foederum inter gentes (Gottingen, 1778); Neyron, Essai historique et politique sur les garanties, &c. (Gottingen, 1797); Wachter, De modis tollendi pacla inter gentes (Stuttgart, 1780); Dresch, Ueber die Dauer der V olkervertrage (Landshut, 1808) ; C. Bergbohm, Staats- vertrage und Cesetze als Quellen des Volkerrechts (Dorpat, 1877); Jellinek, Die rechttiche Natur der Statemiertrage (Vienna, 1880); D. Donati, Trattati internazionali nel diritto costituzionale (1907); Holzendorff, Handbuch des Volkerrechts (1887) vol. iii. ; Fleischmann, Volkerrechtsquellen in Auswahl herausgegeben (1905); de Lapradelle, Recueil des arbitrages international (1905); J. B. Moore, History and Digest of the International Arbitrations to which the United States has been a Party (1898) 6 yols. For a list of the principal " con- cordats," see Calvo, Droit international theorique et pratique t. i. On the history of the great European treaties generally, see the Histoire abregee des traites de paix entre les puissances de VEurope, by Koch, as recast and continued by Scholl (1817 and 1818), and again by Count de Garden in 1848-1859, as also the Recueil manuel of De Martens and Cussy, continued by Geffcken. For the peace of West- phalia, Putter's Geist des •westphdlischen Friedens (1795) is useful; for the congress of Vienna Kliiber's Acten des Wiener Congresses (1815-1819) and Le Congres de Vienne et les traites de 1815 precede des conferences de Dresde, de Prague et de Chatillon, suivi des Congres d' Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laybach et Verone, by Count Angeberg. The last-mentioned writer has also published collections of treaties relating to Poland, 1762-1862; to the Italian question, 1859; to the Congress of Paris, 1856 and the revision of its work by the Conference of London, 1871 ; and to the Franco-German War of 1870-71. For the treaties regulating the Eastern question see The European Con- cert in the Eastern Question, by T. E. Holland (1885) and La Turquie et le Tanzimat, by E. Engelhardt (1882-1884). (T. E. H.) TREATISE, a written composition, dealing fully and syste- matically with the principles of some subject of serious impor- tance. The M. Eng. tretis, O. Fr. tretis, or treitis, is a doublet of " treaty," which also meant a discourse or account. Both words are to be referred to Lat. tractare, to treat, handle, frequentative of trahere, tractus, to draw. " Treatise " thus would mean, by etymology, something well handled, nicely made. TREBIA (mod. Trebbia) , a river of Cisalpine Gaul, a tributary of the Padus (Po) into which it falls some 4 m. west of Placentia (Piacenza). It is remarkable for the victory gained on its banks by Hannibal over the Romans in 218 B.C. The latest investi- gations make it clear that Polybius's account, according to which the battle took place on the left bank of the river, is to be preferred to that of Livy (see W. J. Kromayer in Anzeiger der pliil. hist. Klasse der k. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna, October 14, 1908). Its valley is followed past Bobbio by the modern highroad from Piacenza to Genoa (88 m.)v TREBINJE, a town of Herzegovina, situated 9 m. N. E. of Ragusa, on the small river TrebinjCica, and on a branch of the railway from Metkovic to Castelnuovo, near Cattaro. Pop. (1895), about 1700. Trebmje is built in a low-lying oasis among the desolate limestone mountains, close to the Dalmatian and Montenegrin frontiers. Its half-ruined wall and citadel testify to its former strategic importance. Trebinje was built by the Slavs, probably on the site of a Roman town laid waste by the Saracens in 840. In the tenth century Constantine Porphyro- gcnitus mentions it as Terbunia. It commanded the road from Ragusa to Constantinople, traversed, in 1096, by Raymond of Toulouse and his crusaders. Under the name of Tribunia or Travunja (the Trebigne of the Ragusans), it belonged to the Servian Empire until 1355. In 1483 it was captured by the Turks. TREBIZOND (Gr. Trapezus), a city of Asia Minor, situated on the Black Sea, near its south-eastern angle. From the time of its foundation as a Greek colony to the present day it has always been a considerable emporium of commerce, and it was for two centuries and a half the capital of an empire. Its importance is due to its command of the point where the chief trade route from Persia and Central Asia to Europe, over the table-land of Armenia by Bayezid and Erzerum, descends to the sea. Its safety also was secured by the barrier of rugged mountains (7000 to 8000 ft.) which separates its district from the rest of Asia Minor. So complete is the watershed that no streams pass through these ranges, and there is hardly any communication in this direction between the interior of Asia Minor and the coast. For the same reason, together with its northern aspect, the climate is humid and temperate, unlike that of the inland regions, which are ex- posed to great extremes of heat in summer and cold in winter. The position which was occupied by the Hellenic and medieval city is a sloping table of ground (whence the original name of the place, Trapezus, the " Table-land "), which falls in steep rocky precipices on the two sides, where two deep valleys, descending from the interior, run parallel at no great distance from one another down to the sea. The whole is still enclosed by the Byzan- tine walls, which follow the line of the cliffs and are carried along the sea-face; and the upper part of the level, which is separated from the lower by an inner cross wall, forms the castle; while at the highest point, where a sort of neck is formed between the two valleys, is the keep which crowns the whole. On each side, about half-way between the keep and the sea, these ravines are crossed by massive bridges, and on the farther side of the western- most of these, away from the city, a large tower and other fortifi- cations remain. The area of the ancient city is now called the Kaleh, and is inhabited by the Turks; eastward of this is the extensive Christian quarter, and beyond this again a low promon- tory juts northward into the sea, partly covered with the houses of a well-built suburb, which is the principal centre of commerce. The harbour lies on the eastern side of this promontory, but it is an unsafe roadstead, being unprotected towards the north-east and having been much silted up, so that vessels cannot approach within a considerable distance of the shore. From here the caravans start for Persia, and at certain periods of the year long trains of camels may be seen, and Persian merchants conspicuous by their high black caps and long robes. The route which these caravans follow is a chaussee as far as Erzerum, but this in places is too much broken to admit of the transit of wheeled vehicles. The railway by Batoum to Baku by way of Tiflis has tended greatly to turn the channel of commerce from Trebizond into Russian territory, since it helps to open the route to Erivan, Tabriz and the whole of Persia. The total population of the place amounts to about 40,000, of whom 22,000 are Moslems and 18,000 Christians. Great Britain and all the larger European states have consulates there. The vilayet, of which Trebizond is the chief town, consists of a long irregular strip of coast country, the eastern half of which is deeply indented and mountainous. History. — The city of Trapezus was a colony of Sinope, but it first comes into notice at the time of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, who found repose there. Notwithstanding its com- mercial importance, the remoteness of its position prevented it from being much known to fame either in the Hellenic or the early medieval period; its greatness dates from the time of the fourth crusade (1204), when the Byzantine Empire was dismembered and its capital occupied by the Latins. During the confusion that followed that event Alexius Comnenus escaped into Asia, and, having collected an army of Iberian mercenaries, entered Trebizond, where he was acknowledged as the legitimate sove- reign, and assumed the title of Grand Comnenus. Though only twenty-two years of age, Alexius was a man of ability and resolute will, and he succeeded without difficulty in making himself master of the greater part of the southern coast of the Black Sea. The empire thus founded continued to exist until 1461, when the city was taken by Mahommed II. The cause of this long duration, and at the same time the secret of its history, is to be found in the isolated position of Trebizond and its district, between the mountains and the sea, which has already been described. By this means it was able to defy both the Seljuks and the Ottomans, and to maintain its independence against the emperors of Nicaea and Constanti- nople. But for the same reason its policy was always narrow, so that it never exercised any beneficial influence on the world at large. It was chiefly in the way of matrimonial alliances that it was brought into contact with other states. The imperial family were renowned for their beauty, and the princesses of this race were sought as brides by Byzantine emperors of the dynasty of the Palaeologi, by Western nobles, and by Mahommedan princes; and the connexions thus formed originated a variety of TREBLE— TREBULA 233 diplomatic relations and friendly or offensive alliances. The palace of Trebizond was famed for its magnificence, the court for its luxury and elaborate ceremonial, while at the same time it was frequently a hotbed of intrigue and immorality. The Grand Comneni were also patrons of art and learning, and in consequence of this Trebizond was resorted to by many eminent men, by whose agency the library of the palace was provided with valuable manuscripts and the city was adorned with splendid buildings. The writers of the time speak with enthusiasm of its lofty towers, of the churches and monasteries in the suburbs, and especially of the gardens, orchards and olive groves. It excited the admir- ation of Gonzales Clavijo, the Spanish envoy, when he passed through it on his way to visit the court of Timur at Samarkand (Clavijo, Historia del gran Tamorlan, p. 84); and Cardinal Bessarion, who was a native of the place, in the latter part of his life, when the city had passed into the hands of the Mahomme- dans, and he was himself a dignitary of the Roman Church, so little forgot the impression it had made upon him that he wrote a work entitled "The Praise of Trebizond " (' EYKcb/uopTpaTrcf OVVTOS) , which exists in manuscript at Venice. Little was known of the history of the empire of Trebizond until the subject was taken in hand by Professor Fallmerayer of Munich, who discovered the chronicle of Michael Panaretus among the books of Cardinal Bessarion, and from that work, and other sources of information which were chiefly unknown up to that time, compiled his Geschichte des Kaiserthums lion Trapezunt (Munich, 1827). From time to time the emperors of Trebizond paid tribute to the Seljuk sultans of Iconium, to the grand khans of the Mongols, to Timur the Tatar, to the Turkoman chieftains, and to the Ottomans; but by means of skilful negotiations they were enabled practically to secure their independence. We find them also at war with many of these powers, and with the Genoese, who endeavoured to monopolize the commerce of the Black Sea. The city was several times besieged, the most formidable attack being that which occurred in the reign of AndronicusL, the second emperor, when the Seljuks, under the command of Melik, the son of the great sultan Ala-ed-din, first assaulted the northern wall in the direc- tion of the sea, and afterwards endeavoured to storm the upper citadel by night. They failed, however, in both attempts; and in the latter, owing to the darkness, and to the occurrence of a violent storm which suddenly swelled the torrents in the ravines, their force was thrown into inextricable confusion, and they were compelled to abandon their camp and make the best of their escape from the country. So great was the strength of the fortifications that Mahommed II. might have experienced much difficulty in reducing it, had it not been for the pusillanimous conduct of David, the last emperor, who surrendered the place almost unconditionally. Ancient Memorials. — Several interesting monuments of this period remain at Trebizond in the form of churches in the Byzantine style of architecture. One of these is within the area of the old city, viz. the church of the Panaghia Chrysokephalos, or Virgin of the Golden Head, a large and massive but exces- sively plain building, which is now the Orta-hissar mosque. On the farther side of the eastern ravine stands a smaller but very well proportioned structure, the church of St Eugenius, the patron saint of Trebizond, now the Yeni Djuma djami, or New Friday mosque. Still more important is the church of Haghia Sophia, which occupies a conspicuous position over- looking the sea, about 2 m. west of the city. The porches of this are handsomely ornamented, and about 100 ft. from it rises a tall campanile, the inner walls of which have been covered in parts with frescoes of religious subjects, though these are now much defaced. But the most remarkable memorial of the middle ages that exists in all this district is the monastery of Sumelas, which is situated about 25 m. from Trebizond, at the side of a rocky glen, at a height of 4000 ft. above the sea. Its position is most extraordinary, for it occupies a cavern in the middle of the face of a perpendicular cliff 1000 ft. high, where the white buildings offer a marked contrast to the brown rock which forms their setting. It is approached by a zigzag path at the side of the cliff, from which a flight of stone steps and a wooden staircase give access to the monastery. The valley below is filled with the richest vegetation, the under- growth being largely composed of azaleas and rhododendrons. An antiquity of 1 500 years is claimed for the foundation of the monastery, but it is certain that the first person who raised it to importance was the emperor Alexius Comnenus III. of Trebi- zond; he rebuilt it in 1360, and richly endowed it. The golden bull of that emperor, which became thenceforth the charter of its foundation, is still preserved; it is one of the finest specimens of such documents, and contains portraits of Alexius himself and his queen. The monastery also possesses the firman of Mahommed II. by which he accorded ^ his protection to the monks when he became master of the country. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. Ph. Fallmerayer, Geschichte des Kaiserthums von Trapezunt (Munich, 1827); also Fragmente aus dem Orient, vol. i. (Stuttgart, 1845); C. Texier.^iie Mineure (Paris, 1862); C. Texier and R. P. Pullan, Byzantine Architecture (London, 1864); G. Finlay, History of Greece, vol. iv. (Oxford, 1877); H. F. Tozer, Turkish Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor (London, 1881). (H. F. T.) TREBLE (a doublet of " triple," three-fold, from Lat. triplus, triple; cf. " double " from duplus), the term applied, in music, to the high or acute part of the musical system, as opposed to and distinguished from the " bass," the lower or grave part. The middle C is the practical division between the parts. The word is also used as equivalent to the " soprano " voice, the highest pitch or range of the human voice, but generally it is confined to a boy's voice of this quality, " soprano " being used of the corresponding female voice. The treble-clef is the G-clef on the second line. The origin of this application of the term " treble," triplus, threefold, to the highest voice or part is due to the fact that in the early plain-song the chief melody was given to the tenor, the second part to the alto (discantus) and where a third part (triplum) was added it was assigned to the highest voice, the soprano or treble. TR£BUCHET, a medieval siege engine, employed either to batter masonry or to throw projectiles over walls. It was developed from the post-classical Roman onager (wild ass), which derived its name from the kicking action of the machine. It consisted of a frame placed on the ground to which a vertical frame of solid timber was rigidly fixed at its front end ; through the vertical frame ran an axle, which had a single stout spoke. On the extremity of the spoke was a cup to receive the projectile. In action the spoke was forced down, against the tension of twisted ropes or other springs, by a windlass, and then suddenly released. The spoke thus kicked the crosspiece of the vertical frame, and the projectile at its extreme end was shot forward. In the trebuchet the means of propulsion was a counter- weight. The axle which was near the top of a high strutted vertical frame served as the bridge of a balance, the shorter arm of which carried the counter-weight and the longer arm the carrier for the shot. An alternative name for the tr6buchet is the mangonel (mangonneau) . TREBULA, the name of five ancient towns in Italy, (i) TREBULA in Samnium, a town of the Caraceni, on the left bank of the Sangro, some 20 m. below Castel di Sangrojthe church of the Madonna degli Spineti near Quadri marks the site. It appears to have been a municipium, but we only know of its existence in Hadrian's time. (2) TREBULA in Campania, between Saticula and Suessula. The site is probably identical with the hills bearing the modern name Tripaola (about 1000 ft. above sea level) above the entrance to the valley of Maddaloni. It is possibly this Trebula the citizens of which received Latin rights in 303 B.C. Its territory extended as far as the Via Appia, and its place was taken in imperial times by the Vicus Nova- nensis, on the road itself, near Suessula. (3) TREBULA BALLI- ENSIS (mod. Treglia), also in Campania, 22 m. north of Capua, in the mountains, about 1000 ft. above sea-level. It revolted to Hannibal and was reduced to obedience by Fabius. Remains of walls, aqueduct and tombs exist. Its territory was men- tioned in the projected distributions of land in Cicero's time: and its wine was well thought of under Nero. It was a muni- cipium. (4) TREBULA MUTUESCA in the Sabine country, 2 m. 234 TREDEGAR— TREE-CREEPER east of the point where the Via Caecilia diverges from the Via Salaria. It lies about i m. south-west of the modern Monte- leone, and an amphitheatre and other remains are visible. In a dedication made there by the consul Mummius in 146 B.C. it is spoken of as a views, but when the praefecturae were abolished it became a municipium. The post station of Vicus Novus on the Via Salaria (mod. Osteria Li Massacci) belonged to its territory (see N. Persichetti in Romische Mitteilungen, 1898, P- !93)- (s) TREBULA SUFFENAS is generally placed 6 m. south of Reate (mod. Rieti) on the Via Quinctia, but is with considerable probability identified with Ciciliano, 10 m. east of Tivoli, 2030 ft. above sea-level, by Q. Cuntz (Jahreshefle des oesterr. arch. Instituts, 1899, ii. 89), who combines the evidence of inscriptions and of the description in Martial (v. 71), with a new interpreta- tion of the Itineraries. There are remains of an ancient road, with substructures in rough polygonal work ascending to it in zigzags. (T. As.) TREDEGAR, an urban district in the western parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, on the Sirhowy river, 24 m. north of Cardiff, on a joint line of the London & North- Western and the Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901), 18,497. It stands at an elevation of about 1000 ft., and owes its existence to the establishment in the beginning of the igth century of the works of the Tredegar Iron and Coal Company, which employ most of the large industrial population. The place gave the title of Baron Tredegar (c. 1859) to Sir Charles Morgan Robinson Morgan, Bart. (1792-1875), whose grandfather, Sir Charles Gould, Bart., married the heiress of John Morgan of Tredegar and changed his name to Morgan. He was M.P. for Brecknock in 1835-1847. He married a granddaughter of the ist Lord Rodney. His son Godfrey (b. 1830), who succeeded to the barony, was created Viscount Tredegar in 1905; he had served in the Crimea and taken part in the famous Balaclava charge. TREDGOLD, THOMAS (1788-1829), English engineer, was born at Brandon, near Durham, on the 22nd of August 1788, and at the age of fourteen was apprenticed to a carpenter. In 1808 he went to Scotland, and after working there as a journeyman for five years, obtained employment in London with an architect. He began to practice as a civil engineer on his own account in 1823, but much of his time was devoted to the preparation of his engineering text-books, which gained a wide reputation. They included Elementary Principles of Carpentry (1820), almost the first book of its kind in English; Practical Treatise on the Strength of Cast Iron and other Metals (1824) ; Principles of Warm- ing and Ventilating Public Buildings (1824); Practical Treatise on Railroads and Carriages ( 1825); and The Steam Engine (1827). He died in London on the a8th of January 1829. TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- ), English actor and manager, was born in London, on the I7th of Decem- ber 1853, the son of Julius Beerbohm, a London merchant of German parentage; his half-brother, Max Beerbohm (b. 1872), became well known as a dramatic critic, a miscellaneous writer and caricaturist. Taking the stage name of Beerbohm Tree he made his first professional appearance in London in 1876. After some years of varied experience he made a striking success in 1884 as the curate in The Private Secretary, but he was making himself well known meanwhile in dramatic circles as an admir- able actor in many r&les. In September 1887 he became lessee and manager of the Haymarket theatre, London, where his representations of melodramatic " character " parts, as in Jim the Penman, The Red Lamp, and A Man's Shadow, were highly successful. His varied talents as an actor were displayed, however, not only in a number of modern dramas, such as H. A. Jones's Dancing Girl, but also in romantic parts such as Grin- goire, and in the production of so essentially a literary play as Henley's Beau Austin; and in classic parts his ability as a come- dian was shown in The Merry Wives of Windsor, in which he played Falstaff, and as a tragedian in Hamlet; his presentations of Shakespeare were notable too as carrying forward the methods of realistic staging inaugurated at the Lyceum under Irving. In 1897 Mr Tree moved to the new Her Majesty's (afterwards His Majesty's) theatre, opening with Gilbert Parker's Seats oj the Mighty; but his chief successes were in Stephen Phillips's poetical dramas, and in his splendid revivals of Shakespeare (especially Richard II. and the Merchant of Venice). The magnificence of the mounting, the originality and research shown in the " business " of his productions, and his own versatility in so many different types of character, made his management memorable in the history of the London stage; and on the death of Sir Henry Irving he was generally recognized as the leader in his profession. His wife (Maud Holt), an accomplished actress, and their daughter Viola, were also prominently associated with him. In 1907 he took his company to Berlin at the invitation of the German emperor, and gave a selection from his repertoire with great success. In the same year he established a school of dramatic art, for the training of actors, in London; and in this and other ways he was prominent in forwarding the interests of the stage. He was knighted in 1909. TREE (O. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. trae, Swed. trad, tree, Ira, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. 6pDs, oak, and dopv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. ddru, wood) , the term, applied in a wide sense, to all plants which grow with a permanent single woody stem or trunk of some height, branching out at some distance from the ground. There is a somewhat vague dividing line, in popular nomenclature, between " shrubs " and " trees," the former term being usually applied to plants with several stems, of lower height, and bushy in growth. The various species to which the name " tree " can be given are treated under their individual titles, e.g. oak, ash, elm, &c. ; the articles FIR and PINE treat of two large groups of conifers; general information is provided by the articles PLANTS and GYMNOSPERMS; tree cultivation will be found under FORESTS AND FORESTRY and HORTICULTURE; and the various types of tree whose wood is useful for practical purposes under TIMBER. Apart from this general meaning of the word, the chief trans- ferred use is that for a piece of wood used for various specific purposes, as a framework, bar, &c., such as the tree of a saddle, axle-tree, cross-tree, &c. TREE-CREEPER, one of the smallest of British birds, and, regard being had to its requirements, one very generally distri- buted. It is the Cerlhiafamiliaris of ornithology, and is remark- able for the stiffened shafts of its long and pointed tail-feathers, aided by which, and by its comparatively large feet, it climbs the trunks or branches of trees, invariably proceeding upwards or outwards and generally in a spiral direction, as it seeks the small insects that are hidden in the bark and form its chief food. When in the course of its search it nears the end of a branch or the top of a trunk, it flits to another, always alighting lower down than the place it has left, and so continues its work. Inconspicuous in colour — for its upper plumage is mostly of various shades of brown mottled with white, buff and tawny, and beneath it is of a silvery white — the tree-creeper is far more common than the incurious suppose; but, attention once drawn to it, it can be frequently seen and at times heard, for though a shy singer its song is loud and sweet. The nest is neat, generally placed in a chink formed by a half-detached piece of bark, which secures it from observation, and a considerable mass of material is commonly used to stuff up the opening and give a sure founda- tion for the tiny cup, in which are laid from six to nine eggs of a translucent white, spotted or blotched with rust-colour. The tree-creeper inhabits almost the whole of Europe as well as Algeria and has been traced across Asia to Japan. It is now recog- nized as an inhabitant of the greater part of North America, though for a time examples from that part of the world, which differed slightly in the tinge of the plumage, were accounted a distinct species (C. americana) and even those from Mexico and Guatemala (C. mexi- cana) have lately been referred to the same. It therefore occupies an area not exceeded in extent by that of many passerine birds and is one of the strongest witnesses to the close alliance of the so-called Nearctic and Palaearctic regions. Allied to the tree-creeper, but without its lengthened and stiff tail-feathers, is the genus Tichodroma, the single member of which is the wall-creeper (T. muraria) of the Alps and some other mountain- ous parts of Europe and Asia. It is occasionally seen in Switzerland, fluttering like a big butterfly against the face of a rock conspicuous TREE-FERN— TREE- WORSHIP 235 from the scarlet-crimson of its wing-coverts and its white spotted primaries. Its bright hue is hardly visible when the bird is at rest, and it then presents a dingy appearance of grey and black. It is a species of wide range, extending from Spain to China; and, though but seldom leaving its cliffs, it nas wandered even so far as England. Merrett (Pinax, p. 177) in 1667 included it as a British bird, and the correspondence between Marsham and Gilbert White (Proc. Norf. and Nona. Nat. Society, ii. 180) proves that an example was shot m Norfolk, on the 3Oth of October 1792; while another is reported (Zoologist, 2nd series, p. 4839) to have been killed in Lancashire on the 8th of May 1872. The passerine family Certhiidae contains a number of genera of birds to which the general name "creeper" is applied; they occur in North America, Europe and Asia, the greater part of Africa, and Australia and New Guinea. (A. N.) TREE-FERN. In old and well-grown specimens of some of the familiar ferns of temperate climates the wide-spreading crown of fronds may be observed to rise at a distance often of a good many inches above the ground, and from a stem of consider- able thickness. The common male fern Lastraea (Filix-mas) affords the commonest instance of this; higher and thicker trunks are, however, occasionally presented by the royal fern (Osmunda regalis), in which a height of 2 ft. may be attained, and this with very considerable apparent thickness, due, however, to the origin and descent of a new series of adventitious roots from the bases of each annual set of fronds. Some tropical members and allies of these genera become more distinctly tree-like, e.g. Todea; Pteris also has some sub-arboreal forms. Oleandra is branched and shrub-like, while Angiopteris and Mar- attia may also rise to 2 ft. or more. But the tree-ferns proper are practically included within the family Cyatheaceae. This includes seven genera (Cyathea, Alsophila, Hemitelia, Dicksonia, Thyrsopteris, Cibotium and Balantium) and nearly 300 species, of which a few are herbaceous, but the majority arboreal and palm-like, reaching frequently a height of 50 ft. or more, Also- phila excelsa of Norfolk Island having sometimes measured 60 to 80 ft. The fronds are rarely simple or simply pinnate, but usually tripinnate or decompound, and may attain a length of 20 ft., thus forming a splendid crown of foliage. The stem may occasionally branch into many crowns. The genera are of wide geographical range, mostly within the tropics; but South Australia, New Zealand, and the southern Pacific islands all possess their tree-ferns. In Tasmania Alsophila australis has been found up to the snow-level, and in the humid and mountain- ous regions of the tropics tree-ferns are also found to range up to a considerable altitude. The fronds may either contribute to the apparent thickness of the stem by leaving more or less of their bases, which become hardened and persistent, or they may be articulated to the stem and fall off, leaving characteristic scars in spiral series upon the stem. The stem is frequently much increased in apparent thickness by the downgrowth of aerial roots, forming a black coating several inches or even a foot in thickness, but its essential structure differs little in principle from that familiar in the rhizome of the common bracken (Pteris). To the ring or rather netted cylinder of fibrovascular bundles characteristic of all fernstems scattered internal as well as external bundles arising from these are superadded and in a tree-fern the outer bundles give off branches to the descending roots from the region where they pass into the leaves. Tree-ferns are cultivated for their beauty alone; a few, however, are of some economic applications, chiefly as sources of starch. Thus the beautiful Alsophila excelsa of Norfolk Island is said to be threatened with extinction for the sake of its sago-like pith, which is greedily eaten by hogs; Cyathea medullaris also furnishes a kind of sago to the natives of New Zealand, Queensland and the Pacific islands. A Javanese species of Dicksonia (D. chrysotricha) furnishes silky hairs, which have been imported as a styptic, and the long silky or rather woolly hairs, so abundant on the stem and frond-leaves in the various species of Cibotium have not only been put to a similar use, but in the Sandwich Islands furnish wool for stuffing mattresses and cushions, which was formerly an article of export. The "Tartarian lamb," or Agnus scythicus of old travellers' tales in China and Tartary, is simply the woolly stock of Cibotium Barometz, which, when dried and inverted, with all save four of its frond-stalks cut away, has a droll resemblance to a toy sheep. TREE FROG. Many different groups of tailless Batrachians (see FROG) are adapted to arboreal life, which is indicated by expansions of the tips of the fingers and toes, adhesive disks which assist the animal in climbing on vertical smooth surfaces. These disks do not act as suckers, but adhere by rapid and intense pressure of the distal phalanx and special muscles upon the lower surface, which is also provided with numerous glands producing a viscous secretion. The best-known tree frog is the little Hyla arbor ea of continental Europe, rainette of the French, Laubfrosch of the Germans, often kept in glass cylinders provided with a ladder, which the frog is supposed to ascender descend in prevision of the weather. But recent experiments conducted on scientific principles show that not much reliance can be placed on its prophecies. This frog is one of the smallest of European Batrachians, rarely reaching 2 in. in length; its upper parts are smooth and shiny, normally of a bright grass-green, which may change rapidly to yellow, brown, olive or black; some specimens, deprived of the yellow pigment which contributes to form the green colour, are sky-blue or turquoise blue; the lower parts are granulate and white. The family Hylidae, of which the European tree frog is the type, is closely related to the Bufonidae or true roads, being distinguished from them by the presence of teeth in the upper jaw and by the claw- like shape of the terminal phalanx of the digits. It is a large family, represented by about three hundred species, two hundred and fifty of which belong to the genus Hyla, distributed over Europe, temperate Asia, North Africa, North and South America, Papua and Australia. Close allies of Hyla are the Nototrema of Central and South America, in which the female develops a dorsal broad pouch in which the young undergo part or the whole of their metamorphoses. The genus Phyllomedusa, also from Central and South America, are quadrumanous; the inner finger and the toe being opposable to the others, and the foot being very similar to the hand. These frogs deposit their spawn between the leaves of branches overhanging water, into which the tadpoles drop and spend their larval life. TREE KANGAROO, any individual of the diprotodont mar- supial genus Dendrolagus (see MARSUPIALIA) . Three species are inhabitants of New Guinea and the fourth is found in North Queensland. They differ greatly from all other members of the family (Macropodidae), being chiefly arboreal in their habits, and feeding on bark, leaves and fruit. Their hinder limbs are shorter than in the true kangaroos, and their fore limbs are longer and more robust, and have very strong curved and pointed claws. The best-known species, Lumholtz' tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus lumholtzi), is found in North Queensland. It was named by Professor Collett in honour of its discoverer, who described it as living on the highest parts of the mountains, in the densest scrub and most inaccessible places. It is hunted by the blacks with trained dingoes; the flesh is much prized by the blacks, but the presence of a worm between the muscles and the skin renders it less inviting to Europeans. TREE-SHREW, any of the arboreal insectivorous mammals of the genus Tupaia. There are about a dozen species, widely distributed over the east. There is a general resemblance to squirrels. The species differ chiefly in the size and in colour and length of the fur. Nearly all have long bushy tails. Their food consists of insects and fruit, which they usually seek for in the trees. When feeding they often sit on their haunches, holding the food, after the manner of squirrels, between their fore paws. The pen-tailed tree-shrew (Ptilocercus lowf) , from Borneo, Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, is the second generic representative of the family Tupaiidae. The head and body, clothed in blackish- brown fur, are about 6 in. long; the tail, still longer, is black, scaled and sparsely haired for the upper two-thirds, while the lower third is fringed on each side with long hairs, mostly white. One shrew from Borneo and a second from the Philippines have been referred to a separate genus under the name Urogale everetli and U. cylindrura, on account of their uniformly short-haired, in place of varied, tails. (See INSECTIVORA.) TREE-WORSHIP. Primitive man, observing the growth and death of trees, the elasticity of their branches, the sensitiveness and the annual decay and revival of their foliage, anticipated in his own way the tendency of modern science to lessen the gulf between the animal and the vegetable world. When sober Greek philosophers (Aristotle, Plutarch) thought that trees had percep- tions, passions and reason, less profound thinkers may be excused for ascribing to them human conceptions and supernatural powers, and for entertaining beliefs which were entirely rational and logical from primitive points of view. These beliefs!..were 236 TREE-WORSHIP part of a small stock of fundamental ideas into which scientific knowledge of causation did not enter, ideas which persist in one form or another over a large portion of the world, and have even found a place in the higher religions, inevitably conditioned as these positive faiths are by the soil upon which they flourish.1 In fact, the evidence for tree-worship is almost unmanageably large, and since comparative studies do not as yet permit a concise and conclusive synopsis of the subject, this article will confine itself to some of the more prominent characteristics. Numerous popular stories reflect a firmly rooted belief in an intimate connexion between a human being and a tree, plant or flower. Sometimes a man's life depends upon the //umanl./fe. tree anc^ suffers when it withers or is injured, and we encounter the idea of the external soul, already found in the Egyptian " Tale of the Two Brothers " of at least 3000 years ago. Here one of the brothers leaves his heart on the top of the flower of the acacia and falls dead when it is cut down. Some- times, however, the tree is an index, a mysterious token which shows its sympathy with an absent hero by weakening or dying, as the man becomes ill or loses his life. These two features very easily combine, and they agree in representing a — to us — mysterious sympathy between tree- and human-life, which, as a matter of fact, frequently manifests itself in recorded beliefs and customs of historical times.2 Thus, sometimes the new-born child is associated with a newly planted tree with which its life is supposed to be bound up; or, on ceremonial occasions (betrothal, marriage, ascent to the throne), a personal relationship of this kind is instituted by planting trees, upon the fortunes of which the career of the individual depends. Sometimes, moreover, boughs or plants are selected and the individual draws omens of life and death from the fate of his or her choice. Again, a man will put himself into relationship with a tree by depositing upon it something which has been in the closest contact with himself (hair, clothing, &c.). This is not so unusual as might appear; there are numerous examples of the conviction that a sympathetic relationship continues to subsist between things which have once been connected (e.g. a man and his hair), and this may be illus- trated especially in magical practices upon material objects which are supposed to affect the former owner.3 We have to start then with the recognition that the notion of a real inter-connexion between human life and trees has never presented any difficulty to primitive minds. The custom of transferring disease or sickness from men to trees is well known.4 Sometimes the hair, nails, clothing, &c., of a sickly person are fixed to a tree, or they are forcibly inserted in a hole in the trunk, or the tree is split and the patient passes through the aperture. Where the tree has been thus injured, its recovery and that of the patient are often associated. Different explanations may be found of such customs which naturally take rather different forms among peoples in different grades of 1 In this as in other subjects of comparative religion (see SERPENT- WORSHIP), the comparative and historical aspects of the problems should not be severed from psychology, which investigates the actual mental processes themselves. A naive rationalism or intellectualism which would ridicule or deplore the modern retention of " primitive" ideas has to reckon with the psychology of the modern average mental constitution; a more critical and more sympathetic attitude may recognize in religious and in other forms of belief and custom the necessary consequences of a continuous development linking together the highest and the lowest conceptions of life. 2 See the evidence collected by E. S. Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (1894-1896), ii.; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (1900), iii. 351 sqq., 391 ; and in general, A. E. Crawley, The Idea of the Soul (1909). •There appears to be a fundamental confusion of association, likeness and id_entity, which on psychological grounds is quite intelligible. _ It is appropriate to notice the custom of injuring an enemy by simply beating a tree-stump over which his name had previously been pronounced (A.B. Ellis, The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa, 1890, p. 98). The folk-lore of the " name" is widespread and of great antiquity, and certain features of it show that a thing (individual or object) and its name were not easily disconnected, and that what affected the one affected the other. In this case, by pronouncing the name the tree-stump for all intents and purposes became the enemy. 4 Hartland ii. 142 sqq. ; Frazer, iii. 26 sqq. civilization. Much depends upon the theory of illness. In India, for example, when the patient is supposed to be tormented by a demon, ceremonies are performed to provide it with a tree where it will dwell peacefully without molesting the patient so long as the tree is left unharmed.6 Such ideas do not enter, of course, when the rite merely removes the illness and selfishly endangers the health of those who may approach the tree.6 Again, sometimes it is clearly felt that the man's personality has been mystically united with some healthy and sturdy tree, and in this case we may often presume that such trees already possessed some peculiar reputation. The custom finds an analogy when hair, nail-clippings, &c., are hung upon a tree for safety's sake lest they fall into the hands of an enemy who might injure the owner by means of them. In almost every part of the world travellers have observed the custom of hanging objects upon trees in order to establish some sort of a relationship between the offerer and the tree. Such trees not infrequently adjoin a well or are accom- panied by sacred buildings, pillars, &c. Throughout Europe, also, a mass of evidence has been collected testifying to the lengthy persistence of " superstitious " practices and beliefs concerning them. The trees are known as the scenes of pilgrim- ages, ritual ambulation, and the recital of (Christian) prayers. Wreaths, ribbons or rags are suspended to win favour for sick men or cattle, or merely for " good luck." Popular belief associates the sites with healing, bewitching, or mere " wishing "; and though now perhaps the tree is the object only of some vague respect, there are abundant allusions to the earlier vitality of coherent and systematic cults.7 Decayed or fragmentary though the features may be in Europe, modern observers have found in other parts of the world more organic examples which enable us, not necessarily to reconstruct the fragments which have survived in the higher religions and civilizations, but at least to understand their earlier significance. In India, for example, the Korwas hang rags on the trees which form the shrines of the village-gods. In Nebraska the object of the custom was to propitiate the super- natural beings and to procure good weather and hunting. In South America Darwin recorded a tree honoured by numerous offerings (rags, meat, cigars, &c.) ; libations were made to it, and horses were sacrificed.8 If, in this instance, the Gauchos regarded the tree, not as the embodiment or abode of Walleechu, but as the very god himself, this is a subtle but very important transference of thought, the failure to realize which has not been confined to those who have venerated trees. Among the Arabs the sacred trees are haunted by angels or by jinn; sacrifices are made, and the sick who sleep beneath them receive prescriptions in their dreams. Here, as frequently elsewhere, it is dangerous to pull a bough. spirits* This dread of damaging special trees is familiar: Cato instructed the woodman to sacrifice to the male or female deity before thinning a grove (De re ruslica, 139), while in the Homeric poem to Aphrodite the tree nymph is wounded when the tree is injured, and dies when the trunk falls.9 Early Buddhism decided that trees had neither mind nor feeling and might lawfully be cut ; but it recognized that certain spirits might reside in them, and this the modern natives of India firmly believe. Propitiation is made before the sacrilegious axe is laid to the holy trees; loss of life or of wealth and the failure of rain are feared should they be wantonly cut; and there are even trees which it is dangerous to climb.10 The Talein of Burma prays to the tree before he cuts it down, and the African woodman will place a fresh sprig upon the 6 W. Crooke, The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (1896), ii. 0.2 sqq.; cf. p. 96, where the demon, the cause of sterility, is removed to trees. 6 Cf . E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (1903), ii. 149 seq., G. L. Gomme, Ethnology in Folk-lore (1892), 141 seq. 'Hartlandii. 175 sqq.; Gomme, pp. 85, 94 seq., 102 sqq., and the literature at the end of this article. 8 Tylor ii. 223 seq. 9 See generally Frazer i. 170 sqq., Tylor i. 475 sqq., ii. 219 seq. For the survival of the idea of modern Greece, see J. C. Lawson, Modern Greek Folk-lore (1910), p. 158 seq. 10 Crooke ii. 77, 87, 90 sqq. TREE-WORSHIP 237 stump as a new home for the spirit. In the Gold Coast the silk- cotton and odum (poison) trees are especially sacred as the abode of the two deities, who are honoured by sacrifices — even of human victims; these indwelt trees must not be cut, and, since all trees of these species are under their protection, they can be felled only after certain purificatory ceremonies.1 In general the evidence shows that sacred trees must not be injured unless they (i.e. their spirits) have been appeased, or means taken to provide the occupant with another abode. That the difference between the sacred object and the sacred occupant was not always clearly drawn is quite intelligible from those beliefs of much less rudi- mentary religions which confuse the unessential with the essential. Again, when the jungle-races of India clear the forests, they leave behind certain trees which are carefully protected lest the sylvan gods should abandon the locality (Crooke ii. 90). These trees embody the local deities much in the same way as the north European homestead had a tree or a small grove for the guardian- spirit or " lord of the home," and they resemble the tree tutelary genius of old German villages and the Japanese trees which are the terrestrial dwelling-places of the guardian of the hamlets.2 Such beliefs as these are more significant when trees are associated with the spirits of the dead. Trees were planted around graves in Greece, and in Roman thought groves were associated with the manes of the pious. The Baduyas of the central provinces of India worship the souls of their ancestors in groves of Saj trees, and this may be supplemented by various modern burial usages where the dead are buried in trees, or where the sacred tree of the village enshrines the souls of the dead forefathers. Thus among the natives of South Nigeria each village has a big tree into which the spirits of the dead are supposed to enter; when a woman wants a child or when a man is sick, sacrifice is made to it, and if the " Big God " Osowo who lives in the sky is favourable the request is granted.3 Often the tree is famous for oracles. Best known, perhaps, is the oak of Dodona tended by priests who slept on the ground. Forms of The tall oaks of the old Prussians were inhabited Cult. by gods who gave responses, and so numerous are the examples that the old Hebrew " terebinth of the teacher " (Gen. xii. 6), and the " terebinth of the diviners " (Judg. ix. 37) may reasonably be placed in this category. Important sacred trees are also the object of pilgrimage, one of the most noteworthy being the branch of the Bo tree at Ceylon brought thither before the Christian era.4 The tree-spirits- will hold sway over the surrounding forest or district, and the animals in the locality are often sacred and must not be harmed. Thus, the pigeons at the grove of Dodona, and the beasts around the north European tree-sanctuaries, were left untouched, even as the modern Dyak would allow no interference with the snake by the side of the bush which enshrined a dead kinsman.5 Sacred fires burned before the Lithuanian Perkuno and the Roman Jupiter; both deities were closely associated with the oak, and, indeed, the oak seems to have been very commonly used for the perpetual holy fires of the Aryans.6 The powers of the tree- deities, though often especially connected with the elements, are not necessarily restricted, and the sacred trees can form the cen- tre of religious, and sometimes, also, of national life. Such deities are not abstract beings, but are potent and immediate, and the cultus is primarily as utilitarian as the duties of life itself. They may have their proper ministrants- (a) the chief sanctuary of the old Prussians was a holy oak around which lived priests and a high priest known as " God's mouth "; (b) in Africa there are 1 A. B. Ellis, op. cit. pp. 49 sqq. ; cf. further Frazer i. 180, 182 sqq. "Tylor ii. 225; H. M. Chadwick, "The Oak and the Thunder- god," Journ. of the Anthrop. Inst. (1900), pp. 30, 32, 43. 3 C. Partridge, The Cross River Natives (1904), p. 273; cf. further Crooke ii. 85, 91 ; Tylor ii. 10 seq. ; Frazer i. 178 sqq. ; J. G. Forlong, Faiths of Man, iii. 446. 4 Tylor ii. 218, and for other examples, pp. 224, 226;W.R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (1894), p. 185. ' Frazer i. 179, cf. 230. 6 Ibid. 168; see his Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship (1905)- PP- 209, 281. sacred groves into which the priest alone may enter, and (c) among the Kissil-Bashi (or Kizilbashes) of the Upper Tigris and Euphrates, the holy tree of the village stands in an enclosure to which only the father-priest has access.7 The trees may be the scene of religious festivals, and — what sometimes goes with these — of periodical fairs and markets. Among the Lousiade group in British New Guinea the religious feasts are held under the sacred tree and a portion is laid aside for the spirit-occupants. That the invisible spirit naturally enjoyed only the spiritual part of the offerings is a belief which may have been shared by others than the African negro.8 Human sacrifice is known on the Slave Coast and in the Punjab; it was practised amopg the Druids, and at Odin's grave at Upsala. It is also said that the pollution of old Prussian sacred groves and springs by the intrusion of Christians was atoned for by human victims. Indeed, to judge from later popular custom and tradition, and from the allusion in ancient writers, various grisly rites and acts of licentiousness (such as the more advanced Hebrew prophets denounced) were by no means unusual features in the cults of trees and vegetation.9 Although trees have played so prominent a part in the history of religions, the utmost caution is necessary in any attempt to estimate the significance of isolated evidence and its Forms of relation to the contemporary thought. Let it suffice Develop- to notice that in West Equatorial Africa the death of meat- the sacred tree near the temples leads to the abandonment of the village, that in Rome the withering of the sacred fig-tree of Romulus in the Forum caused the greatest consternation. One can now understand in some measure why so much importance should be attached to a venerated tree, but these examples will illustrate the different historical and religious conditions which require study in any investigation of tree-worship. Unfortunately one constantly reaches the point where the ancient writer or the modern observer has failed to record the required information. Moreover, we do not encounter tree-cults at their rise: in every case we arrest the evidence at a certain stage of development. It is often impossible to determine why certain trees are sacred; sometimes it may be that the solitary tree is the survivor of a forest or grove, or it has attracted attention from its curious or uncanny form, or again it stands on a spot which has an immemorial reputation for sanctity. The persistence of sacred localities is often to be observed in the East, where more rudi- mentary forms of tree-cults stand by the side of or outlive higher types of religion.10 The evolution of sacred trees and of religious beliefs and practices associated therewith have not always proceeded along parallel lines. As ideas advanced, the spirits associated with trees were represented by posts, idols, or masks; altars were added, and the trunk was roughly shaped to represent the superhuman occupant. There is reason to believe that the last-mentioned transformation has frequently happened in the development of iconography. Indeed, the natives of the Antilles suppose that certain trees instructed sorcerers to shape their trunks into idols, and to instal them in temple-huts where they could be worshipped and could inspire their priests with oracles.11 7 (a) Chadwick 32; (b) Tylor ii. 224; {c) The Standard, Sept. 19, 1904. For an African tree-god with priesthood and " wives," see Ellis, op. cit. p. 50. 8 Tylor ii. 216 (citing Waitz, Anthrop. ii. 188). 9 See Golden Bough, i. 171 seq.; Lucan, Phar. iii. 405; P. H. Mallet, Northern Antiquities, i. 113. Chadwick 32; and, for the survivals, Golden Bough iii. 345. 10 So in Asia Minor where a tree hung with rags stands by a rock with an ancient " Hittite " representation of the god of vegetation (W. M. Ramsay, The Expositor, Nov., 1906, p. 461 seq.). " Hittite " religion has long passed away, but the locality preserves its sacred character and presents a form of cult older than the " Hittite " civilization itself (cf. also the persistence of the veneration of trees in Palestine in spite of some four thousand years of history). There has not been a reversion to ancient forms of cult in their organic entirety, but with the weakening and loss of the positive influences in the course of history, there has been no progression, and the communities live in simpler conditions and at a simpler stage of mental evolution and they are " childlike " rather than " senile " or " decadent." 11 Tylor, ii. 216. Here one may observe: (a) the virtues of the tree as a whole will be retained — as in the case of the relic of a medieval saint — in any part of it (cf. ibid. 217; the offshoots of the oak of TREFOIL— TREITSCHKE The development of the beliefs relating to the spirit-occupants themselves would take us along quite another line of inquiry. When the tree-spirit was conceived to be of human shape the numerous stories which associate trees with men or deities of flesh and blood would easily arise; and just as Indian natives have gods which are supposed to dwell in trees, so in higher religions we find a Zeus or a Dionysus Endendros, gods, " occupants of trees," who have been identified with one or other of the leading members of a recognized pantheon.1 The vicissitudes of the old tree-spirits are influenced by the circumstances of history. Syrian writers speak of a " king of the forest " and of a tall olive tree to the worship of which Satan seduced the people. But these " trees of the demons " were hewn down by zealous Syrian Chris- tians. So also the caliph Omar cut down the tree at Hodaibaya visited by pilgrims, lest it should be worshipped, and the Council of Nantes (A.D. 895) expressly enjoined the destruction of trees which were consecrated to demons. Tradition has preserved some recollections of the overthrow of tree-cult in Europe. Bonifacius destroyed the great oak of Jupiter at Geismar in Hesse, and built of the wood a chapel to St Peter. (A similar continuity was maintained near Hebron when Constantine destroyed the idols and altars beneath the oak or terebinth of Abraham at Mamre and replaced them by a basilica.) On the Heinzenberg near Zell the Chapel of Our Lady stands where the old tree uttered its complaint as the woodman cut it down; and at Kil- dare (dlldara, church of the oak), " Saint " Brigit or Bridget built her church under an oak tree.2 On the other hand, at Samosata, the sacred tree worshipped in Christian times, was honoured as the wood of Christ's cross, and this growth of a new tradition to justify or at least to modify an old survival recurs in Palestine where the holy trees, whether adjoining a venerated tomb or not, are often connected with the names of saints or prophets and sometimes with appropriate traditions. It is impossible to do more than indicate the outlines of an intricate subject which concerns the course of certain fundamental ideas, their particular development so far as trees are concerned, and the more accidental factors which have influenced these two lines within historical times. Several important aspects have been inevitably ignored, e.g. the marriage of trees and tree-spirits, the annual festivals at the growth and decay of vegetation, and the evidence for the association of prominent deities with tree-spirits. For these features and for other general information see especially the works of J. G. Frazer (Golden Bough; Lectures on Kingship; Adonis, Attis and Osiris; Totemism and Exogamy), other literature cited in the course of this article, and the numerous works dealing with primitive religious and other customs. Among the most useful monographs are those of C. Boetticher, Der Baumkultus d. Hellenen (1856); W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbar- stamme (1875), Antike Wold- und Feldkulte (1877), and, for intro- ductory study, Mrs J. H. Philpot, The Sacred Tree, or the Tree in Religion and Myth (1897). \(S. A. C.) TREFOIL (Lat. Irifolium, three-leaved plant, Fr. trefle, Ger. Dreiblall and Dreiblattbogen), the term in Gothic architecture given to the ornamental foliation or cusping introduced in the heads of window-lights, tracery, panellings, &c., in which the centre takes the form of a three-lobed leaf, one of the earliest examples being in the plate tracery at Winchester (1222-1235); see QUATREFOIL. TREGELLES, SAMUEL PRIDEAUX (1813-1875), English theologian, was born at Wodehouse Place, near Falmouth, on the 30th of January 1813. His parents were Quakers, and he himself for many years was in communion with the (Darbyite) Plymouth Brethren, but afterwards became a Presbyterian. Dodona; the sacred oak of which the Argo was built) ; also (V) it was believed that the divine essence could be made to enter — tran- substantiated as it were — into an image (cf. Rameses II. and his idols; see Breasted, Egypt. Hist. Doc. lii. 179, note; and for analo- gies see Folk-Lore, viii. 325). 1 Even the Hebrews knew of the good-will of " Him who dwelt in the bush " (Deut. xxxiii. 16), For ideas associating Yahweh (Jehovah) with trees, see J. G. Frazer, Anthrop. Essays to E. B. Tylor (1907), p. 125 seq. 4 See Chadwick 33, 35; Frazer, Lectures, 225; and Hartland ii. 181, 184 (who refers to the tree-worship taken over by St Maree and St Etto). Even the temples of Dodona and of Jupiter Capi- tolinus stood on the sites of older tree-worship. For a while he worked at the ironworks, Neath Abbey, Glamorgan, and then set up as a private tutor in Falmouth, finally devoting himself to a laborious student life, until he was incapacitated by paralysis in 1870. He received the LL.D. degree from St Andrews and a pension of £200 from the civil list. He died at Plymouth on the 24th of April 1875. Most of his numerous publications had reference to his great critical edition of the New Testament (1857-1872; see BIBLE; New Testament, Textual Criticism). They include an Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament (1854), a new edition of T. H. Home's Introduction (1860), and Canon Muratorianus: Earliest Catalogue of Books of the New Testament (1868). As early as 1844 he published an edition of the Book of the Revelation, with the Greek text so revised as to rest almost entirely upon ancient evidence. Tregelles wrote Heads of Hebrew Grammar (1852), translated Gesenius's Hebrew Lexicon, and was the author of a little work on the Jansenists (1851) and of various works in exposition of his special eschatological views (Remarks on the Prophetic Visions of Daniel, 1852, new ed., 1864). TR^GUIER, a port of western France, in the department of C6tes-du-Nord, 36 m. N.W. of St Brieuc by road. Pop. (1906), 2605. The port is situated about 5^ m. from the English Channel at the confluence of two streams that form the Treguier river; it carries on fishing and a coasting and small foreign trade. The cathedral, remarkable in having three towers over the transept, one of which is surmounted by a fine spire, dates from the i4th and isth centuries. It contains the sumptuous modern mausoleum of St Yves (d. 1303), a canon of the cathedral, the building of which was largely due to him. To the south of the church there is a cloister (latter half of the isth century) with graceful arcades. There is a statue of Ernest Renan, a native of the town. Saw-milling, boat-building and flax- stripping are carried on, together with trade in cereals, cloth, potatoes, &c. Treguier (Trecoruni), which dates from the 6th century, grew up round a monastery founded by St Tugdual. In the Qth century it became the seat of a bishopric, suppressed in 1790. TREILHARD, JEAN BAPTISTE (1742-1810), French revolu- tionist, was born at Brives (Correze). In Paris he gained reputa- tion as an avocat at the parlement, and was a deputy to the states-general in 1789. In the Constituent Assembly he showed great capacity in dealing with the reorganization of the Church and the nationalization of ecclesiastical property. Ineligible, like all the members of the Constituent Assembly, for the Legis- lative Assembly, he became president of the criminal tribunal of Paris, but failed through lack of firmness. The department of Seine-et-Oise elected him to the Convention, where he attached himself to the group known as the Mountain (q.v.) and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was a member of the committee of public safety, and became president of the Convention on the 27th of December 1792. Under the Directory he entered the Council of the Five Hundred (of which he was president during the month of Nivose, year IV.), was a member of the Tribunal of Cassation, plenipotentiary at the Congress of Rastatt, and became a director in the year VI. After the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire he became president of the tribunal of appeal and councillor of state. He took an important part in drafting the civil code, the criminal code, the code" of civil procedure and the commercial code. He died on the ist of December 1810, a senator and count of the empire. See Bonnal de Ganges, " Representants du peuple dignitaires par Napoleon . . . Treilhard," in the Revue du monde catholique (7th series, vol. iii., 1900) ; Guyot d'Amfreville, Vie de J. B. Treilhard (Limoges, 1879). TREITSCHKE, HEINRICH VON (1834-1896), German his- torian and political writer, was born at Dresden on the isth of September 1834. He was the son of an officer in the Saxon army who rose to be governor of Konigstein and military gover- nor of Dresden. Young Treitschke was prevented by deafness from entering the public service. After studying at Leipzig and Bonn, where he was a pupil of Dahlmann, he established himself as a privatdozent at Leipzig, lecturing on history and politics. He at once became very popular with the students, but his political opinions made it impossible for the Saxon government to appoint him to a professorship. He was at that TRELAWNY, E. J.— TRELAWNY, SIR J. time a strong Liberal; he hoped to see Germany united into a single state with a parliamentary government, and that all the smaller states would be swept away. In 1863 he was appointed professor at Freiburg; in 1866, at the outbreak of war, his sympathies with Prussia were so strong that he went to Berlin, became a Prussian subject, and was appointed editor of the Preussische Jalirbiicher. A violent article, in which he demanded the annexation of Hanover and Saxony, and attacked with great bitterness the Saxon royal house, led to an estrangement from his father, who enjoyed the warm friendship of the king. It was only equalled in its ill humour by his attacks on Bavaria in 1870. After holding appointments at Kiel and Heidelberg, he was in 1874 made professor at Berlin; he had already in 1871 become a member of the Reichstag, and from that time till his death in 1896 he was one of the most prominent figures in the city. On Sybel's death he succeeded him as .editor of the Historische Zeitschrift. He had outgrown his early Liberalism and become the chief panegyrist of the house of Hohenzollern. He did more than any one to mould the minds of the rising generation, and he carried them with him even in his violent attacks on all opinions and all parties which appeared in any way to be injurious to the rising power of Germany. He supported the government in its attempts to subdue by legislation the Socialists, Poles and Catholics; and he was one of the few men of eminence who gave the sanction of his name to the attacks on the Jews which began in 1878. As a strong advocate of colonial expansion he was also a bitter enemy of Great Britain, and he was to a large extent responsible for the anti-British feeling of German Chauvinism during the last years of the igth century. In the Reichstag he had originally been a member of the National Liberal party, but in 1879 he was the first to accept the new commercial policy of Bismarck, and in his later years he joined the Moderate Conserva- tives, but his deafness prevented him from taking a prominent part in debate. He died at Berlin on the 28th of April 1896. As an historian Treitschke holds a very high place. He approached history as a politician and confined himself to those periods and characters in which great political problems were being worked out: above all, he was a patriotic historian, and he never wandered far from Prussia. His great achievement was the History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century. The first volume was published in 1879, and during the next sixteen years four more volumes appeared, but at his death he had only advanced to the year 1847. The work shows extreme diligence, and scrupulous care in the use of authorities. It is discursive and badly arranged, but it is marked by a power of style, a vigour of narrative, and a skill in delineation of character which give life to the most unattractive period of German history; notwithstanding the extreme spirit of partisanship and some faults of taste, it will remain a remarkable monument of literary ability. Besides this he wrote a number of biographical and historical essays, as well as numerous articles and papers on contemporary politics, of which some are valuable contributions to political thought. The most important of the essays have been collected under the title Historische und politische Aufsiitze (4 vols., Leipzig, 1896); a selection from his more controversial writings was made under the title Zehn Jahre deutscher Kampfe; in 1896 a new volume appeared, called Deutsche Kampfe, neue Folge. After his death his lectures on political subjects were published under the title Politik. He brought out also in 1856 a short volume of poems called Vater- Idndische Gedichte, and another volume in the following year. The only works translated into English are two pamphlets on the war of 1870, What we demand from France (London, 1870), and The Fire- test of the North German Confederation (1870). See Schiemann, Heinrich v. Treitschkes Lehr- und Wanderjahre, 1836-1866 (Munich, 1896) ; Gustav Freitag und Heinrich v. Treitschke im Briefwechsel (Leipzig, 1900); Deutsche Rundschau (Oct. 1896); and article by J. W. Headlam, Hist. Rev. (Dec. 1897). (J. W. HE.) TRELAWNY, EDWARD JOHN (1792-1881), English sailor and friend of Shelley and Byron, was born in London on the I3th of November 1792, the son of an army officer. After a short term in the navy and a naval school, he shipped for India, but deserted at Bombay. For several years he led an adven- turous life in India, but about 1813 returned to England, married and settled down. In was early in 1822 that he met Shelley and Byron at Pisa and passed nearly every day with one or 239 both of them until the drowning of Shelley (q.is.) and Williams on the 8th of July. He it was who superintended the recovery and cremation of the bodies, snatching Shelley's heart from the flames, and who added the lines from the Tempest to Leigh Hunt's " Cor Cordium "; and, finally, who supplied the funds for Mrs Shelley's return to England. In 1823 he set out with Byron for Greece, to aid in the struggle for independence. Distressed by his companion's dilatoriness, Trelawny left him and joined the insurgent chief Odysseus and afterwards married his sister Tersitza. While in charge of the former's fortress on Parnassus he was assaulted by two Englishmen and nearly killed. Returning to England, he lived for a time in Cornwall with his mother and afterwards in London, where his romantic associations, picturesque person and agreeable manners made him a great social favourite. Permission having been refused him to write the life of Shelley, he began an account of his own life in the Adventures of a Yotmger Son (1835), followed much later by a second part: Recollections of Shelley and Byron (1858). This gives an admirable portrait of Shelley, and a less truthful one of Byron. He married a third time, but the irregu- larity of his life estranged him from his wife, and he died at Sompting, near Worthing, on the I3th of August 1881. His ashes were buried in Rome by the side of those of Shelley. The old seaman in Millais's picture, "The North-West Passage," in the Tate Gallery, London, gives a portrait of him. See the Letters of Edward J. Trelawny, edited with Introduction by H.BuxtonForman, C.B. (1910). TRELAWNY, SIR JONATHAN, BART. (1650-1721), English prelate, was a younger son of Sir Jonathan Trelawny, bart. (1624-1685), a member of a very old Cornish family, and was born at Pelynt in Cornwall on the 24th of March 1650. Educated at Westminster School and at Christ Church, Oxford, Trelawny took holy orders in 1673, and in 1685, his elder brother having died in 1680, became third baronet in succession to his father. Having rendered good service to James II. during Monmouth's rebellion, Trelawny was consecrated bishop of Bristol on the 8th of November 1685. He was loyal to King James until the first declaration of indulgence in April 1687, when, as a bishop, he used his influence with his clergy against the king, and, as a Cornish landowner, resisted the attempt to assemble a packed parliament. In May 1688 Trelawny signed the petition against the second declaration of indulgence, and in the following month was imprisoned in the Tower of London with Archbishop San- croft and five other bishops, sharing their triumphant acquittal. In spite of Burnet's assertion, it is probable that Trelawny did not sign the invitation to William of Orange, although he cer- tainly welcomed his army into Bristol. Before this James II., anxious to regain the bishop's support, had nominated him to the see of Exeter; but Trelawny lost nothing, as this appointment was almost at once confirmed by William III. Unlike five of his colleagues among the " seven bishops," Trelawny took the oaths of allegiance to William and Mary; but he was soon estranged from the new king and sided with the princess Anne, who showed him some favour after she became queen. In 1707 Trelawny was appointed bishop of Winchester and became prelate of the Order of the Garter, but henceforward he took very little part in politics. He died at his residence at Chelsea on the ipth of July 1721, and was buried at Pelynt. His wife was Rebecca (d. 1710), daughter of Thomas Hele of Bascombe, Devon, by whom he had a family of six sons and six daughters. His eldest son, John, the 4th baronet, died without sons in 1756, and the present baronet is descended from the bishop's brother, Henry (d. 1702). Another of his sons was Edward Trelawny (1690-1754), governor of Jamaica from 1738 to 1752. When bishop of Exeter, Trelawny, as visitor of Exeter College, Oxford, deprived the rector of his office, a sentence which was upheld on appeal by the House of Lords; and when bishop of Winchester he completed the rebuilding of Wolvesey Palace. Trelawny is the hero, or one of the heroes, of the refrain: — " And shall Trelawny die, Here's twenty thousand Cornishmen Will know the reason why." 240 TREMATODES These words were sung by the men of Cornwall, who seem to have assembled during the bishop's short imprisonment in 1688. It is probable, however, that a similar threat was heard in 1628, when John Trelawny (1592-1665), grandfather of the bishop, was imprisoned by the House of Commons for opposing the election of Sir John Eliot to parliament. The " Song of the Western Men," which contains the above refrain, was composed in 1825 by R. S. Hawker. TREMATODES, or flukes (as they are called from their fish-like shape), one of the three classes that compose the phylum Platyelmia (q.v.). They are flattened organisms provided with two or more suckers, hence their name (TPT/^OTO^TJS, pierced with holes), and are exclusively parasitic both in their earlier and mature stages of life. Their structure has undergone little de- generation in. connexion with this habit, and may be compared organ for organ with that of the Planarians (q.v.). The chief peculiarities that distinguish Trematodes from their free-living allies, the Turbellaria, are the development of adhering organs for attachment to the tissues of the host; the replacement of the primitively ciliated epidermis by a thick cuticular layer and deeply sunk cells to ensure protection against the solvent action of the host; and (in one large order) a prolonged and peculiar life-history. The only organs that exhibit any sign of degenera- tion are those of sense, but in the ectoparasitic Trematodes simple eye-like structures are present and perhaps serve as organs of tem- perature. The class as a whole is linked to the Turbellaria not only by its similarity of structure, but by the intermediation of the singular class the Temnocephaloidea (see PLANARIANS), which in habit and in organization form an almost ideal annectant group. External Characters. — The body, which varies in length from a few millimetres to a couple of feet, is usually oval and flattened. In certain genera the margins are infolded either along their whole length (the male of Schistostomum haematobium ; fig. 9, A) or anteriorly only (Holostomidae). The anterior third of the body is attenuated and sharply marked off from the bulbous trunk in Didymozoon. Trematodes never exhibit segmentation, though a superficial annula- tion may occur, e.g. in Udonella. The ventral surface is characterized by one or more suckers and apertures. The mouth lies usually in the centre of the anterior (From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii. " Worms, &c.," by permission of MacmiUan & Co., Ltd.) FIG. I. — A Group of Trematodes. A, Nematobothrium filarina, two specimens (a and b) from the Tunny. and sub-terminal sucker or between two adoral suckers, but in Gasterostomum and its allies it is mid-ventral. A second sucker of variable size and shape lies behind the oral one. In the ecto- parasitic Trematodes this post-oral sucker is a complex disk placed near the hinder end and provided with suckerlets, hooks and a musculature arising from a special skeleton. In the majority of endoparasitic forms it is merely a muscular disk just behind the mouth; but in the Aspidocotylea this sucker forms a muscular ribbed sole extending over the greater part of the ventral surface (fig. ?)• The anterior and posterior ends of the body are well defined. The former is specially modified in a few genera in a manner analogous to the " proboscis " of certain Rhabdocoel Turbellaria. Thus in the recently discovered arctic genus Prosorhynchus the muscular and glandular extremity is protrusible, but in the allied Gasterostomnm this organ is represented by a sucker with fimbriated or tentacular margins. Another form, Rhopalophorus, has two cephalic tentacles that are retractile and covered with hooks. The chief genital pore is placed anteriorly between the oral sucker and the ventral one, and is posterior only in Holostomidae, Gasterostomidae and a few Distomidae. Usually this aperture is median, but occasionally asymmetrical. Both male and female gonoducts open through a com- mon atrium to the exterior by this pore, but in three bisexual genera the male and female ducts are developed in separate individuals (Bilharzia, Didymozoon, Koellikeria). A single or paired accessory gonopore is met with in many Trematodes just as in certain Turbel- laria (e.g. Cylindrostomum, Trigonoporus). This accessory pore is not of uniform significance. In ectoparasitic Trematodes it is paired and usually ventral (fig. 4 B, »), but the two apertures may run into one, and may also open dorsally (Hexacotyle) . In this group, the accessory gonopore is the opening of the " vagina," in contradis- tinction to the median and atrial opening of the uterus which is a " birth-pore." In most endoparasitic Trematodes the accessory Eanopore is a median and dorsal structure. It is the opening of aurer's canal and is homologous not with that of the vagina " just mentioned, but with a totally distinct structure — the " yolk- receptacle " — which in ectoparasitic forms discharges into the gut instead of to the exterior (see fig. 3). The excretory pore is terminal and posterior in endoparasitic forms: paired, anterior and dorsal in the ectoparasitic class. Parasitic Habits. — The Trematodes with few exceptions select a vertebrate for their host. Speaking generally each species of parasite has a particular host, upon the blood of which it nourishes itself and matures its reproductive organs. This strange partiality is now to some extent intelligible. It has been shown in the mammals that blood-relationship, in the strict and literal sense, holds good. The blood of most species behaves differentially towards precipitants, and it is therefore conceivable that when blood is used as food and is elaborated into special compounds for the nutrition of the reproductive organs of a parasite, these specific or larger differences in the blood of animal hosts may prevent the ripening of the gonads of a widely diffused parasite and only one particular kind of blood prove suitable. It would seem that the Trematodes present various degrees of such adaptation, for whilst some — e.g. the common liver- fluke (Distomum hepaticum) — mature equally well in the bile-ducts of a man as in those of a sheep or rabbit, others and in fact the majority are restricted apparently to one host. It must, however, be borne in mind that a Trema- tode may develop in an " aberrant " manner in one host and " normally " in another; and unless we knew the initial stock, the two forms would be regarded as distinct species, each with its own host. The position of the Trematode on its host is of far-reaching importance. If ectoparasitic and attached to the skin, apertures or gills, the Trematode adopts more elaborate adhesive organs and undergoes a less complex development than are required for the endoparasitic members of the class. The latter are almost invariably swallowed by their host in an immature state with its food, and from the stomach or intestine they work their way into the lungs, liver, body-cavity on blood vessels. These endo- parasites have a peculiar larval development, the results of which are to increase their numbers and enhance the opportunity of their gaining the necessarily remote station in some fresh individual host. It is usual to consider the ectoparasitic habit as leading up to the endoparasitic one. From what we know of the Platyelmia, however, it is more probable that the two are quite independent and have been evolved separately. The influence of Trematodes on their hosts is a varied one. Probably all of them secrete an active poison by the aid of their glands, but the effects of these substances are not readily perceptible. In addition to this, they constitute a B, Udonella caligorum, attached to the ova of the copepod Caligus. C, drain upon the blood which may result in anaemia. If pre- hpibaella hippoglossi (from Halibut) ; ms, the two adoral suckers with the sent in large numbers they may give rise to obstruction mouth (m) between them; ps, ventral sucker; ov, ovary, te testes. D, of the liver-ducts or to inflammation of other tissues. The Octobothrium merlangi; ms, oral sucker; int. intestine; sc; posterior suckers; yk, yolk-glands. most important of the Trematodes in its effect on man is Schistostomum (Bilharzia). This parasite is one of the plagues TREMATODES 241 of Africa. In Egypt 30% of the natives are affected by haematuria which arises from congestion of the bladder consequent upon the attacks of this animal. The noxious influence of Trematodes is, moreover, not confined to their mature phase of life. The rapid multiplication that takes place in the larval stage of nearly all endoparasitic forms affects the tissues of the " intermediate " host in which they live. In most cases this is a mollusc, and the larvae bore their way into the most diverse organs, often accumulating to such an extent as to give a distinctly orange colour to an otherwise colourless tissue, and to cause the demolition of particular structures e.g. the liver and gonad. Perhaps the most remarkable of these effects is that produced by the larvae of Gasterostomum. These organisms live in cockles, oysters and other lamellibranchs and they so affect the gonads of these molluscs as to castrate and sterilize their host. A different but still more interesting result is produced by these Trematode larvae on certain lamellibranchs. The produc- tion of pearls by oysters and mussels is common knowledge, but it is only recently that the origin of pearls has been traced and admitted to be due to inflammation set up by a parasite. In the case of the pearl oyster this parasite is a cestode larva, but in the less valuable but no less genuine pearl produced by Mytilus, &c., the nucleus is a Trematode-larva (Jameson). Structure. — The anatomical structure of the Trematodes is fairly uniform (Braun). The body is enveloped by a thick striated protective cuticle which is frequently raised into hooks or spines. In Distomum acanthocephalum the cuticle forms circlets of large and small hooks at the anterior end, somewhat as in Cestodes. The epidermis has lost its connected epithelial character and its cilia, and the isolated cells have become sunk inwards retaining their va FIG. 2. A, Fasciola hepatica, from the ventral surface (X 2); the alimen- tary and nervous systems only shown on the left side of the figure, the excretory only on the right; a, right main branch of the intestine; c, a diverticulum ; g, lateral ganglion; n, lateral nerve; o, mouth; p, pharynx; s, ventral sucker; cs, cirrus sac; \d, left anterior dorsal excretory vessel ; m, main vessel ; v, left anterior ventral trunk ; x, excretory pore. B, anterior portion more highly magnified (from Marshall and Hurst, after Sommer); cs, cirrus sac; d, ductus ejaculatorius; /, female aperture; o, ovary; od, oviduct; p, penis; s, shell-gland; t, anterior testis; u, uterus; va, i)p, vasa deferentia; vs, vesicula seminalis r y, yolk-gland ; yd, its duct. C, genital sinus and neighbouring parts (from Sommer) ; p, ventral sucker; 6, cirrus sac; c, genital pore; d, evaginated cirrus sac; e, end of vagina; /, vasa deferentia; g, vesicula seminalis; /;, duc- tus ejaculatorius; i, accessory gland. D, a flame-cell from the excretory apparatus, highly magnified (from Fraipont). E, egg of Fasciola hepatica. ( X 330 : from Thomas.) attachment to the innermost cuticular layer by slender processes. This layer also forms the attachment for the muscles, of which there are two enveloping coats, a circular and a longitudinal layer and also dorso-ventral fibres. The muscles are remarkable for two reasons. They occasionally exhibit striation and originate from large branched cells, the nucleus and unmodified part of which form conspicuous elements. The digestive system consists of a simple or bifurcated sac, opening through the mouth by means of a " pharynx bulbosus," adapted to act primarily as a sucker, and secondarily, when drawing blood, as an aspirator. Between the blind gut and the cuticle is a reticular branched tissue which forms the chief substance of the body. This is the mesenchyma. As in other Platyelmia the elements of this tissue undergo the most varied differentiation. The main mass of it forms a spongy vacuo- lated matrix, but some of the cells become glandular and open by pores on the surface of the cuticle, others become "flame-cells (fig. 2, D) and canaliculi of the excretory system as in Turbellaria, others again muscle-cells. Embedded in the matrix lies the com- plex genital apparatus composed usually of both male and female reproductive organs (fig. 2, B). The former consist of one pair or more of vesicular testes communicating by fine ducts with a vesicula seminalis. From this point a glandular tube runs to the genital atrium and during the last part of its course is converted into an eversible hooked " cirrus " or penis. The female organs consist of distinct ovaries and yolk-glands, the ducts of which uniti in the neighbourhood of a " shell-gland " or " ootype." Here the two elements, ovum and yolk-cells, are surrounded by a shell of operculate or of spindle-capped types. Coincidently, to allow of fertilization and the escape of excess of yolk, and. of spermatozoa, other accessory ducts open at this point. Thus in ectoparasitic Trematodes, the paired vagina transmits spermatozoa to the egg : and a canal carries off yolk from this point of junction either to the gut for resorption or to the exterior for exudation. This duct (Laurer's canal) is sometimes rudimentary and ends blindly beneath the skin. The fertilized ova, provided with yolk and a shell, are next transferred to the " uterus " along which they travel to the exterior. In the endoparasitic trematodes the uterus is the only passage by which fertilization can be effected, and in cases of cross and self- impregnation this duct is physiologically a vagina. Lastly the nervous system is well developed and consists of a pair of well-marked and interconnected ganglia placed near the anterior end and dorsal to the oesophagus. From these ganglia, nerve-tracts provided with ganglion-cells are given off. Of these there are three on each side of the body : a large ventral tract, smaller lateral strands and dorsal ones. From these tracts a plexus of nerve-fibres is developed in connexion with the musculature and cuticle. The Trematodes are divided into three orders, primarily distin- guished by the character of their suckers, viz. : Heterocotylea, Aspidocotylea and Malacocotylea. Order i. Heterocotylea. — Ectoparasitic Trematodes, in which a large posterior adhesive apparatus is present and is usually accom- panied by a pair of suckers placed anteriorly in relation to the mouth. The large posterior organ of attachment is usually wheel-shaped and provided with hooks; but the ridges may become separated "/sS7ss'ss, jFiG. 3. — Diagrammatic projections to show the relations of the female reproductive ducts; A, in the Malacocotylea; B, in the Heterocotylea. The ovary (a) leads into (bb) the oviduct, which is joined at (g) by the duct of the yolk-glands (h). In B it is also joined by a paired vagina (kk) and by the " vitello-intestinal duct " (Laurer's canal), /. (c) Shell-glands; (d) ootype; («) uterus; (g) median-vitello-duct; (i, t) intestine. 242 TREMATODES into a number of independent suckers set on a disc or " cotylo- phore." Eye-spots are general and the nervous system maintains a primitive diffused condition. The excretory system opens to the exterior by a pair of dorsal pores at the level of the pharynx. The eggs are comparatively few, and development is direct, the embryo after reaching its host remaining attached to it for life. All the members of this order are parasitic on aquatic vertebrates and in rare cases derive their food from a vertebrate host indirectly by means of another invertebrate parasite (e.g. Udonella occurs on parasitic Crustacea). They are transparent leaf-like organisms and may often be found attached to the skin, mouth, nostrils or gills of fish; on the skin and bladder of Amphibia; and on those of certain Reptilia. Polystomum integerrimum (fig. 5) occurs commonly in the " bladder ' of frogs and toads; Diplozoon on the skin of the minnow ; Gyrodactylus (figs. 5, 6) on the gills of various fresh-water fish ; and a large number of genera occur on the skin, cloaca and gills of Elasmobranchs and other marine fish. They ingest the mucus and, to some extent, the blood of their host by the aid of a sucking pharynx through which the food passes into the bifurcated ali- mentary sac and its branched caeca. The life-history of this order offers many points of interest. The eggs are stalked and provided with chitinoid often operculate shell. Each shell contains a single ovum and a mass of yolk-cells. In most cases the eggs are attached to the host, but in Polystomum the eggs are laid in water. The egg of Gyrodactylus develops in the body of the parent. n •-H o (From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, pt iv.) FIG. 4. — Schematic figures of a Heterocotylean Trematode to illustrate its structure (after Benham). A, Dorsal view showing the ner- vous system and digestive system; a, mouth; b, pharynx; c, d, «, gut; i, post-genital union of two limbs of gut; /, excretory pore; g, vaginal pore; h, 7, k, brain and nerves; /, dorsal nerves; m, ventral nerves; n, adoral sucker; o, posterior sucker; p, hooks on posterior sucker; r, vitello-intestinal duct. B, Ventral view showing the reproductive system ; C, Cirrus; H, hooks on the ven- tral sucker; I, small piece of the intestine to show its connexion with the repro- ductive organs by the narrow duct that passes from it to the union of the vaginae; M, mouth; O, ovary; S, oral sucker; SC, sucker; SH, shell-gland; T, Testis; U, uterus; V, vaginal pore; Y, yolk- gland. The further history of the animal is only known in a few cases. Polystomum hatches out six weeks after ovi-position as a minute (•3 mm. long) larva capable of swimming freely for a short time by the aid of five girdles of ciliated cells. If in the course of the first twenty-four hours this larva meet with a tadpole it attaches itself at once and undergoes further development. If unsuccessful it dies. In the former case the larva creeps along the tadpole until it reaches the branchial opening into which it darts, fixes its sucker, and then throws off its cilia. Its further development takes place partly in the branchial chamber and partly in the bladder, which it reaches by travelling the whole length of the alimentary canal. In the former position the suckers are developed and growth pro- ceeds for 8 to ip weeks until the metamorphosis of its host. In the bladder it remains for three years before attaining maturity. Some- times the Polystomum-\arva. attaches itself to a young tadpole, and in that case grows so rapidly as to become mature in five weeks. These Polystomum deposit their eggs in the branchial chamber and die at the metamorphosis of their host. They differ structurally from the normal form in being capable of self-fertilization only, and in the shape and details of their spermatozoa. permanently the develop- FIG. 5. A, Diplozoon parodoxum; two united specimens. B, Polystomum integerrimum. (Xabout 100; after Zeller.) C, Microcotyle mormyri. (X?.) D, E, Two views of the chitinous framework of a sucker of Axine belones; highly magnified (after Lorenz). F, Aspidogaster conchicola. (Xabout 25; after Aubert.) G, Gyrodactylus elegans. (Xabout 80; after Wagener.) The life-history of Diplozoon (fig. 5) is remarkable in that two larvae (the so-called Diporpae) unite and fuse into an X-shaped organism. Unless this occurs, ment of the larvae is soon arrested. The ciliated stage is only capable of free life for five or six hours, and if at the end of that time it has not encountered and attached itself to a minnow, it dies. If successful, the larva throws off its cilia and develops a dorsal papilla, a median ventral sucker and an additional pair of lateral suckers. Then the Diporpa stage is attained. This stage is capable of isolated existence for two or three months but remains imma- ture. Should it, however, encounter another Diporpa, the mid-ventral sucker of either is applied to the dorsal papilla of the other, and complete fusion takes place across the junction. The com- pound organism now develops two sets of inter-connected genitalia and becomes a Diplozoon. Gyrodactylus produces only one large egg at a time and this develops in situ into an embryo: but within this embryo another appears before the first leaves the parent. This anomalous phenomenon is still obscure, for we do not yet know whether the second embryo is developed sexually or asexually from the first. Von Lmstow has indeed suggested that Gyrodactylus is a larval form capable of reproduction by an asexual method. 1 fAfter v. Nordmann. From Order 2. Aspidocotylea. — Endoparasitic Cambridge Natural Bhtory. Trematodes provided with a large vol. ii. " Worms, &c," by per- ventral sucker which is almost co-exten- J^0" of M^'1^" & Co- sive with the lower surface of the body _ , . and is divided into rectangular compart- , FlG- .6-— Gyrodactylus ments. The alimentary sac is simple «{««""? "<** .the n,ns ol and devoid of caeca. The development the Stickleback ; emb. em- is direct. brvo- (Xioo.) TREMATODES 243 .-•a Zoology, part iv.) FIG. These Trematodes occur in the alimentary canal and adjacent organs of Mollusca, the gall-bladder of Chimaera, and the intestine of Chelonia and of certain fish. Aspidogaster conchicola is a form not uncommon in Anodon, Unio and certain fresh-water Gastropods. When young it is found in the intestine, but becomes mature in " Keber's organ " and the pericardium. An allied form (A. margarit- iferae) occurs in the pericardium of the Ceylon pearl-oyster (9). This order differs in several points from the preceding one. The excretory system is highly developed and opens at the posterior ex- tremity by a paired muscular bladder. The testis is a single compact organ. From the oviduct a long duct full of yolk passes back- wards almost to the hinder end of the body and ends blindly in a globular dilatation just below the skin. This structure is regarded as the homologue of a canal (Laurer's canal) which in the Heterocotylea opens into the intestine and so gets rid of the excess of yolk. ™ The life-history of the order is almost un- known, but at the time of hatching the young 7. — Aspido- Aspidocotylean has an oral sucker at the gaster conchicola; anterior extremity and an equally simple ventral aspect; a, post-oral one at the other, thus resembling mouth ; b, marginal the members of the next order. Subsequently sense organs. the body grows backwards and the ventral sucker comes to occupy a relatively more anterior position. Concomitantly its cavity is sub-divided by transverse ridges into a single row and later on into paired rows of compartments. A curious form (Stichocotyle) described in an immature condition by Cunningham from the lobster and Nor- way lobster probably belongs to this order. Order 3. Malacocotylea (Distomae, Leuck: Digenea v. Ben.). Endoparasitic Trematodes with a variable adhesive apparatus. The oral sucker may alone be present (Monostomidae), more usually a second is developed on the under surface, but may be mid-ventral (Distomidae) or terminal. It is posterior (Amphistomidae), or anterior (Gasterostomidae). In addition to these suckers the sides of the anterior region may become infolded and give rise to an accessory adhesive organ (Holostomidae). In all these families spines and glandular papillae may be super-added. The intestinal sac has become bifid and is usually devoid of branches. The excretory system is highly developed ; the larger collecting ducts are elaborately looped and open posteriorly by a single terminal aperture. A canal (Laurer's canal) leads from the oviduct or yolk-duct to the dorsal surface. The development is indirect. From the egg a larva arises. This enters a temporary host. Here it gives rise by a peculiar process to numerous individuals of a second larval form, and these usually produce a third form from which the minute immature Trematode is developed. In this manner a single egg may give rise to a large number of sexual individuals. The larvae usually live in Molluscs, the mature worm in vertebrates, and the immature but meta- morphosed Trematode in either host and also in pelagic and littoral marine and fresh-water invertebrates. The Malacocotylea occur in all classes of vertebrates. They are usually found in the alimentary canal or its appendages but occasionally work their way into the serous cavities, nervous system and blood vessels. Fourteen species belonging to five genera have been found in man, but only one [Schistostomum (Bilharzia) hae- matobium] is of serious medical importance, the others being rare and occasioned by want of cleanliness and close association with infected domestic animals. Domestic animals suffer periodically to a much greater extent. The liver-fluke (Distomum hepaticum) unlike most Trematodes flourishes in a wide range of hosts and infects man, horse, deer, oxen, sheep, pig, rabbit and kangaroo. Sheep, how ever, suffer most from this parasite and from the allied D. magnum. The former fluke is found in Europe, North Africa, Abyssinia, North Asia, South America, Australia and the Hawaiian Islands v the latter in the United States. Wet summers are followed by an acute outbreak of liver-rot amongst sheep and this, together with the effects of other diseases that accompany wet seasons, cause the death of vast numbers of sheep, the numbers from both sources being estimated in bad years at from ij to 3 millions in England alone. The anatomy of Distomum hepaticum is fully described in many accessible memoirs [Sommer (10), Marshall and Hurst, Braun (3)]. It has been shown that this parasite feeds upon the blood, not the bile of its host, though it occurs mainly in the bile ducts. The life-histories of the Malacocotylea form the most interesting feature of the order. The majority of species are hermaphrodite and many are capable of self-impregnation. In these, the male organs ripen before the ova and spermatozoa may pass into the uterus before the external pore is formed (Looss). A few species, however, are bisexual, e.g. Schistostomum (Bilharzia) haematobium in which the male is larger than the female and encloses the latter in a ventral canal ; Koellikeria filicolle Rud (Distomum okenii, Koll) which also occurs in pairs, a large female and a small male being found together encysted in the branchial chamber of Brama raji: and Didymozoon thynni (Monostomum bipartitum) which occurs in pairs fused for the greater part of their length and only free anteriorly ; the larger individual is the female. The egg consists of a fertilized ovum and a mass of yolk-cells. Segmentation takes place during its passage down the uterus. The result of this process is a minute ovoid embryo consisting of a solid mass of cells surrounded by a follicle of flattened yolk-cells. The central mass«soon becomes differentiated into an outer epidermal and a dermal layer of flat-cells. Some of the central cells remain m clumps as " germ-balls," others form a mesenchyma in which flame-cells " arise; others again give rise to muscles; and at the thicker end of the body, rudiments of the brain and digestive system are observable. A pair of " eye-spots " develops immediately over the brain. If the egg with its contained embryo falls into water (All i"rom Marshall and Hurst, after Thomas.) FIG. 8. — Five stages in the life-history of Fasciola hepaltca ; all highly magnified. A, The free-swimming embryo. B, A sp_orocyst containing young rediae. C, A young redia, the digestive tract shaded. D, An adult redia, containing a daughter-redia, two almost mature cercariae, and germs. E, A free cercaria. The letters have the same significance throughout. c, Nearly ripe cercariae; cc, cystogenous cells; dr, daughter-redia; dt, limbs of the digestive tract; /, head-papilla; h, eye-spots; h', same degenerating; k', germinal cell; /, cells of the anterior row; m, embryo in optical section, gastrula stage; n, pharynx of redia ; o, digestive sac ; oe, oesophagus. p, Lips of redia; q, collar; r, processes serving as rudimentary feet; s, embryos; /, trabecula crossing body-cavity of redia; u, glandular cells; v, birth-opening; w, w', morulae; y, oral sucker; y', ventral sucker; z, pharynx. with the faeces of the host the larva hatches out and swims freely for a time. In dry localities or in the absence of the intermediate host (usually a mollusc) this larva soon dies. If, however, it en- counters the host the larva bores its way in, and attacks the liver, mouth or gonad in which it comes to rest. In all Malacocotylea except the Holostomidae the ensuing change is a degenerative one. The cilia are lost, the eye-spots disappear, the digestive sac vanishes and the larva becomes a sac or " sporocyst " full of germ-cells. The origin of these cells is a moot point. According to some writers (Leuckart) they are derived from undiffetentiated blastomeres, other authorities (Thomas, Biehringer, Heckert) trace them to the parietal cells of the larva. These cells aggregated in masses become the bodies of another generation of larvae within the sporocyst. By a series of changes similar to those by which the primary larva arose from a segmented egg, so do these secondary larvae or " rediae " arise from the germ-cells or germ-balls within the sporocyst. The structure of a redia, however, is an advance on that of its parent. Though not possessing eyes or cilia, it has a pharynx and short straight digestive sac : and its mesenchymatous cavities are filled with germ-balls in various stages of development. 244 TREMOLITE— TRENCH The movements and activity of the redia cause it to burst the wall of the sporocyst. It escapes into the adjacent tissue and there gives rise either to one or more generations of rediae or at once to a new type of organism — the cercaria. What determines the origin of the cercaria rather than a new generation of rediae is unknown. It originates from germ-balls by a differentiation similar in general to that already described, though profoundly different in detail. The cercaria is just visible to the naked eye and has sO\ oval or dis- coidal body and usually a long tail of variable form. The tail may be a simple hollow muscular process or provided with stiff bristles set in transverse rows, or divided into two equally long pro- cesses, or finally it may form a large vesicular structure. The body contains in miniature all the organs of the adult fluke, including the gonads and in addition " eye-spots," a stylet, rod-cells and cystogenous cells. The latter structures are only employed for an interval before the final host is entered. The number of cercariae produced by the pullulating rediae in a single water-snail is immense, and as they are emitted at a given period or a few successive periods, the snail at these times appears enclosed in a cloud of whitish fiocculent matter. The cercaria swims freely for a time and either encysts directly on grass or weeds or it enters a second host which may be another mollusc, an insect, crustacean or fish, and then encysts. In this process it is aided by the stylet with which it actively bores its way, throws off its tail FlG. 9. A, Sckistostomum (Bilharzia) haematobium, the thin female in the gynaecophoric canal of the stouter male. ( X 1 5 after Leuckart.) B, Distomum macrostomum, showing the digestive and the greater part of the genital apparatus with the cirrus protruded. (X 30.) C, Snail (Succinea), the tentacles deformed by Leucochloridium. (Natural size.) D, Leucochloridium removed from the tentacle. (Natural size; after Zeller.) E, Bucephalus polymorphus. (Highly magnified; after Ziegler.) F, Portion of a sporocyst containing Bucephali in process of develop- ment. (X about 50; after Lacaze-Duthiers.) and then, surrounding itself with the secretion of its cystogenous cells, comes to rest. The further development of the cercaria is dependent on the weed or animal in which it lies being eaten by the final host which is usually a predaceous fish or one of the higher vertebrates. When that occurs, the cyst is dissolved and the minute fluke works its way down the alimentary canal into some part of which it inserts its suckers and commences to feed on the blood of its host. Occasionally the fluke migrates into the blood vessels and may reach the lungs, kidneys, urethra and bladder. In the course of a few months it attains full size and maturity and probably in most cases dies in the course of a year after having given rise to another generation of larvae. A few special cases of this general description of the life-history may be mentioned. The liver-fluke (Distomum hepaticum) passes through its larval stages in the water snail Limnaea truncatula in Europe; in L. oahuensis in the Hawaiian Islands; in L. viator in South America and in L. humilis in North America: and is eaten by sheep during its encysted stage attached to herbage. Distomum macrostomum, which occurs in various birds, produces a very curious sporocyst in the body of the snail Succinea putris. This sporocyst assumes a branched structure and penetrates into the tentacles of the snail (fig. 9, c, d). In this situation it becomes much swollen and banded with colours, and produces a large number of ecaudate cercariae. The attention of birds is speedily attracted to the snail by this appearance and by the peculiar movements which the worm executes, and the passage of the parasite into its final host is advan- tageously effected. In many cases it appears that only the brilliantly coloured tentacle is pecked off by the bird, and as the snail can easily regenerate a new one, this in turn becomes infected by a fresh branch of the sporocyst ramifying through the snail and thus a new supply of larvae is speedily provided (Heckert). The life-history of Schistostomum haematobium is still unknown, but the difficulty in obtaining developmental stages in any of the numerous intermediate hosts that have been tried suggests that the ciliated larvae may develop directly in man and either gain access to him by the use of impure water for drinking or may perforate his skin when bathing. Experiments on monkeys have, however, given negative results. The life-history of the Holostomidae differs from that of the Distomidae in an important regard. These Trematodes live chiefly in the intestine of aquatic birds or reptiles. The ciliated larva escapes from the egg into the water and enters an intermediate host (leech, mollusc, arthropod, batrachian or fish) where it undergoes a metamorphosis into a second stage in which most of the adult organs are present. In this condition they remain encysted as immature flukes until eaten by their final host. The cycle of development taken by the Malacccotylea has been generally regarded as an alternation of one or more asexual genera- tions with a sexual one. The question, however, is complicated by the uncertain nature of the germ-cells in the sporocysts and rediae. Some authors looking upon these as parthenogenetic ova regard the developmental cycle as one composed of an alternation of parthenogenetic and of sexual generations. Others again consider that the whole cycle is a metamorphosis which, beginning in the Heterocotylea as a direct development, has become complicated in the Holostomidae by a larval history, and finally in the Mala- cocotylea has acquired additional complexity by the intercalation of two larval forms, and is thus spread over several generations. LITERATURE. — R. Leuckart, Die Parasiten des Menschen (1889- 1894), vol. ii. ; M. Braun, " Trematodes," Klassen u. Ordnungen des Tierreichs (1889-1893), vol. iv. (Monograph), and The Animal Parasites of Man (London, 1906); W. B. Benham in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology (1901), pt. iv. ; A. Heckert, " Untersuchungen iiber die Entwicklung und Lebensgeschichte des Distomum macro- stomum," Bibliotheca zoologica, Heft 4 (Cassel, 1889) ; J. T. Cunning- ham, " On Stichocotyle nephropsis," Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. (1887), vol. xxxii. ; A. Lopss, " Die Distomen unserer Fische und Frosche," Bibliotheca zoologica (1894), Heft 16; H. L. Jameson, " Pearl-forma- tion," Proc. Zoo/. Soc. p. 140 (London, 1902) ; A. E. Shipley and J. Hornell, " Parasites of the Pearl Oyster," Report on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar, The Royal Society (1904), pt. ii. pp. 90-98 ; F. Sommer, " Anatomy of Liver-fluke, Zeit. f. wiss. Zoologie (1880), vol. xxxiy. ; Thomas, "Development of Liver-fluke," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1883), vol. xxiii. ; Jagerskiold, Fauna arctica. (F. W. GA.) TREMOLITE, a member of the amphibole group of rock-form- ing minerals (see AMPHIBOLE). It is a calcium and magnesium metasilicate, CaMg3(Si03)4, crystallizing in the monoclinic system with an angle of 55° 49' between the perfect prismatic cleavages. It occurs sometimes as distinct crystals, but more usually as long bladed and fibrous forms. The colour is white or grey, but when iron is present it is green, then forming a passage to actinolite. The hardness is 53 and the specific gravity 3-0. Tremolite is a characteristic mineral of crystalline limestones, especially dolomitic limestones, but also occurs as an alteration-product of olivine in basic igneous rocks. Typical specimens have long been known from the white crystalline dolomite of Campolongo in the St Gotthard region, Switzerland, near to which is the Tremola Valley, after which the mineral was named in 1796. Fine crystals are found in crystalline limestone at Gouverneur, Pierrepont and other places in New York, and at several localities in Sweden. (L. J. S.) TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX (1807-1886), Anglican archbishop and poet, was born at Dublin on the gth of September 1807. He went to school at Harrow, and graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1829. In 1830 he visited Spain. While incumbent of Curdridge Chapel near Bishops Waltham in Hamp- shire, he published (1835) The Story of Justin Martyr and Other TRENCHARD— TRENCK 245 Poems, which was favourably received, and was followed in 1838 by Sabbalion, Honor Neale, and other Poems, and in 1842 by Poems from Eastern Sources. These volumes revealed the author as the most gifted of the immediate disciples of Wordsworth, with a warmer colouring and more pronounced ecclesiastical sympathies than the master, and strong affinities to Tennyson, Keble and Monckton Milnes. In 1841 he resigned his living to become curate to Samuel Wilberforce, then rector of Alverstoke, and upon Wilberforce's promotion to the deanery of West- minster in 1845 he was presented to the rectory of Itchenstoke. In 1845 and 1846 he preached the Hulsean lecture, and in the former year was made examining chaplain to Wilberforce, now bishop of Oxford. He was shortly afterwards appointed to a theological chair at King's College, London. In 1851 he estab- lished his fame as a philologist by The Study of Words, originally delivered as lectures to the pupils of the Diocesan Training School, Winchester. His purpose, as stated by himself, was to show that in words, even taken singly, " there are boundless stores of moral and historic truth, and no less of passion and imagination laid up " — a truth enforced by a number of most apposite illustra- tions. It was followed by two little volumes of similar char- acter— English Past and Present (1855) and A Select Glossary of English Words (1859). All have gone through numerous editions and have contributed much to promote the historical study of the English tongue. Another great service to English philology was rendered by his paper, read before the Philological Society, " On some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries" (1857), which gave the first impulse to the great Oxford New EnglishDictionary. His advocacy of a revised translation of the New Testament (1858) aided to promote another great national undertaking. In 1856 he published a valuable essay on Calderon,with a translation of a portion of Life is a Dream in the original metre. In 1841 he had published his Notes on the Parables, and in' 1846 his Notes on the Miracles, popular works which are treasuries of erudite and acute illustration. In 1856 Trench was raised to the deanery of Westminster, probably the position which suited him best. Here he instituted evening nave services. In January 1864 he was advanced to the more dignified but less congenial post of archbishop of Dublin. A. P. Stanley had been named, but rejected by the Irish Church, and, according to Bishop Wilberforce's correspondence, Trench's appointment was favoured neither by the prime minister nor the lord-lieutenant. It was, moreover, unpopular in Ireland, and a blow to English literature; yet the course of events soon proved it to have been most fortunate. Trench could do nothing to prevent the disestablishment of the Irish Church, though he resisted with dignity. But, when the disestablished communion had to be reconstituted under the greatest difficulties, it was found of the highest importance that the occupant of his position should be a man of a liberal and genial spirit. This was the work of the remainder of Trench's life; it exposed him at times to considerable misconstruction and obloquy, but he came to be appreciated, and, when in November 1884 he resigned his arch- bishopric from infirmity, clergy and laity unanimously recorded their sense of his " wisdom, learning, diligence, and munificence." He had found time for Lectures on Medieval Church History (1878); his poetical works were rearranged and collected in two volumes (last edition, 1885). He died in London, after a lingering illness, on the 28th of March 1886. See his Letters and Memorials (2 vols., 1886). TRENCHARD, SIR JOHN (16403-1695), English politician, belonged to an old Dorset family, his father being Thomas Trenchard (i6i5-*i67i), of Wolverton, and his grandfather Sir Thomas Trenchard (1582-1657), also of Wolverton, who was knighted by James I. in 1613. Born at Lytchett Matravers, near Poole, on the 3oth of March 1640, and educated at New College, Oxford, John Trenchard entered parliament as member for Taunton in 1679, and associated himself with those who proposed to exclude the duke of York from the throne. He attended some of the meetings held by these malcontents and was possibly concerned in the Rye House plot; at all events he was arrested in July 1683, but no definite evidence was brought against him and he was released. When Monmouth landed in the west of England in June 1685 Trenchard fled from England, but was pardoned through the good offices of William Penn and returned home two years later. Again he entered parliament, but he took no active part in the Revolution of 1688, although he managed to secure the good will of William III. He was knighted by the king and made chief justice of Chester, and in 1692 he was appointed a secretary of state. He and the government incurred much ridicule through their failure to prove the existence of a great Jacobite plot in Lancashire and Cheshire in which they had been led to believe. Sir John died on the 27th of April 1695. His wife was Philippa (d. 1743), daughter of George Speke (d. 1690) of White Lackington, Somerset. Another member of the Trenchard family was the writer, JOHN TRENCHARD (1662-1723), erroneously referred to by Macau- lay as a son of Sir John Trenchard. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, Trenchard inherited considerable wealth and was thus able to devote the greater part of his life to writing on political subjects, his point of view being that of a Whig and an opponent of the High Church party. His chief works are A Short History of Standing Armies in England (1698 and 1731) and The Natural History of Superstition (^og). With Thomas Gordon (d. 1750) he produced a weekly periodical, The Independent Whig, and with the same colleague he wrote a number of letters to the London Journal and to the British Journal under the pseudonym of Cato. These letters were published in four volumes in 1724 and the collection has often been reprinted. Trenchard died on the i7th of December 1723. TRENCHER (M. Eng. trenchour, trenchere, &c.,O. Fr. trencheoir trenchoier, a place on which to cut up food, from trencher, mod. trancher, to cut, probably from Lat. truncare, lop, cut off, or from trausecare, to cut across), a platter, being a flat piece of wood, in its earliest form square, later circular, on which food was carved or cut up and served. These wooden " trenchers " took the place of earlier ones which were thick slices of coarse bread; these, after being soaked with the gravy and juices from the meat and other food were eaten or thrown to the alms basket for the poor. The wooden trencher went out of use on the introduction of pottery and later of porcelain plates. At Winchester College, the old square beechwood trenchers are still in use. The potters of the 1 8th century made earthenware plates very flat and with a shallow rim ; these were known as " trencher plates." " Trencher salt-cellars " were the small salts placed near each person for use, as opposed to the ornamental " standing " salts. For " trench," a ditch, and " entrenchment," see FORTIFICATION AND SlEGECRAFT. TRENCK, FRANZ, FREIHERR VON DER (1711-1749), Aus- trian soldier, was born on the ist of January 1711, of a military family. Educated by the Jesuits at Oedenburg, he entered the Imperial army in 1728 but resigned in disgrace three years later. He then married and lived on his estates for some years. Upon the death of his wife in 1737 he offered to raise an irregular corps of " Pandours " for service against the Turks, but this offer was refused and he then entered the Russian army. But after serving against the Turks for a short time as captain and major of cavalry he was accused of bad conduct, brutality and disobedience and condemned to death, the sentence being commuted by Field Marschal Munnich to degradation and imprisonment. After a time he returned to Austria, where his father was governor of a small fortress, but there too he came into conflict with every one and actually " took sanctuary " in a convent in Vienna. But Prince Charles of Lorraine, interesting himself in this strange man, obtained for him an amnesty and a commission in a corps of irregulars. In this command, besides his usual truculence and robber manners, he displayed conspicuous personal bravery, and in spite of the general dislike into which his vices brought him his services were so valuable that he was promoted lieu- tenant-colonel (1743) and colonel (1744). But at the battle of Soor he and his irregulars plundered when they should have been fighting and Trenck was accused (probably falsely) of having allowed the king of Prussia himself to escape. After a time he 246 TRENDELENBURG was brought before a court-martial in Vienna, which convicted him of having sold and withdrawn commissions to his officers without the queen's leave, punished his men without heed to the military code, and drawn pay and allowance for fictitious men. Much was allowed to an irregular officer in all these resp&cts, but Trenck had far outrun the admitted limits, and above all his brutalities and robberies had made him detested throughout Austria and Silesia. A death sentence followed, but the com- position of the court-martial and its proceedings were thought to have been such as from the first forbade a fair trial, and the sentence was commuted by the queen into one of cashiering and imprisonment. The rest of his life was spent in mild captivity in the fortress of Spielberg, where he died on the 4th of October 1749. His cousin, FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR VON DER TRENCK (1726-1794), the writer of the celebrated autobiography, was born on the i6th of February 1726 at Konigsberg, his father being a Prussian general. After distinguishing himself for his quickness and imagination at the university of Konigsberg, he entered the Prussian army in 1742, and soon became an orderly officer on Frederick's own staff. But within a year he fell into disgrace because of a love affair — whether real or imaginary — with the king's sister Princess Amalie, and when in 1743 his Austrian cousin presented him with a horse and opened a correspondence, Frederick had him arrested, a few days after the battle of Soor, and confined in the fortress of Glatz, whence in 1746 he escaped. Making his way home and thence to Vienna, in the vain hope of finding employment under his now disgraced cousin, he finally met a Russian general, who took him into the Russian service But, receiving news that owing to his cousin's death he had become the owner of the family estates, he returned to Germany almost immediately He was made a captain of Austrian cavalry, but never served, as his time was fully taken up with litigation connected with the inherited estates. In 1754 he visited Prussia, but was there arrested and confined in Magdeburg for ten years, making frequent attempts, of incred- ible audacity, to escape from the harshness of his gaolers. But after the close of the Seven Years' War, Maria Theresa requested that he should, as being a captain in her service, be at once released. Trenck then spent some years in Aix-la-Chapelle, managing an agency for Hungarian wines and publishing a newspaper, and on the failure of these enterprises he returned to his Hungarian estates. Here he composed his celebrated autobiography and many other writings. He visited England and France in 1774-1777, and was afterwards employed by the government in diplomatic or secret service missions. After the death of Frederick the Great he was allowed to enter Prussia, and stayed in Berlin for two years. In 1788 he visited Paris, where he was the hero of society for a moment; next year he returned to Hungary in order to collect his writings in a uniform edition, but in 1791 he returned to Paris to be a spectator of the Revolution, and after living in safety throughout the Terror he was at last denounced as an Austrian spy and guillotined on the 25th of July 1794. His autobiography, which has been translated into several languages, first appeared in German at Berlin and Vienna (13 vols.) in 1787. Shortly afterwards a French version, by his own hand, was published at Strassburg. His other published works are in eight volumes and appeared shortly after the autobiography at Leipzig. A reprint of the autobiography appeared in 1910 in " Reclam's Universal Series." See Wahrmann, Leben und Thaten des Franz, Freiherr von der Trenck and Friedrich Freiherrn von der Trencks Leben, Kerker und Tod (both published at Leipzig in 1837). TRENDELENBURG, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1802-1872), German philosopher and philologist, was born on the 3Oth of November 1802 at Eutin, near Liibeck. He was educated at the universities of Kiel, Leipzig and Berlin. He became more and more attracted to the study of Plato and Aristotle, and his doctor's dissertation (1826) was an attempt to reach through Aristotle's criticisms a more accurate knowledge of the Platonic philosophy (Platonis de ideis et numeris doctrina ex Aristotele illustrate.). He declined the offer of a classical chair at Kiel, and accepted a post as tutor to the son of an intimate friend of Altenstein, the Prussian minister of education. He held this position for seven years (1826-1833), occupying his leisure time with the preparation of a critical edition of Aristotle's De anima (1833; 2nded. by C. Belger, 1877). In 1833 Altenstein appointed Trendelenburg extraordinary professor in Berlin, and four years later he was advanced to an ordinary professorship. For nearly forty years he proved himself markedly successful as an academical teacher, during the greater part of which time he had to examine in philosophy and pedagogics all candidates for the scholastic profession in Prussia. In 1865 he became involved in an acrimonious controversy on the interpretation of Kant's doctrine of Space with Kuno Fischer, whom he attacked in Kuno Fischer und sein Kant (1869), which drew forth the reply Anti-Trendelenburg (1870). He died on the 24th of January 1872. Trendelenburg's philosophizing is conditioned throughout by his loving study of Plato and Aristotle, whom he regards not as oppon- ents but as building jointly on the broad basis of idealism. His own standpoint may almost be called a modern version of Aristotle thus interpreted. While denying the possibility of an absolute method and an absolute philosophy, as contended for by Hegel and others, Trendelenburg was emphatically an idealist in the ancient or Platonic sense; his whole work was devoted to the demonstration of the ideal in the real. But he maintained that the procedure of philosophy must be analytic, rising from the particular facts to the universal in which we find them explained. We divine the system of the whole from the part we know, but the process of reconstruction must remain approximative. Our position forbids the possibility of a final system. Instead, therefore, of constantly beginning afresh in speculation, it should be our duty to attach ourselves to what may be considered the permanent results of historic developments. The classical expression of these results Trendelenburg finds mainly in the Platonico-Aristotelian system. The philosophical question is stated thus: How are thought and being united in knowledge? how does thought- get at being? and how does being enter into thought? Proceeding on the principle that like can only be known by like, Trendelenburg next reaches a doctrine peculiar to himself (though based upon Aristotle) which plays a central part in his speculations. Motion is the fundamental fact common to being and thought ; the actual motion of the external world has its counter- part in the constructive motion which is involved in every instance of perception or thought. From motion he proceeds to deduce time, space and the categories of mechanics and natural science. These, being thus derived, are at once subjective and objective in their scope. It is true matter can never be completely resolved into motion, but the irreducible remainder may be treated like the jrpwTTj 6\ij of Aristotle as an abstraction which we asymptotically approach but never reach. The facts of existence, however, are not adequately explained by the mechanical categories. The ultimate interpretation of the universe can only be found in the higher category of End or final cause. Here Trendelenburg finds the dividing line between philosophical systems. On the one side stand those which acknowledge none but efficient causes — which make force prior to thought, and explain the universe, as it were, a tergo. This may be called, typically, Democritism. On the other side stands the " organic " or teleological view of the world, which interprets the parts through the idea of the whole, and sees in the efficient causes only the vehicle of ideal ends. This may be called in a wide sense Platonism. Systems like Spinozism, which seem to form a third class, neither sacrificing force to thought nor thought to force, yet by their denial of final causes inevitably fall back into the Democritic or essentially materialistic standpoint, leaving us with the great antagonism of the mechanical and the organic systems of philosophy. The latter view, which receives its first support in the facts of life, or organic nature as such, finds its culmination and ultimate verification in the ethical world, which essentially consists in the realization of ends. Trendelenburg's Naturrecht may, therefore, be taken as in a manner the completion of his system, his working out of the ideal as present in the real. The ethical end is taken to be the idea of humanity, not in the abstract as formulated by Kant, but in the context of the state and of history. Law is treated throughout as the vehicle of ethical requirements. In Trendelenburg's treatment of the state, as the ethical organism in which the individual (the potential man) may be said first to emerge into actuality, we may trace his nurture on the best ideas of Hellenic antiquity. Trendelenburg was also the author of the following: Elementa logices Aristotelicae (1836; gth ed., 1892; Eng. trans., 1881), a selec- tion of passages from the Organon with Latin translation and notes, containing the substance of Aristotle's logical doctrine, supplemented by Erlauterungen zu den Elementen der Aristotelischen Logik (1842; 3rd ed. 1876); Logische Untersuchungen (1840; 3rd ed. 1870), and Die logische Frage in Hegels System (1843), important factors in the reaction against Hegel ; Historische Beitrage zur Philosophic TRENT— TRENT, COUNCIL OF 247 (1846-1867), in three volumes, the first of which contains a history of the doctrine of the Categories; Das Naturrecht aufdem Grunde der Ethik (1860); Liicken im Volkerrecht (1870), a treatise on the defects of international law, occasioned by the war of 1870. A number of his papers dealing with non-philosophical, chiefly national and educational subjects, are collected in his Kleine Schriften (1871). On Trendelenburg's life and work see H. Bonitz, Zur Erinnerung an F.A.T. (Berlin, 1872); P. Kleinert, Grabrede (Berlin, 1872); E. Bratuschek, Adolf Trendelenburg (Berlin, 1873); C. von Prantl, Gedachtniisrede (Munich, 1873); G. S. Morris in the New Englander (1874), xxxiii. TRENT (Lat. Tridentum; Ital. Trenlo; Ger. Trient), the capital of the south or Italian-speaking portion of the Austrian province of Tirol, It stands on the left bank of the Adige where this river is joined by the Fersina, and is a station on the Brenner railway, 35 m. S. of Botzen and 565 m. N. of Verona. It has a very picturesque appearance, especially when ap- proached from the north, with its embattled walls and towers filling the whole breadth of the valley. A conspicuous feature in the view is the isolated rocky citadel of Doss Trento (the Roman Verruca), that rises on the right bank of the Adige to a height of 308 ft. above the city and is now very strongly fortified, as are various other positions near Trent giving access to Trent from the east (Val Sugana) or the west (valley of the Sarca). With its numerous palaces, substantial houses, broad streets, and spacious squares, Trent presents the aspect of a thoroughly Italian city, and its inhabitants (24,868 in 1900, including a garrison of over 2000 men) speak Italian only — it is the centre of the region called Italia Irredenta by fervent Italian patriots. The Duomo or cathedral church (dedicated to San Vigilio, the first bishop) was built in four instalments between the nth and isth centuries, and was restored in 1882-1889. More interesting historically is the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, built in 1514-1539, and the scene of the sessions of the famous Ecumenical Council (as to which, see below) which lasted, with several breaks, from 1545 to 1563; near it, in the open, a column was erected in 1845, on the occasion of the three hundredth anniversary of the opening of the Council. To the east of the city rises the Castello del Buon Consiglio, for centuries the residence of the prince-bishops, but now used as barracks. There is a huge town hall, which also houses the museum and the very extensive town library. Trent lives rather on its historical souvenirs than on its industries, which are not very extensive, viticulture, silk-spinning and the preparation of salami (a strongly spiced kind of Italian sausage) being the chief. Ecclesiastically Trent is a suffragan see of the archbishopric of Salzburg. Opposite the railway station a statue of Dante was erected in 1896, for he is believed to have visited this region about 1304. Trent was originally the capital of the Tridentini, and is mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary as a station on the great road from Verona to Veldidena (Innsbruck) over the Brenner. It was later ruled by the Ostrogoths (sth century) and the Lombards (6th century) after the conquest of whom by the Franks (774) Trent became part of the kingdom of Italy. But hi 1027 the emperor Conrad II. bestowed all temporal rights in the region on the bishop (the see dates from the 4th century) and transferred it to Germany, an event which fixed all its later history. The Venetian attacks were finally re- pulsed in 1487, and the bishop retained his temporal powers till 1803 when they passed to Austria, to which (save 1805-1814, when first the Bavarians and then Napoleon held the region) they have ever since belonged, the Trentino being annexed formally to Tirol in 1814. (W. A. B. C.) TRENT, COUNCIL OF. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) has a long antecedent history of great significance for the fortunes of the Catholic Church. During the isth and the earlier half of the i6th century, the conception of an " ecumenical council " remained an ideal of which the realization was expected to provide a solution for the serious ecclesiastical difficulties which were then prevalent. True, the councils of Constance and Basel had fallen short of the desired goal; but confidence in the unknown quantity persisted and took deeper root as the popes of the Renaissance showed themselves less and less inclined to undertake the reforms considered necessary in wide circles of the Church. The papacy indeed did not recognize the jurisdiction of the ecumenical council, and in 1459 Pius II. had prohibited any appeal to such a tribunal under penalty of excommunication. This, however, had no effect on public opinion, and the council continued to be invoked as the supreme court of Christianity. So in 1518, for instance, the university of Paris demanded the convocation of a general council, to which it referred its solemn protest against the papal encroach- ments on the privileges of the French Church. Thus, when Luther took this very step in the same year, and repeated it later, his action was not devoid of precedent. Again in 1529 the evangelical estates of Germany made a formal appeal in the Diet of Spires, and, in the preface to the Augsburg Confession of 1530, requested a "general, unfettered council of Christendom." The same demand was formulated by Charles V. The emperor indeed — though, as a statesman, he had found himself in frequent opposition to the papal policy of his day — had never enter- tained the slightest doubt as to the truth of Catholic doctrine, and had rendered inestimable services to the Church in the perilous years which followed the emergence of Protestantism. Still he could not blind himself to the fact that ecclesiastical life stood in urgent need of reform; and the only method of effecting an alteration in the existing regime was by means of a council. Consequently he declared himself in favour of con- vening a general assembly of the church — a project which he pursued with the greatest energy. True, the passive resist- ance of the Curia was so stubborn that the decisive step was postponed time and again. But the goal was finally attained, and this result was essentially the work of Charles. Actually, the meeting came too late: the Evangelical Church had gathered strength in the interim, and the council failed to exercise the decisive influence anticipated on the relations between Catholicism and Protestantism. In 1536 its convocation seemed imminent. Pope Paul III., who in the conclave had already admitted the necessity of a council, convened it on the 2nd of June 1 536, for the 23rd of May 1 537, at Mantua. He then altered the date to the ist of November of the same year. Later it was summoned to meet at Vicenza on the ist of May 1538, only to be postponed till the Easter of 1539. Finally, he adjourned the execution of the project sine die. Charles met this dilatory policy by arranging colloquies between Protestant and Catholic at Worms and Regensburg, the result being that the Curia became afraid that the emperor might take the settlement of the religious question into his own hands. This consideration forced Paul III. to compliance, and fresh writs were issued convoking the council, first for Whitsuntide, 1542, then for the ist of November of the same year. In consequence, however, of the hostilities between Charles and the French king Francis I., the conference was so scantily attended that it was once more prorogued to the 6th of July 1543, before it had come into active existence. Not till the peace of Crespy, 1 544, when the emperor showed some disposition to attempt an accommodation of the ecclesiastical feud in a German Diet, did the pope resolve to translate his numerous promises into deeds. The bull Laelare Hierusalem (November 19, 1544) fixed the meeting of the council for the isth of March 1545, in Trent, and assigned it three tasks: (i) the pacification of the religious dispute by doctrinal decisions, (2) the reform of ecclesiastical abuses, (3) the discussion of a crusade against the infidels. The selection of the town of Trent, the capital of the Italian Tirol, and part of the empire had a two- fold motive: on the one hand it was a token of concession to the emperor, who wished the synod to be held in his dominions; on the other, there was no occasion to fear that an assembly, meeting on the southern border of Germany, would fall under the imperial influence. The opening of the council was deferred once again. To- wards the end of May 1545, twenty bishops were collected at Trent; but there was no sign of action, and the papal legates — Del Monte, Corvinus and Reginald Pole — delayed the in- auguration. The cause of this procrastinating policy was that 248 TRENT, COUNCIL OF the emperor and the pope were at cross purposes with regard to the mode of procedure. In the eyes of Paul III. the council was simply the means by which he expected to secure a con- demnation of the Protestant heresy, in hopes that he would then be in a position to impose the sentence of the Church upon them by force. For him the question of ecclesiastical reform pos- sessed no interest whatever. In contrast to this, Charles demanded that these very reforms should be given precedence, and the decisions on points of dogma postponed till he should have compelled the Protestants to send representatives to the council. The pope, however, alarmed by the threat of a collo- quy in Germany, recognized the inadvisability of his dilatory tactics, and at last ordered the synod to be opened (December 13, I54S)- Since there was no definite method by which the deliberations of ecumenical councils were conducted, special regulations were necessary; and those adopted were of such a nature as to assure the predominance of the Roman chair from the first. As the voting was not to be by nations, as at Constance, but by individuals, the last word remained with the Italians, who were in the majority. In order to enhance this superiority the legates as a rule denied the suffrage to those foreign bishops who desired to be represented by procurators; and a number of Italian prelates were enabled to make their appearance at Trent, thanks to special allowances from the pope. The dispute as to the order of precedence among the subjects for deliberation was settled by a compromise, and the questions of dogma and ecclesiastical abuses were taken simultaneously, the consequence being that in the decisions of the council the doctrinal and reformatory decrees rank side by side. In pursuance of a precedent estab- lished by the last Lateran Council, the sessions were divided into two classes: those devoted to discussion (congregationes gener- ates), and those in which the results of the discussion were put to the vote and formally enacted (sessiones publicae). To ensure a thorough consideration of every proposition, and also to facilitate the exercise of the papal influence on the proceedings, the delegates were split into three groups (congregationes), each group debating the same question at the same time. This arrangement, however, only endured till 1546. Since these sections were only brought into conjunction by the legates, and met under their presidency, the pontifical envoys in effect regulated the whole course of the deliberations. They claimed, moreover, the right of determining the proposals submitted, and were throughout in active and constant communication with Rome — a circumstance which provoked the ban mot of the French deputy (1563), that when the rivers were flooded and the Roman post delayed the Holy Ghost postponed his descent. These precautions nullified any possible disposition on the part of the council to enter on dangerous paths; and in addition the clause " under reservation of the papal authority " was affixed to all enactments dealing with ecclesiastical irregularities- — thus leaving the pope a free hand with regard to the practical execution of any measures proposed. Contrary to the emperor's wish, the council began its labours in the region of dogma by defining the doctrines of the Church with reference to the most important controversial points — -a procedure which frustrated all his projects for a reconciliation with the Protestants. On the 8th of April 1546 the doctrine of the Holy Scriptures and tradition (sessio iv.) was proclaimed; on the i7th of June 1546, the doctrine of original sin (sessio v.); on the I3th of January 1547, the doctrine of justification (sessio vi.); and on the 3rd of March 1547, the decree concerning the sacraments in general, and baptism and confirmation in particular (sessio vii.). On the nth of March, however, the council was transferred to Bologna on the pretext that an epidemic was raging in Trent (sessio viii.), though, at the imperial command, part of the bishops remained behind. But on the and of June the council of Bologna resolved (sessio x.) to adjourn its labours. The emperor's demands that the council should again be removed to Trent were vain, till on the 24th of April 1547, the battle of Miihlberg decided the struggle with the Schmalkaldic league, formed by the Evangelical princes of Germany, in his favour. His hands were now free, and he utilized his military successes to balance his account with the Church. At the Diet of Augsburg he secured the enactment of a modus vivendi, leavened by the Catholic spirit, between the adherents of either religion; and this pro- visory settlement — the so-called Interim of Augsburg — was promulgated as a law of the empire (June 3, 1548), and declared binding till the council should reassemble. The Protestants, it is true, received certain concessions — the non-celibacy of the priesthood and the lay chalice — but the Roman hierarchy, the old ceremonial, the feast-days and the fasts, were reinstated. Since the bishops who had remained in Trent abstained, at the emperor's request, from any display of activity qua synod, the outbreak of a schism was avoided. But the confusion of ecclesiastical affairs had grown worse confounded through the refusal of the pope to continue the council, when the death of Paul III. (November 10, 1549) gave a new turn to events. Pope Julius III., the former legate Del Monte, could not elude the necessity of convening the council again, and, though per- sonally he took no greater interest in the scheme than his pre- decessor in office, caused it to resume its labours on the ist of May 1551 (sessio xi.), under the presidency of the legate, Cardinal Crescentio. The personnel of the synod was, for the most part, different; and the new members included the Jesuits, Laynez and Salmeron. More than this, the general character of the second period of the council was markedly distinct from that of its earlier stages. The French clergy had not a single dele- gate, while the Spanish bishops maintained an independent attitude under the aegis of the emperor, and Protestant deputies were on this occasion required to appear at Trent. The German Protestants who, in the first phase of the council, had held aloof from its proceedings, since to have sent representatives to this assemblage would have served no good purpose, had now no choice but to obey the imperial will. Charles V. was anxious to assure them not merely of a safe conduct, but also of a certain hearing. But in this he ran counter to the established facts: the Catholic Church had already defined its attitude to the dogmas above mentioned, and the Curia showed no inclination to question these results by reopening the debate. Thus the participation of the Protestants was essentially superfluous, for the object they had at heart — the discussion of these doc- trines on the gound of Holy Writ — was from the Catholic stand- point an impossible aspiration. The Wurttemberg deputies had already submitted a creed, composed by the Swabian reformer Johann Brenz, to the council, and Melanchthon was under way with a confessio saxonica, when there came the revolt of the Elector Maurice of Saxony (March 20, 1 5 5 2) , which compelled the emperor to a speedy flight from Innsbruck, and dissolved the conclave. Its dogmatic labours were confined to doctrinal decrees on the Lord's Supper (sessio xiii. October n, 1551), and on the sacraments of penance and extreme unction (November 25i JSS1) sessio xiv.). On the z8th of April 1552, the sittings were suspended on the news of the elector's approach. Ten years had elapsed before the council reassembled for the third time in Trent; and on this occasion the circumstances were totally changed. During the intervening period, the religious problem in Germany had received such a solution as the times admitted by the peace of Augsburg (1555); and the equality there guaranteed between the Protestant estates and the Catholic estates had left the former nothing to hope from a council. Thus the motive which till then had governed the emperor's policy was now nullified, as there was no necessity for seeking a reconciliation of the two parties by means of a conference. The incitement to continue the council came from another quarter. It was no longer anxiety with regard to Protestantism that exercised the pressure, but a growing con- viction of the imperative need of more stringent reforms within the Catholic Church itself. Pope Paul IV. (1551-1559), the protector of the Inquisition, and the opponent of Philip II. of Spain as well as of the emperor Ferdinand, turned a deaf ear to all requests for a revival of the synod. The regime of Pius IV. (1550-1566) was signalized by an absolute reversal of the papal policy: and it was high time. For in France and Spain — TRENT, COUNCIL OF 249 the very countries where the Protestant heresy had been most vigorously combated — a great mass of discontent had accumu- lated; and France already showed a strong inclination to attempt an independent settlement of her ecclesiastical difficulties in a national council. Pius IV. saw himself constrained to take these circumstances into account. On the 2gth of November 1560 he announced the convocation of the council; and on the i8th of January 1562 it was actually reopened (sessio xvii.). The presi- dency was entrusted to Cardinal Gonzaga, assisted by Cardinals Hosius, bishop of Ermeland, Seripando, Simonetta, and Marc de Altemps, bishop of Constance. The Protestants indeed were also invited but the Evangelical princes, assembled in Naumburg, withheld their assent — a result which was only to be expected. In order to enhance the synod's freedom of action, France and the emperor Ferdinand required that it should rank as a new council, and were able to adduce in support of their claim the fact that the resolutions of the two former periods had not yet been formally recognized. Pius IV., however, designated it a continuation of the earlier meetings. Ferdinand, in addition to regulations for the amendment of the clergy and the monastic system, demanded above all the legalization of the marriage of the priesthood and the concession of the " lay chalice, "as he feared further defections to Protestantism. France and Spain laid stress on the recognition of the divine right of the episco- pate, and its independence with regard to the pope. These episcopal tendencies were backed by a request that the bishops should reside in their sees — a position which Pius IV. acknow- ledged to be de iure divino; though, as it would have implied the annihilation of the Roman Curia, he refused to declare it as such. In consequence of these reformatory aspirations, the position of the pope and the council was for a while full of peril. But the papal diplomacy was quite competent to shatter an opposition which at no time presented an absolutely unbroken front, and by concessions, threats and the utilization of political and politico-ecclesiastical dissensions, to break the force of the attack. In the third period of the council, which, as a result of these feuds, witnessed no session from September 1562 to July 1563, doctrinal resolutions were also passed concerning the Lord's Supper sub utraque specie (sessio xxi., July 16, 1562), the sacri- fice of the Mass (sessio xxii., September 27, 1562), the sacrament of ordination (sessio xxiii., July 15, 1563), the sacrament of marriage (sessio xxiv., November n, 1563), and Purgatory, the worship of saints, relics and images (December 3, 1563). On the 4th of December 1563 the synod closed. The dogmatic decisions of the Council of Trent make no attempt at embracing the whole doctrinal system of the Roman Catholic Church, but present a selection of the most vital doctrines, partly chosen as a counterblast to Protestantism, and formulated throughout with a view to that creed and its objec- tions. From the discussions of the council it is evident that pronounced differences of opinion existed within it even on most important subjects, and that these differences were not reconciled. Hence came the necessity for reticences, equivoca- tions and temporizing formulae. Since, moreover, the council issued its pronouncements without any reference to the decisions of earlier councils, and omitted to emphasize its relation to these, it in fact suppressed these earlier decisions, and posed not as continuing, but as superseding them. The reformatory enactments touch on numerous phases of ecclesiastical life — administration, discipline, appointment to spiritual offices, the marriage law (decretum de reformatione matrimonii " Tametsi," sessio xxiv.), the duties of the clergy, and so forth. The resolutions include many that marked an advance; but the opportunity for a comprehensive and thorough reformation of the life of the Church — the necessity of which was recognized in the Catholic Church itself — was not em- braced. No alteration of the abuses which obtained in the Curia was effected, and no annulment of the customs, so lucra- tive to that body and deleterious to others, was attempted. The question of the annates, for instance, was not so much as broached. The Council of Trent in fact enjoyed only a certain appearance of independence. For the freedom of speech which had been accorded was exercised under the supervision of papal legates, who maintained a decisive influence over the proceedings and could count on a certain majority in consequence of the over- whelming number of Italians. That the synod figured as the responsible author of its own decrees (sancta oecumenica et generalis tridentina synodtis in\ spiritu sancto legitime con- gregata) proves very little, since the following clause reads praesidentibus apostolicae sedis legatis; while the legates and the pope .expressly refused to sanction an application of the words of the Council of Constance — universalem ecclesiam repraesentans. The whole course of the council was determined by the pre- supposition that it had no autonomous standing, and that Its labours were simply transacted under the commission and guidance of the pope. This was not merely a claim put forward by the Roman see at the time: it was acknowledged by the attitude of the synod throughout. The legates confined the right of discussion to the subjects propounded by the pope, and their position was that he was in no way bound by the vote of the majority. In difficult cases the synod itself left the decision to him, as in the question of clandestine marriages and the administration of the Lord's Supper sub utraque specie. Further, at the close of the sessions a resolution was adopted, by the terms of which all the enactments of the council de morum reformatione atque ecclesiaslica discipline, were subject to the limitation that the papal authority should not be prejudiced thereby (sessio xxv. cap. 21). Finally, every doubt as to the papal supremacy is removed when we consider that the Triden- tine Fathers sought for all their enactments and decisions the ratification (confirmatio) of the pope, which was conferred by Pius IV. in the bull Benedictus Deus (January 26, 1564). Again, in its last meeting (sessio xxv.), the synod transferred to the pope a number of tasks for which their own time had proved inadequate. These comprised the compilation of a catalogue of forbidden books, a catechism, and an edition of the missal and the breviary. Thus the council presented the Holy See with a further opportunity of extending its influence and diffus- ing its views. The ten rules de libris prohibitis, published by Pius IV. in the bull Dominici gregis custodiae (March 24, 1564), became of great importance for the whole spiritual life of the Roman Catholic Church: for they were an attempt to exclude pernicious influences, and, in practice, led to a censorship which has been more potent for evil than good. These regulations were modified by Leo XIII. in his Constitution Officiorum ac munerum (January 24, 1897). Acting on a suggestion of the council (sessio xxiv. c. 2; sessio xxv. c. 2), Pius IV. published a short conspectus of the articles of faith, as determined at Trent, in the bull Injunctum nobis (November 13, 1564). This so- called Professio fidei tridentinae, however, goes beyond the doctrinal resolutions of the synod, as it contains a number of clauses dealing with the Church and the position of the pope within the Church — subjects which were deliberately ignored in the discussions at Trent. In 1877 this confession — binding on every Roman Catholic priest — was supplemented by a pro- nouncement on the dogma of papal infallibility. The great and increasing need of a manual for the instruction of the people gave rise in the first half of the i6th century to numerous catechisms. At the period of the council, that com- posed by the Jesuit Peter Canisius, father-confessor of the emperor Ferdinand, enjoyed the widest vogue. It failed, however, to receive the sanction of the synod, which preferred to undertake the task itself; and, as that body left its labours unfinished, the pope was entrusted with the compilation of a textbook. Pius V. appointed a commission (Leonardo Marini, Egidio Foscarari, Francisco Fureiro and Murio Calini) under the presidency of three cardinals, among them Charles Borromeo; and this commission discharged its duties with such rapidity that the Catechismus a decreto concilii tridentini ad parochos was published in Rome as early as the year 1568. The book is designed for the use of the cleric, not the layman. The Missale romanum, moreover, underwent revision: also the Breviarium romanum, the daily devotional work of the Roman priest. The 250 TRENT necessity of still further improvements in the latter was forcibly urged in the Vatican Council. The numerical representation of the Council of Trent was marked by considerable fluctuations. In the first session (December 13, 1545) the spiritual dignitaries present — omitting the 3 presiding cardinals — consisted of one other cardinal, 4 arch- bishops, 21 bishops and 5 generals of orders. On the other hand, the resolutions of the synod were signed at its close by the 4 presidents, then by 2 cardinals, 3 patriarchs, 25 archbishops, 166 bishops, 7 abbots, 7 generals of orders and 19 procurators of archbishops and bishops. In this council — as later in the Vatican — Italy was the dominant nation, sending two-thirds of the delegates; while Spain was responsible for about 30, France for about 20, and Germany for no more than 8 members. In spite of the paucity of its numbers at the opening and the unequal representation of the Church, which continued to the last, the oecumenical character of the council was never seriously questioned. On the motion of the legates, the resolutions were submitted to the ambassadors of the secular powers for signature, the French and Spanish envoys alone withholding their assent. The recognition of the council's enactments was, none the less, beset with difficulties. So far as the doctrinal decisions were concerned no obstacles existed; but the refor- matory edicts — adhesion to which was equally required by the synod — stood on a different footing. In their character of resolutions claiming to rank as ecclesiastical law they came into conflict with outside interests, and their acceptance by no means implied that the rights of the sovereign, or the needs and cir- cumstances of the respective countries, were treated with sufficient consideration. The consequence was that there arose an active and, in some cases, a tenacious opposition to an indiscriminate acquiescence in all the Tridentine decrees. Under Charles IX. and Henry IV. the situation was hotly debated in France: but these monarchs showed as little com- plaisance to the representations and protests of the Curia as did the French parlement itself; and only those regulations were recognized which came into collision neither with the rights of the king nor with the liberties of the Gallican Church. In Spain, Philip II. allowed, indeed, the publication of the Tridentinum, as also in the Netherlands and Naples, but always with the reservation that the privileges of the king, his vassals and his subjects, should not thereby be infringed. The empire, as such, never recognized the Tridentinum. Still it was pub- lished at provincial and diocesan synods in the territories of the spiritual princes, and also in the Austrian hereditary states. In his official confirmation Pius IV. had already strictly prohibited any commentary on the enactments of the council unless undertaken with his approval, and had claimed for him- self the sole right of interpretation. In order to supervise the practical working of these enactments, Pius created (1564) a special department of the Curia, the Congregalio cardinalium concttii tridentini inter pretum', and to this body Sixtus V. en- trusted the further task of determining the sense of the conciliar decisions in all dubious cases. The resolutiones of the con- gregation— on disputed points — and their declarationes — on legal questions — exercised a powerful influence on the subse- quent development of ecclesiastical law. The Council of Trent attained a quite extraordinary signifi- cance for the Roman Catholic Ch'urch; and its pre-eminence was unassailed till the Vaticanum subordinated all the labours of the Church in the past — whether in the region of doctrine or in that of law — to an infallible pope. On the theological side it fixed the results of medieval scholasticism and gleaned from it all that could be of service to the Church. Further, by pro- nouncing on a series of doctrinal points till then undecided it elaborated the Catholic creed; and, finally, the bold front which it offered to Protestantism in its presentation of the orthodox faith gave to its members the practical lead they so much needed in their resistance to the Evangelical assault. The regulations dealing with ecclesiastical life, in the widest sense of the words, came, for the most part, to actual fruition, so that, in this direc- tion also, the council had not laboured in vain. For the whole Roman Catholic Church of the i6th century its consequences are of an importance which can scarcely be exaggerated: it showed that Church as a living institution, capable of work and achievement; it strengthened the confidence both of her members and herself, and it was a powerful factor in heightening her efficiency as a competitor with Protestantism and in restoring and reinforcing her imperilled unity. Indeed, its sphere of influence was still more extensive, for its labours in the field of dogma and ecclesiastical law conditioned the future evolution of the Roman Catholic Church. As regards the position of the papacy, it is of epoch-making significance — not merely in its actual pronouncements on the papal see, but also in its tacit subordination to that see, and the opportunities of increased influence accorded to it. There were three periods of the council, separated by not inconsiderable intervals, each of an individual character, con- ducted by different popes, but forming a single unity — an indivisible whole, so that it is strictly correct to speak of one Council of Trent, not of three distinct synods. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Sources for the history of the council : Concilium tridentinum; diariorum, actorum, epistularum, tractatuum nova collectio, ed. Societas Goerresiana. Tom. i. (Diariorum pars j. Herculis Severoli commentarius. Angeli Massarelli diaria 1-4, collegit S. Merkle), Freiburg (1901). Tom. iv. (Actorum pars i. : Monumenta concilium praecedentia ; trium priorum sessiorium acta : collegit St Ehses), Freiburg (1904). Till the completion of this splendidly planned work, the following deserve especial mention: F. le Plat, Mpnumentorum ad historiam concilii tridentini speclan- tium amplissima collectio (Loyanu, 1781-1787); G. F. Planck, Anecdota ad historiam concilii tridentini pertinentia, 26 fasc. (Gottin- gen, 1791-1818); Acta genuina s. oecumenici concilii tridentini ab A. Massarello conscripta, ed. A. Theiner (Zagrabiae, 1874); F. v. Dollinger, Sammlung von Urkunden zur Geschichte des Konzils von Trient, i. i, 2 (Nordlingen, 1876); Id., Beitrdge zur politischen kirchlichen, und Kulturgeschichte (3 yols., Regensburg, 1862-1882); G. Paleottus, Acta concilii tridentini a 1562 et 1563 usque in finem concilii, ed. F. Mendharn (London, 1842); A. v. Druffel, Monumenta tridentina (3 parts, Munich, 18841-1887, parts 4 and 5, continued by K. Brandi, 1897-1899); Zur Geschichte des Konzils von Trient. Aktenstucke aus den osterreichischen Archiven, ed. T. v. Sickel (3 parts, Vienna, 1870-1872); F. Lainez, Disputationes tridentinae, ed. Grisar (2 yols., Innsbruck, 1886); Die romische Kurie und das Konzil von Trient unter Pius IV. Aktenstucke zur Geschichte des Konzils von Trient, ed. F. Susta (yols. i. ii., Vienna, 1904-1909); Canones et decreta concilii tridentini (Rome, 1564; critical edition by A. L. Richter, Leipzig, 1853); the most important decisions on dogma and ecclesiastical law reprinted by C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums (ed. 2, Tubingen, Nr. 289 sqq. ; p. 202 sqq.). LITERATURE. — P. Sarpi, Istoria del concilia tridenlino (London, 1619); Cardinal Sforza Pallavicini, Istoria del concilia di Trento (Rome, 1656-1657, a counterblast to the preceding); Brischar, Zur Beurteilung der Kontroversen zwischen Sarpi und Pallavicini (1844); Salig, Vollstandige Historie des tridentinischen Konzils (Halle, 1741-1745); Wessenberg, Die grossen Kirchenversammlungen des 1 5 ten und i6ten Jahrhunderts, vols. iii. and iv. (Constance, 1840); L. v. Ranke, Die romischen Pdpste im 16 und 17 Jahrhundert, vol. i. ; ibid. Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation, i. (Stuttgart, 1889); P. Tschackert, s.v. " Trienter Konzil," in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopad ie fur protestantische Theologie (1908), vol. xx., ed. 3, p. 99 sqq. ; G. Kawerau-W. Moeller, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, iii. 237 sqq. (Tubingen, 1907) ; F. Hergenrother, Handbuch der allge- meinen Kirchengeschichte, edition by F. P. Kirsch, Bd. III. p. 188 seq. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1909). (C. M.) TRENT, the chief river in the midlands of England, the third in length in the country, exceeded only by the Thames and Severn. It rises in the north of Staffordshire, and discharges through the Humber into the North Sea, having a course of about 170 m., and a drainage area of 4052 sq. m. The source is on Biddulph Moor, which rises to a height of noo ft. The course of the river is at first southerly, and it skirts the manu- facturing district of the Potteries, passing Stoke-upon-Trent. Immediately below this town the valley widens, and the fall of the river, from a point 15 m. from the source to the mouth, is only 338 ft. Passing Stone, the course becomes south-easterly, and the united waters of the Sow and the Penk are received on the right. Near Rugeley the direction becomes easterly, and near Alrewas the Trent receives the Tame on the right, and turns to the north-east. Much of the valley above this point is well wooded and picturesque, though the flanking hills are gently sloping, and of no great elevation. The river now passes TRENTE ET QUARANTE— TRENTON 251 Burton-upon-Trent, in this part of its course forming the boun- dary between Staffordshire and Derbyshiie. The fall from Burton to the mouth, a distance of 109 m., is 148 ft. The valley opens out as the stream, dividing into several channels at Burton and receiving on the left the Dove, enters Derbyshire. It then separates that county from Leicestershire and Notting- hamshire, receives in quick succession the Derwent (left), Soar (right) and Erewash (left), enters Nottinghamshire, and passes Nottingham, 8i£ m. from the mouth. The next important town is Newark, which, however, the main channel of the river passes at a considerable distance to the west; the Devon joins here on the right, and the fall from this point to the mouth, a distance of 575 m., is only 18 ft. The valley becomes flat, though the river is rather deeply entrenched in some parts. Forming the boundary between Nottingham and Lincolnshire, the Trent passes Gainsborough (265 m. from the mouth), receives the Idle on the left, and, entering Lincolnshire and skirting the Isle of Axholme, joins the Yorkshire Ouse near Faxfleet. The lower part of the valley resembles the Fens in character, and is drained by many artificial channels. The northward turn at Newark is of interest inasmuch as it is con- sidered that the river from this point formerly flowed towards Lincoln, and, following a depression in the escarpment there, passed down the valley at present occupied by the Witham to the Wash. It is suggested that the waters were diverted to the Humber by a stream within that system cutting back southward and tapping the Trent in the vicinity of Newark; and in high flood the Trent has been known to send water across the low parting to the Witham (see Avebury, Scenery of England, ch. xi.). The highest tides are felt about 40 m. up river, and the phenomenon of an " eagre " (bore or tidal wave) is seen rising on spring tides to a height of 4 or 5 ft., ism. above the mouth of the river. The Trent is navigable for a distance of 94! m. from its junction with the Ouse, to a point a short distance above the junction of the Derwent, the Trent Navigation Company having a general control of the navigation down to Gainsborough, the line of which passes through Nottingham by canals. On the river itself there are eight locks. Below Gainsborough the navigation is open, and vessels drawing 9 ft. can reach this point on spring tides. From the Derwent mouth the Trent and Mersey Canal follows the Trent valley upward, and gives connexion with the entire inland navigation system of the midlands and west of England. Short canals give access to Derby and the Erewash valley; the Leicester Navigation, following the Soar, connects with the Grand Junction canal; and the Grantham Canal carriesa little traffic between that town and Notting- ham. The Fossdyke, distinguished as the oldest navigable waterway still in use in England, as it was originally of Roman construction, connects the Trent with Lincoln and the Witham, and lower down the Sheffield and South Yorkshire canal joins the river from the west at Keadby. There is also a canal, little used, to Chesterfield. TRENTE ET QUARANTE (called also Rouge el Noir), a game of French origin played with cards and a special table. It is one of the two games played in the gambling rooms at Monte Carlo, roulette being the other. The diagram illustrates one half of the table, the other half precisely corresponding to it. Two croupiers sit on each side, one of them being the dealer; behind the two on the side opposite to the dealer a supervisor of the game has his seat. Six packs of fifty-two cards each are used; these are well shuffled, and the croupier asks any of the players to cut, handing him a blank card with which to divide the mixed packs. There are only four chances at trente et quarante: rouge or noir, known as the grand tableau; couleur or inverse, known as the petit tableau. At Monte Carlo the stakes are placed on the divisions indicated on the table, the maximum being 12,000 francs and the minimum 20 francs which must be staked in gold. The dealer, who has placed all the cards before him, separates a few with the blank card, takes them in his left hand and invites the players to stake with the formula, "Messieurs, faites votre jeu!" After a pause he exclaims "Le jeu est fait, rien ne va plus!" after which no stake can be made. He then deals the cards in a row until the aggregate number of pips is something more than thirty, upon which he deals a second row, and that which comes nearest to thirty wins, the top row being always distinguished as noir, and the lower OR et ARGENT as rouge. In announcing the result the word trenle is always omitted, the dealer merely announcing un, trois, quatre, as the case may be, though when forty is turned up it is described as quarante. The words noir and inverse are also never used, the announcement being rouge gagne or rouge perd, couleur gagne or couleur perd. Gain or loss over couleur and inverse depends upon the colour of the first card dealt. If this should be also the colour of the winning row, the player wins. Assuming, for example, that the first card dealt is red, and that the lower row of the cards dealt is nearest to thirty, the dealer will announce " Rouge gagne et le couleur." If the first card dealt is red, but the black or top row of cards is nearest Diagram of Half of Trente et to thirty, the dealer announces Quarante Table. "Rouge perd et le couleur." N, Noir. G, Grand tableau. It frequently happens that both R- RouSe' *• Inverse' rows of cards when added together give the same number. Should they both, for instance, add up to thirty-three, the dealer will announce " Trois apres," and the deal goes for nothing except in the event of their adding up to thirty-one. Un apres (i.e. thirty-one) is known as a refait; the stakes are put in prison to be left for the decision of the next deal, or if the player prefers it he can withdraw half his stake, leaving the other half for the bank. Assurance against a refait can be made by paying i% on the value of the stake with a minimum of five francs. When thus insured against a refait the player is at liberty to withdraw his whole stake. It has been calculated that on an average a refait occurs once in thirty-eight coups. After each deal the cards are pushed into a metal bowl let into the table in front of the dealer. When he has not enough left to complete the two rows, he remarks " Les cartes passent "; they are taken from the bowl, reshuffled, and another deal begins. TRENTON, a city and the county-seat of Grundy county, Missouri, U.S.A., on the E. fork of the Grand River, in the north central part of the state, about 100 m. N.E. of Leavenworth. Pop. (1890), 5039; (1900), 5396, including 192 foreign-born and 200 negroes; (1910), 5656. It is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific (which has repair shops here) and the Quincy, Omaha .& Kansas City railways. It has a picturesque situation, and is laid out over a high uneven bluff. The city is a trading centre for a prosperous farming region, and coal is mined in the vicinity. Trenton was platted in 1841, became the county-seat in the same year, and was incorporated as a town in 1857. In 1893 it received a city charter under a general state law. In 1900-1903 it was the seat of Ruskin College, an institution founded by Walter Vrooman (b. 1869), anative of Missouri, and theorganizer of the Ruskin Hall Workingmen's College, Oxford, England. The college was removed to Glen Ellyn, Illinois, in 1903 and after 1906 to Ruskin, Florida. TRENTON, the capital of New Jersey, U.S.A., and the county- seat of Mercer county, on the eastern bank of the Delaware river, about 33 m. N.E. of Philadelphia, and about 59 m. S.W. of New York. Pop. (1890), 57,458; (1900), 73,3°7. of whom 16,793 were foreign-born (including 4114 Germans, 3621 English, 3292 Irish, and 1494 Hungarians), and 32,879 were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 8873 of German parentage, 8324 of Irish parentage, 5513 of English parentage, and 2243 of Hungarian parentage; (1910 census), 96,815. Area, 9 sq. m. Trenton is served by the Pennsylvania (main line and Belvidere division) and the Philadelphia & Reading railway systems, by inter-urban electric railways, and by small freight and passenger steamers on the Delaware river; the Delaware & Raritan Canal connects with 252 TRENTON AND PRINCETON, BATTLES OF the Raritan river at New Brunswick. Trenton is at the head of navigation on the Delaware river, which falls 8 ft. here. Riverside park extends along its water front for about 3 m., and on the outskirts of the city lies Cadwalader park (100 acres), containing a zoological garden. In the centre of the city, marking the spot where Washington planted his guns at the battle of Trenton, stands the Battle monument, a Roman- Doric column of granite, 150 ft. high, hollow and fluted, its cap forming an observatory, with a statue of Washington by William R. O'Donovan (b. 1844). In Perry Street, mounted on a granite pedestal, is the " Swamp Angel," the great gun used by Federal troops in the marshes near Charleston, South Carolina, during their attack on that city in August 1863. There are many buildings in the city which are rich in historic associations. Chief among these is the barracks, erected by the colony in 1758 to mitigate the evils of billeting, and occupied by British troops during the Seven Years' War, and at different times by British, Hessian and American troops during the War of Independence. Other interesting landmarks are " Woodland " (formerly called " Bloomsbury Court "), built early in the 1 8th century by William Trent, and said to have sheltered, at various times, Washington, Lafayette and Rochambeau; the " Hermitage," erected some time before the War of Inde- pendence; and " Bow Hill," in the suburbs of the city, a quaint old colonial mansion which for some time before 1822 was a home of Joseph Bonaparte. Among the public buildings are the state capitol, the post office building, the county court house, the city hall, the second regiment armoury, public library (containing about 42,000 volumes in 1909), and the building (1910) given by Henry C. Kelsey to the city for the school of industrial arts (founded in 1898). Here also are the state normal and model schools (1855), the state library, housed in the capitol, the state school for deaf mutes, the state home for girls, one of the two state hospitals for the insane (opened in 1848), the state arsenal — the building being the old state prison — the state prison (1836), St Francis hospital (1874), Mercer hospital (1892), the William McKinley memorial hospital (1887), the city hospital, two children's day nurseries, the Friends' home, the Union industrial home (for destitute children), the Florence Crittenton home (1895), the indigent widows' and single women's home (1854), the Har Sinai charity society, the home for friendless children, and the society of St Vincent de Paul. Trenton is the see of Protestant Episcopal and Roman Catholic bishops. Trenton is an important industrial centre. Its proximity to the coal fields of Pennsylvania and to the great markets of New York and Philadelphia, and its excellent transportation facilities by rail and by water, have promoted the development of its manufactures. The city is the greatest centre for the pottery industry in the United States. In 1905 there were 40 establishments for the manufacture of pottery and terra- cotta, employing 4571 labourers; and their total product was valued at $5,882,701 — or 9-2% of the value of the pottery product of the United States, and 18% of the value of all the city's factory products, in this year. The chief varieties of this ware are vitrified china, belleek china, semi-porcelain, white granite and c. c. ware, vitrified porcelain for electrical supplies, porcelain bath tubs and tiles, and terra-cotta. Clay for the " saggers," or cases in which the wares are fired, is mined in the vicinity, but the raw materials for the fine grades of pottery are obtained elsewhere. Some pottery was made in Trenton by crude and primitive methods near the beginning of the igth century, but the modern methods were not introduced until 1852, when yellow and Rockingham wares were first made here. In 1859 the manufacture of white granite and cream- coloured ware was successfully established. The fine exhibits from the Trenton potteries at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876 greatly stimulated the demand for these wares and increased the competition among the manufacturers; and since that date there has been a marked development in both the quantity and the quality of the product. In Trenton, also, are manufactured iron, steel and copper wire, rope, cables and rods — the John A. Roebling's Sons Company has an immense wire and cable manufactory here — iron and steel bridge building materials and other structural work, plumbers' supplies (manu- factured by the J. L. Mott Company), and machinery of almost every character, much of it being exported to foreign countries. Much rubber ware is also manufactured. In 1905 Trenton contained 312 factories, employing 14,252 labourers, and the total value of the factory products was $32,719,945. The charter, as amended, provides for a mayor elected for two years and a common council of two members from each ward elected for two years. Other elected officers are: city clerk, comptroller, treasurer, counsel, receiver of taxes, engineer, inspector of buildings, overseer of poor, street commissioner and sealer of weights and measures. The municipality owns the water works and the sewer system; the water supply is obtained from the Delaware and is stored in a reservoir having a capacity of about 110,000,000 gallons. The settlement of Trenton began in 1680 with the erection by Mahlon Stacy, a Quaker colonist of Burlington, of a mill at the junction of the Assanpink creek1 with the Delaware river. By 1685 a number of colonists had settled at this point, which became known as " The Falls " on account of the rapids in the Delaware here. In 1714 Stacy sold his plantation at "The Falls" to William Trent (c. 1655-1724), speaker of the New Jersey Assembly (1723) and chief justice of the colony (1723-1724), in whose honour the place came to be called Trent- town or Trenton. In 1745 Trenton received a royal charter incorporating it as a borough, but in 1750 the inhabitants voluntarily surrendered this privilege, deeming it " very pre- judicial to the interest and trade " of the community. In 1783 the New Jersey delegates in Congress proposed that Trenton be made the seat of the general government, but as this measure was opposed by the Southern delegates, it was agreed that Congress, pending a final decision, should sit alternately at Annapolis and Trenton. Congress accordingly met in Trenton in November 1784, but soon afterwards removed to New York, where better accommodation could be obtained. Trenton became the capital of the state in 1790, was chartered as a city in 1792, and received new charters in 1837, 1866, and 1874. The borough of South Trenton was annexed in 1850; the borough of Chambersburg and the township of Millham in 1888; the borough of Wilbur in 1898; and parts of the town- ships of Ewing and Hamilton in 1900. See The City of Trenton, N.J., a Bibliography (1909), prepared by the Trenton Free Library; John O. Raum, History of the City of Trenton (Trenton, 1871); George A. Wolf, Industrial Trenton (Wilmington, Del., 1900); F. B. Lee, History of Trenton (Trenton, 1895). TRENTON AND PRINCETON, BATTLES OF (1776-1777). These battles in the War of American Independence are noted as the first successes won by Washington in the open field. Following close upon a series of defeats, their effect upon his troops and the population at large was marked. After the cap- ture of Fort Washington on Manhattan Island, on the i6th of November 1776, the British general, Sir William Howe, forced the Americans to retreat through New Jersey and across the Delaware into Pennsylvania. Howe then went into winter quarters, leaving the Hessian general, Rahl, at Trenton on the river with a brigade of 1200 men. Although Washington's army had dwindled to a mere handful and was discouraged by the year's disasters, it could still be trusted for a promising exploit. Ascertaining that the Hessians at Trenton were practically unsupported, the American general determined to attempt their capture. On the night of the 25th of December 1776 he recrossed the Delaware through floating ice to a point 9 m. above the enemy, whom he expected to reach at dawn of the following day, the 26th. Dividing his force of 2500 men 1 The name Assanpink is a corruption of an Indian word said to mean " place of stone implements." In gravel deposits in and near Trenton many stone implements, human skulls and remains of extinct animals have been found, and according to some scientists they are evidences of Glacial man, a conclusion disputed by others. (See AMERICA, vol. i. p. 817.) TREPIDATION— TRESHAM 253 into two divisions under Generals Sullivan and Greene, he approached the town by two roads, surprised the Hessian outposts, and then rushed upon the main body before it could form effectively. The charge of the American troops and the fire of their artillery and musketry completely disconcerted the enemy. All avenues of retreat being closed and their general mortally wounded, the latter to the number of 950 quickly surrendered and were marched back into Pennsylvania on the same day. The American loss was five or six wounded. Elated by this success and eager to beat up the enemy's advanced posts at other points, Washington again crossed the Delaware on the 3Oth of December and occupied Trenton. Hearing of this move Lord Cornwallis at Princeton, 10 m. north of Trenton, marched down with about 7000 troops upon the Americans on the 2nd of January 1777, and drove them across the Assanpink, a stream running east of the town. The Americans, who encamped on its banks that night, were placed in a precarious position, as the Delaware, with no boats at their disposal at that point, prevented their recrossing into Pennsylvania, and all other roads led towards the British lines to the northward. Washington accordingly undertook a bold manoeuvre. Fearing an attack by Cornwallis on the next morning, he held a council of war, which confirmed his plan of quietly breaking camp that night and taking a by-road to Princeton, then cutting through any resistance that might be offered there and pushing on to the hills of northern New Jersey, thus placing his army on the flank of the British posts. His tactics succeeded. At Princeton (q.v.) he came upon three British regiments which for a time held him at bay. The i7th foot especially, under Colonel Mawhood, twice routed the American advanced troops, inflicting severe loss, but were eventually driven back toward' Trenton. The other regiments retreated north toward New Brunswick, and Washington continued his march to Morristown, New Jersey. He had broken through Howe's lines and placed himself in an advan- tageous position for recruiting his army and maintaining a strong defensive in the next campaign. These two affairs of Trenton and Princeton put new life into the American cause, and established Washington in the confidence of his troops and the country at large. See W. S. Stryker, The Battles of Trenton and Princeton (Boston, 1898). TREPIDATION (from Lat. trepidare, to tremble), a term meaning, in general, fear or trembling, but used technically in astronomy for an imagined slow oscillation of the ecliptic, having a period of 7000 years, introduced by the Arabian astronomers to explain a supposed variation in the precession of the equinoxes. It figured in astronomical tables until the time of Copernicus, but is now known to have no foundation in fact, being based on an error in Ptolemy's determination of precession. TRESCOT, WILLIAM HENRY (1822-1898), American diplomatist, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the loth of November 1822. He graduated at Charleston College in 1840, studied law at Harvard, and was admitted to the bar in 1843. In 1852-1854 he was secretary of the U.S. legation in London. In June 1860 he was appointed assistant secretary of state, and he was acting secretary of state in June-October, during General Lewis Cass's absence from Washington, and for a few days in December after Cass's resignation. His position was important, as the only South Carolinian holding anything like official rank, because of his intimacy with President Buchanan, and his close relations with the secession leaders in South Carolina. He opposed1 the re-enforcement of Fort Sumter, used his influence to prevent any attack on the fort by South Carolina before the meeting of the state's convention called to consider the question of secession, and became the special agent of South Carolina in Washington after his resigna- 1 His " Narrative. . .concerning the Negotiations between South Carolina and President Buchanan in December 1860," written in February 1861, edited by Gaillard Hunt, appeared in the American Historical Review, xiii. 528-556 (1908). tion from the state department in December. He returned to Charleston in February 1861; was a member of the state legis- lature in 1862-1866, and served as colonel on the staff of General Roswell S. Ripley during the Civil War; and later returned to Washington. He was counsel for the United States before the Halifax Fishery Commission in 1877; was commissioner for the revision of the treaty with China in 1880; was minister to Chile in 1881-1882 ; in 1882 with General U.S. Grant negotiated a commercial treaty with Mexico; and in 1880-1890 was a delegate to the Pan-American Congress in Washington. He died at Pendleton, South Carolina, his country place, on the 4th of May 1898. His writings include The Diplomacy of the Revolution (1852), An American View of the Eastern Question (1854) and The Diplomatic History of the Administrations of Washington and Adams (1857). TRESHAM, FRANCIS (c. 1567-1605), English Gunpowder Plot conspirator, eldest son of Sir Thomas Tresham of Rush ton, Northamptonshire (a descendant of Sir Thomas Tresham, Speaker of the House of Commons, executed by Edward IV. in 1471), and of Muriel, daughter of Sir Thomas Throckmorton of Coughton, was born about 1567, and educated at Oxford. He was, like his father, a Roman Catholic, and his family had already suffered for their religion and politics. He is described as " a wild and unstayed man," was connected intimately with many of those afterwards known as the Gunpowder Plot con- spirators, being cousin to Catesby and to the two Winters, and was implicated in a series of seditious intrigues in Elizabeth's reign. In 1596 he was arrested on suspicion . together with Catesby and the two Wrights during an illness of Queen Elizabeth. In 1601 he took part in Essex's rebellion and was one of those who confined the Lord Keeper Egerton in Essex House on the 8th of February. He was imprisoned and only suffered to go free on condition of a fine of 3000 marks paid by his father. He was one of the promoters of the mission of Thomas Winter in 1602 to Madrid to persuade the king of Spain to invade England. On the death of Elizabeth, however, he, with several other Roman Catholics, joined Southampton in securing the Tower for James I. Tresham was the last of the conspirators to be initiated into the Gunpowder Plot. According to his own account, which receives general support from Thomas Winter's confession, it was revealed to him on the i4th of October 1605. Inferior in zeal and character to the rest of the conspirators, he had lately by the death of his father, on the nth of September 1605, inherited a large property and it was probably his financial support that was now sought. But Tresham, as the possessor of an estate, was probably less inclined than before to embark on rash and hazardous schemes. Moreover, he had two brothers- in-law, Lords Stourton and Monteagle, among the peers destined for assassination. He expressed his dislike of the plan from the first, and, according to his own account, he endeavoured to dissuade Catesby from the whole project, urging that the Romanist cause would derive no benefit, even in case of success, from the attempt. His representations were in vain and he consented to supply money, but afterwards discovered that no warning was to be given to the Roman Catholic peers. All the evidence now points to Tresham as the betrayer of the plot, and it is known that he was in London within 24 hours of the despatch of the famous letter to Lord Monteagle which revealed the plot (see GUNPOWDER PLOT). In all probability he had betrayed the secret to Monteagle previously, and the method of discovery had been settled between them, for it bears the marks of a prearranged affair, and the whole plan was admirably conceived so as to save Monteagle's life and inform the govern- ment, at the same time allowing the conspirators, by timely warning, opportunity to escape (see MONTEAGLE, WILLIAM PARKER, 4th baron). Tresham avoided meeting any of the con- spirators as he had agreed to do at Barnet, on the 29th of October, but on the 3ist he was visited by Winter in London, and summoned to Barnet on the following day. There he met Catesby and Winter, who were prepared to stab him for his betrayal, but were dissuaded by his protestations that he knew 254 TRESPASS— TRESVIRI nothing of the letter. His entreaties that they would give up the whole project and escape to Flanders were unavailing. After the arrest of Fawkes on the night of the 4th Tresham did not fly with the rest of the conspirators, but] remained at court and offered his services for apprehending them. For some days he was not suspected, but he was arrested on the 1 2th. On the I3th he confessed his share in the plot, and on the 29th his participation and that of Father Garnet in the mission to Spain. Shortly afterwards he fell ill with a com- plaint from which he had long suffered. On the 5th of December a copy of the Treatise of Equivocation, in which the Jesuit doctrine on that subject was treated, was found amongst his papers by Sir Edward Coke (see GARNET, HENRY). From the lessons learnt here he had evidently profited. On the pth of December he declared he knew nothing about the book, and shortly before his death, with the desire of saving his friend, he withdrew his statement concerning Garnet's complicity in the Spanish negotiations, and denied that he had seen him or communicated with him for 16 years. His death took place on the 22nd. His last transparent falsehoods had removed any thoughts of leniency in the government. He was now classed with the other conspirators, and though he had never been convicted of any crime or received sentence, his corpse was decapitated and he was attainted by act of parliament. Tresham had married Anne, daughter of Sir John Tufton of Holtfield in Kent, by whom he had two daughters. His estates passed, notwithstanding the attainder, to his brother, afterwards Sir Lewis Tresham, Bart. TRESPASS (O. Fr. trespas, a crime, properly a stepping across, from Lat. trans, across, and passus, step, cf. " transgression," from transgredi, to step across), in law, any transgression of the law less than treason, felony or misprision of either. The term includes a great variety of torts committed to land, goods or person, distinguished generally by names drawn from the writs once used as appropriate to the particular transgression, such as in et armis, quare clausunt fregit de bonis asporlatis, de uxore abducta cum bonis viri, quare filium et heredem rapuit, &c. Up to 1694 the trespasser was regarded, nominally at any rate, as a criminal, and was liable to a fine for the breach of the peace, commuted for a small sum of money, for which 5 Will, and Mar. c. 12 (1693) substituted a fee of 6s. 8d. recoverable as costs against the defendant. Trespass is not now criminal except by special statutory enactment, e.g. the old statutes against forcible entry, the game acts, and the private acts of many railway companies. When, however, trespass is carried suffi- ciently far it may become criminal, and be prosecuted as assault if to the person, as nuisance if to the land. At one time an important distinction was drawn between trespass general and trespass special or trespass on the case, for which see TORT. The difference between trespass and case was sometimes a very narrow one: the general rule was that where the injury was directly caused by the act of the defendant the proper remedy was trespass, where indirectly case. The difference is illustrated by the action for false imprisonment: if the defendant himself imprisoned the plaintiff the action was trespass; if a third person did so on the information of the defendant it was case. A close parallel is found in Roman law in the actio directa under the lex Aquilia for injury caused directly, the actio ulilis for that caused indirectly. One of the reasons for the rapid extension of the action on the case, especially that form of it called assumpsit, was no doubt the fact that in the action on the case the defendant was not allowed to wage his law (see WAGER). In its more restricted sense trespass is generally used for entry on land without lawful authority by either a man, his servants or his cattle. To maintain an action for such trespass the plaintiff must have possession of the premises. The quantum of possession necessary to enable him to bring the action is often a question difficult to decide. In most instances the tenant can bring trespass, the reversioner only case. Remedies for trespass are either judicial or extra-judicial. The most minute invasion of private right is trespass, though the damages may be nominal if the injury was trivial. On the other hand, they may be exemplary if circumstances of aggravation were present. Pleading in the old action of trespass was of a very technical nature, but the old-fashioned terms alia enormia, replication de injuria, new assignment, &c., once of such frequent occurrence in the reports, are of merely historical interest since the introduction of a simpler system of pleading, unless in those American states where the old pleading has not been reformed. The venue in trespass was formerly local, in case transitory. In addition to damages for trespass, an injunction may be granted by the court. The principal instances of extra-judicial remedies are distress damage feasant of cattle trespassing, and removal of a trespasser without un- necessary violence, expressed in the terms of Latin pleading by molliter manus imposuit. Trespass may be justified by exercise of a legal right, as to serve the process of the law, or by invitation or license of the owner, or may be excused by accident or inevitable necessity, as deviation from a highway out of repair. Where a man abuses an authority given by the law, his wrongful act relates back to his entry, and he becomes a trespasser 06 initio, that is, liable to be treated as a trespasser for the whole time of his being on the land. Mere breach of contract, such as refusal to pay for wine in a tavern which a person has lawfully entered, does not constitute him a trespasser ab initio. A trespass of a permanent nature is called a continuing trespass; such would be the permitting of one's cattle to feed on another's land without authority. In Scots law trespass is used only for torts to land. By the Trespass (Scotland) Act 1865 trespassers are liable on summary conviction to fine and imprisonment for encamping, lighting fires, &c., on land without the consent and permission of the owner. TRES TABERNAE (Three Taverns), an ancient village of Latium, Italy, a post station on the Via Appia, at the point where the main road was crossed by a branch from Antium. It is by some fixed some 3 m. S.E. of the modern village of Cisterna just before the Via Appia enters the Pontine marshes, at a point where the modern road to Ninfa and Norba diverges to the north-east, where a few ruins still exist (Grotte di Nottola), 33 m. from Rome. It is, however, more probable that it stood at Cisterna itself, where a branch road running from Antium by way of Satricum actually joins the Via Appia. Ulubrae, mentioned as a typical desert village by Roman writers, lay in the plain between Cisterna and Sermoneta. Tres Tabernae is best known as the point to which St Paul's friends came to meet him on his journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 15). It became an episcopal see, but this was united with that of Velletri in 592 owing to the desertion of the place. The name occurs twice in other parts of Italy as the name of post stations. TRESVIRI, or TRIUMVIRI, in Roman antiquities, a board of three, either ordinary magistrates or extraordinary com- missioners. i. Tresviri capilales, whose duty it was to assist the higher officials in their judicial functions, especially criminal, were first appointed about 289 B.C., unless they are to be identified with the Iresviri nocturni (Livy ix. 46, 3), who were in existence in 304. They possessed no criminal jurisdiction or jus prensionis (right of arrest) in their own right, but acted as the representatives of others. They kept watch over prisoners and carried out the death sentence (e.g. the Catilinarian con- spirators were strangled by them in the Career Tullianum); took accused or suspected persons into custody; and exercised general control over the city police. They went the rounds by night to maintain order, and had to be present at outbreaks of fire. Amongst other things they assisted the aediles in burning forbidden books. It 'is possible that they were entrusted by the praetor with the settlement of certain civil processes of a semi-criminal nature, in which private citizens acted as prosecutors (see G. Gotz in Rheinisches] Museum} xxx. 162). They also had to collect the sacramenta (deposit forfeited by the losing party in a suit) and examined the plea of exemption put forward by those who refused to act as jurymen. Caesar increased their number to four, but Augustus reverted to three. In imperial times most of their functions passed into the hands of the praefectus vigilum. TREVELYAN— TREVIRANUS 255 2. Tresviri epulones, a priestly body (open from its first in- stitution to the plebeians), assisted at public banquets. Their number was subsequently increased to seven, and by Caesar to ten, although they continued to be called septemviri, a name which was still in use at the end of the 4th century A.D. They were first created in 196 B.C. to superintend the epulum Jovis on the Capitol, but their services were also requisitioned on the occasion of triumphs, imperial birthdays, the dedication of temples, games given by private individuals, and so forth, when entertainments were provided for the people, while the senate dined on the Capitol. 3. Tresviri monetales were superintendents of the mint. Up to the Social War they were nominated from time to time, but afterwards became permanent officials. Their number was increased by Caesar to four, but again reduced by Augustus. As they acted for the senate they only coined copper money under the empire, the gold and silver coinage being under the exclusive control of the emperor. The official title was " tresviri acre argento auro flando feriundo." 4. Tresviri reipublicae conslituendae was the title bestowed upon Octavianus, Lepidus and Antony for five years by the lex Titia, 43 B.C. The coalition of Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus has also been wrongly called a " triumvirate," but they never had the title tresviri, and held no office under that name. See T. Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht (1888), ii. 594-601, 638, 601, 718; J. Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung (1885), iii. 347. TREVELYAN, SIR GEORGE OTTO, BART. (1838- ), British author and statesman, manager of the Dolcoath and other important Cornish mines. He attended his first and only school at Cam- borne, and was in general a slow and obstinate scholar, though he showed considerable aptitude for figures. He inherited more than the average strength for which his family was famous; he stood 6 ft. 2 in. in height, and his feats in wrest- ling and in lifting and throwing weights were unexampled in the district. At the age of eighteen he began to assist his father, and, manifesting great fertility of mechanical invention, was soon recognized as the great rival of James Watt in improvements on the steam-engine (q.v.). His earliest in- vention of importance was his improved plunger pole pump (1797) for deep mining, and in 1798 he applied the principle of the plunger pole pump to the construction of a water-pressure engine, which he subsequently improved in various ways. Two years later he built a high-pressure non-condensing steam- engine, which became a successful rival of the low-pressure steam-vacuum engine of Watt. He was a precursor of George Stephenson in the construction of locomotive engines. On Christmas Eve 1801 his common road locomotive carried the first load of passengers ever conveyed by steam, and on the 24th of March 1802 he and Andrew Vivian applied for a patent for steam-engines in propelling carriages. In 1803 another steam vehicle made by him was run in the streets of London, from Leather Lane along Oxford Street to Paddington, the return journey being made by Islington. He next directed his attention to the construction of a steam locomotive for tramways, with such success that in February 1804 at Pen-y- darran in Wales he worked a tramroad locomotive which was able to haul twenty tons of iron; a similar engine was supplied to the Wylam colliery (Newcastle) in the following year. In 1808 he constructed a circular railway in London near Euston Square, on which the public were carried at the rate of twelve or fifteen miles an hour round Airves of 50 or 100 ft. radius. Trevithick applied his high-pressure engine with great success to rock boring and breaking, as well as to dredging. In 1806 he entered into an engagement with the board of Trinity House, London, to lift ballast from the. bottom of the Thames, at the rate of 500,000 tons a year, for a payment of 6d. a ton. A little later he was appointed to execute a driftway under the Thames, but the work was abandoned owing to the water breaking in. He then set up workshops at Limehouse, for the construction of iron tanks and buoys. He was the first to recognize the importance of iron in the construction of large ships, and in various ways his ideas also influenced the construction of steamboats. In the application of steam to agriculture his name occupies one of the chief places. A high- pressure steam threshing engine was erected by him in 1812 at Trewithen, while in the same year, in a letter to the Board of Agriculture, he stated his belief that every part of agri- culture might be performed by steam, and that such a use of the steam-engine would " double the population of the king- dom and make our markets the cheapest in the world." In 1814 he entered on an agreement for the construction of engines for mines in Peru, and to superintend their working removed to Peru in 1816. Thence he went in 1822 to Costa Rica. He returned to England in 1827, and in 1828 petitioned parliament for a reward for his inventions, but without success. He died, penniless, at Dartford on the 22nd of April 1833. A Life of Richard Trevithick, with an account of his Inventions was published in 1872 by his third son, Francis Trevithick (1812-1877). TREVOR, SIR JOHN (1626-1672), English politician, was a son of Sir John Trevor (d. 1673) of Trevelyn, Denbighshire. His father was a member of parliament under James I. and Charles I., and sat also in the parliaments of Oliver and of Richard Cromwell, and was a member of the council of state during the Commonwealth. One of his uncles was Sir Sackvill Trevor (d. c. 1640), a naval officer, who was knighted in 1604; and another was Sir Thomas Trevor (1586-1656), the judge who decided in favour of the Crown in the famous case about the legality of ship-money, and was afterwards impeached and fined. Sir John Trevor was returned to parliament in 1646 as member for Flintshire. After filling several public positions under the Commonwealth and Protectorate he was a member of the coun- cil of state appointed in February 1660 and under Charles II. he rose to a high position. Having purchased the office of secretary of state he was knighted and entered upon its duties TREVOUX— TRIAL 257 towards the end of 1668, just after he had helped to arrange an important treaty between England and France. He married Ruth, daughter of the great John Hampden, and died on the 28th of May 1672. His second son, Thomas, Baron Trevor (1658-1730), was knighted in 1692 as solicitor-general and in 1695 became attorney- general. In 1701 he was appointed chief justice of the common pleas, and in 1712 he was created a peer as Baron Trevor of Bromham. On the accession of George I. in 1714 he was deprived of the justiceship, but from 1726 to 1730 he was lord privy seal. Three of his sons succeeded in turn to his barony, and a fourth son, Richard Trevor (1707-1771), was bishop of St Davids from 1744 to 1752, and then bishop of Durham. Robert, 4th Baron Trevor and ist Viscount Hampden (1706-1783), represented his country at the Hague from 1739 to 1746, during which time he maintained a regular correspondence with Horace Walpole. He took the additional name of Hampden in 1754, on succeeding to the estates of that family, and in 1776, twelve years after he had become Baron Trevor, he was created Viscount Hampden. From 1759 to 1765 he was joint post- master-general. He wrote some Latin poems which were pub- lished at Parma in 1792 as Poemata Hampdeniana. His second son, John Hampden-Trevor (1749-1824), British minister at Munich from 1780 to 1783 and at Turin from 1783 to 1798, died only three weeks after he had succeeded his brother Thomas as 3rd Viscount Hampden, the titles becoming extinct. Another member of this family was Sir John Trevor (1637- 1717), Speaker of the House of Commons (1685). A partisan of James II., he was deprived of his office on the accession of William III., but in 1690 he was again a member of parliament, becoming Speaker for the second time in 1690 and master of the rolls in 1693. In 1695 he was found guilty of accepting a bribe and was expelled from the House of Commons, but he re- tained his judicial position until his death on the 2oth of May 1717. Through his daughter Anne Sir John was the ancestor of the Hills, marquesses of Downshire, and of the family of Hill- Trevor, Viscounts Dungannon from 1766 to 1862. TRfiVOUX, a town of eastern France, chief town of an arron- dissement in the department of Am, 16 m. N. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906), 1934. The town is situated on the slope of the left bank of the Sadne, which is here crossed by a suspension bridge and is dominated by two towers, remains of a feudal castle of the I2th century. The fortifications date from the I4th century, and the church from the same period. The law-court is a building of the i7th century, and was once the seat of the parlement of Dombes. Trevoux has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first instance. Gold and silver wire-drawing, introduced into the town by Jews in the i4th century, and the manufacture of apparatus for wire-drawing, are its chief industries. Trevoux (Trevos) was hardly known before the nth century, after which it was included in the domain of the lords of Thoire- Villars, from whom it acquired its freedom. It was bought by the Bourbons in 1402, became the capital of the Dombes, and had its own mint. In 1603 a well-known printing works was established there, from which in the i8th century the Journal de Trevouse and a universal dictionary known as the Dictionnaire de Trevoux were issued by the Jesuits. TRIAL, in English law, the hearing by a court of first instance of the issues of fact and law involved in a civil or criminal cause. The term is inappropriate to rehearing by an appellate court. Trial follows upon the completion of the steps necessary to bring the parties before the court and to adjust the issues upon which the court is to adjudicate, which may be summed up in the term pleading (q.v.). In England the trial is usually in open court, and it is rare to try cases in camera, or to attempt to exclude the public from the hearing. The essential part of the trial is that there should be full opportunity to both sides for evidence and argument on the questions in dispute. At present in England, as distinguished from the rest of Europe, the evidence is ordinarily taken viva voce in court, and affidavits and depositions are sparingly accepted, whereas under the xxvn. 9 continental system the bulk of the proofs in civil cases are reduced to writing before the hearing. The modes of trial have altered with legal development in English as in Roman law (see ACTION). Many forms of trial, notably those by ordeal, by wager of battle or of law (see ORDEAL and WAGER), and by grand assize, have become obso- lete, and new forms have been created by legislation in order to meet altered circumstances of society. Up to a very recent date the tendency of the Roman and English systems was in opposite directions. In the former and in systems founded on it, such as the Scottish and French, trial by the judge became the rule, in the latter trial by judge and jury. In England the method of trial of issues of fact arising under the common law was by jury and a bench of judges. In truth the trials were the sittings of commissioners sent to inquire and report with the aid of the neighbourhood on questions of crime and civil wrongs in a county; the practice is summed up in the old phrase ad quaestionem juris judices respondeant, ad quaestionem facti juratores. In courts which administered equity or derived their law or procedure from the civil or canon law no jury was used, and the judges determined both law and fact. The system of trial before a full bench of judges even with a jury is now used on the European continent, but has been superseded in England by trial before a single judge with a jury except in the rare cases of trial at bar. This latter mode of trial is a survival of the mode universal iri the superior courts before the writ of nisi prius, and is now only used in the king's bench division, when claimed by the Crown as of right or in cases of unusual importance and difficulty. Recent instances are the trial in 1904 of Arthur Lynch for treason in South Africa, and in 1905 of questions raised on a petition of right in respect of a claim to make the Crown responsible on the conquest of the Transvaal for acts of the Transvaal government before or during the war. The necessity for trial by jury has been removed in many cases by legislation and rules of court (see JURY; SUMMARY JURISDICTION), and the present English practice is summarized in the following statement. In the High Court of Justice in England and Ireland several modes of trial are now used : — 1. Trial by judge with a jury used in the king's bench division and in probate and matrimonial cases. There is a right to have a jury as a matter of course in actions of defamation, false imprison- ment, malicious prosecution, seduction and breach of promise of marriage. In other cases, subject to exceptions to be noted, a jury can be obtained on the application of either party. 2. Trial by a judge without a jury is invariable in the chancery division and now common in the other divisions. Cases in the chancery division are not tried with a jury unless a special order is made (Ord. 36, r. 3); and the High Court in cases in which trial without jury could be ordered without consent (1875) still retains the power of so trying them, and has also acquired power to direct trial without a jury of any issue requiring prolonged examination of documents or accounts or scientific or local investigation. 3. Trial with assessors, usual in admiralty cases (the assessors being nautical) but rare in other divisions. 4. Trial by an official referee in certain cases involving much detail (R.S.C.O. 36). In the county court the ordinary mode of trial is by the judge alone, but a jury of eight is allowed in certain cases on application, and in the admiralty jurisdiction marine assessors can be called in. In other local civil courts the trial is often by jury, as in the mayor's court of London, sometimes without, as in the vice-chancellor's court of the university of Oxford. In all civil cases the parties can by a proper submission have a trial before an arbitrator selected by or for them. As regards criminal cases the right to trial by due process of law before condemnation is given by art. 29 of Magna Carta; and the trial must be by jury unless a statute otherwise provides (see COURT-MARTIAL; SUMMARY JURISDICTION). The parties may be represented by lawyers, solicitor or counsel or both, according to the court, in county courts by accredited lay agents, or may conduct their case in person. The trial is carried on by stating to the court the pleadings if any and by opening the plaintiff's case. This is followed by the evidence of the witnesses, who are sworn and examined and cross-examined. On the comple- *ion of the plaintiff's case and evidence, the defendant's case is stated and evidence adduced in support of it. The plaintiff or his lawyer has as a rule the reply or last word, though in some courts, described as single speech courts, no reply is given. At the conclusion the judge sums up the law and facts of the case to the jury, if there is one, and their verdict is returned, or if there is no jury 258 TRIANGLE— TRIASSIC SYSTEM gives judgment, involved. stating his conclusions on the law and facts There remain certain modes of trial not obsolete but rarely used. Such are impeachment of the House of Commons before the House of Lords ; and in the case of a charge of treason or felony by a person having privilege of peerage, trial on indictment before the House of Lords, or in vacation before the court of the lord high steward. Trials by certificate, by inspection and by record, are obsolete. The decisions on a trial at first instance are reviewed by appeal (q.v.), or in trial cases heard before a jury by application for a new trial, where the judge has not directed the jury correctly as to the law or has permitted them to consider inadmissible evidence, or the jurors have in their verdict acted without evidence or against the weight, i.e. the quality not the quantity of the evidence. Under the Criminal Appeal Act 1907 the decisions in criminal trials on indictment, whether on matters of law or of fact or on mixed ques- tions of law or fact, are reviewable by the court of criminal appeal ; but that court has no power to order a retrial of the case before a jury. Scotland. — Jury trial was introduced into Scotland for certain classes of civil cases in the igth century but is not much used. In criminal cases it is used where summary jurisdiction has not been conferred. Ireland. — The law of Ireland as to trials is in substance the same as in England, except as to appeals in criminal cases. United States. — -In the United States the system of trial is that of the English common law as varied by Federal and state legislation. (W. F. C.) TRIANGLE, in geometry, a figure enclosed by three lines; if the lines be straight the figure is called a plane triangle; but if the figure be enclosed by lines on the surface of a sphere it is a spherical triangle. The latter are treated in TRIGONOMETRY; here we summarize the more important properties of plane triangles. In a plane triangle any one of the angular points can be regarded as the vertex; and the opposite side is called the base. The three sides and angles constitute the six elements of a triangle; it is customary to denote the angular points by capital letters and refer to the angles by these symbols; the sides are usually denoted by the lower case letter corresponding to that of the opposite angular point. Triangles can be classified according to the relative sizes of the sides or angles. An equilateral tri- angle has its three sides equal; an isosceles triangle has only two sides equal; whilst a scalene triangle has all its sides unequal. Also a right-angled triangle has one angle a right angle, the side opposite this angle being called the hypothenuse; an obtuse- angled triangle has one angle obtuse, or greater than a right angle; an acute-angled triangle has three acute angles, i.e. angles less than right angles. The triangle takes a prominent place in book i. of Euclid; whilst the relation of the triangle to certain circles is treated in book iv. (See GEOMETRY: § Euclidean.) The following is a summary of the Euclidean results. The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal and conversely ; hence it follows that an equilateral triangle is also equiangular and con- versely (i. 5, 6). If one side of a triangle be produced then the exterior angle is greater than either of the two interior opposite angles (i. 16), and equal to their sum (i. 32); hence the sum of the three interior angles equals two right angles. (In i. 17 it is shown that any two angles are less than two right angles.) The greatest angle in a triangle is opposite the greatest side (i. 18, 19). On the identical equality of triangles Euclid proves that two tri- angles are equal in all respects when the following parts are equal each to each (a) two sides, and the included angle (i. 4), three sides (i. 8, cor.), two angles and the adjacent side, and two angles and the side opposite one of them (i. 26). The mensuration is next treated. Triangles on the same base and between the same parallels, i.e. having the same altitude, are equal in area (i. 37) ; similarly triangles on equal bases and between the same parallels are equal in area (i. 38). If a parallelogram and triangle be on the same base and between the same parallels then the area of the parallelogram is double that of the triangle (i. 41 ). These propositions lead to the result that the area of a triangle is one half the product of the base into the altitude. The penultimate proposition (i. 47) establishes the beautiful theorem, named after Pythagoras, that in a right- angled triangle the square on the hypothenuse equals the sum of the squares on the other two sides. Two important propositions occur in book ii. viz. 12 and 13; these may be stated in the follow- ing forms: If ABC is an obtuse-angled triangle with the obtuse angle at C and a perpendicular be drawn from the angular point A cutting the base BC produced in D, then AB2 (i.e. square on the side subtending the obtuse angle) = BC2 + CA2 + 2BCCD (ii. 12); in any triangle (with the same construction but with the side AC subtending an acute angle B, wehaveAC2 = AB2 + BC2 — 2CB'BD (see TRIGONOMETRY). Book iv. deals with the circles of a triangle. To inscribe a circje in a given triangle is treated in iv. 4; to circumscribe a circle to a given triangle in iv. 5. The centre of the first circle is the intersection of the bisectors of the interior angles; if the meet of the bisectors of two exterior angles be taken, a circle can be drawn with this point as centre to touch two sides produced and the third side ; three such circles are possible and are called the escribed circles. The centre of the circum circle is the intersection of the perpendiculars from the middle points of the sides. Concerning the circum circle we observe that the feet of the perpendiculars drawn from any point on its circumference to the sides are collinear, the line being called Simson's line. We may here notice that the perpendiculars from the vertices of a triangle to the opposite sides are concurrent ; their meet is called the orthocentre, and the triangle obtained by joining the feet of the perpendiculars is called the pedal triangle. Also the lines joining the middle point of the sides to the opposite vertices, or medians, are concurrent in the centroid or centre of gravity of the triangle. There are several other circles, points and lines of interest in connexion with the triangle. The most important is the " nine point circle," so called because it passes through (a) the middle points of the sides; (b) the feet of the perpendiculars from the vertices to the opposite sides; and (c) the middle points of the lines joining the orthocentre to the angular points. This circle touches the inscribed and escribed circles. For the Brocard points and circle. Tucker's circles — with the particular forms cosine circle, triplicate ratio (T.R.) circle, Taylor's circle, McCay's circles, &c., see W. J. M'Clelland, Geometry of the Circle; or Casey, Sequel to Euclid. TRIANGLE, in music (Fr. triangle, Ger. Triangel, Ital. triangolo), an instrument of percussion of indefinite musical pitch, consisting of a triangular rod of steel, open and slightly curved at one corner. The triangle, suspended by a loop, is played by means of a steel stick with a wooden handle. Varied rhythmical effects and different grades of forte and piano can be obtained. A sort of tremolo or roll can be produced by striking each end of the tri- angle alternately in rapid succession. When the triangle is scored for on a separate staff, the treble clef is used, but it is more often included with the bass drum on the bass stave. The tone of the triangle is clear and ringing, but it should have no definite pitch. The small triangles are the best. Beethoven, Mozart, Weber and other great masters employed the instrument. TRIASSIC SYSTEM, in geology, the lowest or youngest system of the Mesozoic era; it occupies a position above the Permian and below the Jurassic system of rocks. The principal forma- tions of the type region, Germany, are the Bunter, Muschelkalk and Keuper; these were for the first time grouped together Hypothetical distribution ']\f = ofL«ndiSea under the systematic name " Trias " by F. von Albert! (1834). A description of the rocks in these formations will be found under their respective headings. For a long time this German development of the strata was regarded as typical of the period; later, however, the discovery of another more fossiliferous phase in the Alps and Mediterranean region, and subsequently in Asia and elsewhere, led geologists to take a different view of the system as a whole. It was clearly seen that there existed two distinct phases of Triassic rock-building, the one con- tinental (terrestrial and lagoonal), the other marine (pelagic). TRIASSIC SYSTEM 259 The original Trias of the " Germanic " area (including Great Britain) must be understood as a special local expression of the continental Trias, while the thoroughly marine type represents the normal aspect of sedimentation. Similarly, the fauna of the marine Trias is the standard for comparison with the life of other geological systems. The term Trias — indicative of the three- fold grouping in Germany — thus loses its original significance when applied to the world-wide deposits of the period; its use, however, is continued by general consent. Continental Trias. — The records of the terrestrial and lagoonal conditions during this period are to be found in the coarse conglomer- ates, red and mottled sandstones, marls and clays with their accom- panying beds of dolomite and limestone, and layers of gypsum, anhydrite, rock-salt and coal. The coarser breccias and con- glomerates appear to represent ancient screes and shore deposits, and in part at least their formation may have been due to torrential action. The remarkable oblique bedding in many of the sandstones, coupled with the fact that the sand grains are often very perfectly rounded, points to the transporting action of wind. Even the pebbles occasionally exhibit the dreikanter form, familiar in our modern deserts. But the marls, muds and many sandy beds were certainly deposited in sheets of water, which were evidently shallow and subject to frequent periods of desiccation. Of this we have evidence in the great abundance of reptilian foot-prints, of rain pits, ripple marks, and sun cracks upon what were once surface muds and sands. That the drying up of the water sheets repeatedly produced a highly saline condition is shown by the common occurrence of rock-salt, gypsum and anhydrite. In short, the physical conditions under which the continental Trias was formed appear to have been similar to those obtaining at the present day in the Caspian region. In Europe the earlier deposits of the continental Trias occupy a compact area covering nearly the whole of Germany, whence they may be followed into central and northern England, Heligoland, Upper Silesia and the Vosges. Another tract lay over what are now the western Alps and south-east France; also in the Pyrenees, Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Sicily and southern Spain, and on to the north coast of Africa. In the Carpathians the same rocks appear, and they cover a large area in north-east Russia (Tartarian), and north-west Siberia. Later, the Muschelkalk limestones point to a temporary influx of the sea involving most of the above regions except Britain and Russia. Three encroachments of the sea are indicated, each followed by a period of excessive evaporation and contraction ; these happened in the time of the Roth, the Lower and the Upper Muschelkalk. Finally the last influx, that of the Rhaetic Sea, not only spread much beyond the limits of the earlier incursions but remained as the forerunner of the succeeding Jurassic waters. In North America the continental Trias appears with a close resemblance to that of western Europe along the Atlantic coastal strip from Prince Edward's Island, through New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, to North Carolina. These are the rocks of the Newark series. South- wards it may be traced in Honduras, the Andes, Brazil, Argentina and Chile. Another large area in the western interior, Wyoming and New Mexico, is occupied by "red beds" (600-2000 ft., in part Permian) with gypsum and rock-salt. In southern Africa the upper part of the Karoo formation appears to represent Triassic time — the Stormberg beds (Permo-Trias) and the Beaufort beds (Rhaetic). In India the Panchet beds of the Gondwana system and in New South Wales the Hawkesbury series (Wianametta shales with coals and iron-stone, Hawkesbury sandstone, and at the base the Narraburra beds) belong to about the same horizon. In New Zealand the Otapiri, Wairoa and Oreti series appear to contain fossils indicating a transition from Permian to Rhaetic. The Marine or Open-sea Trias. — This type of Triassic deposit is frequentlyreferred to under the titles " Alpine," " Mediterranean " or " Pelagic." It first came into notice through the discovery of fossils in the neighbourhood of Recoaro and St Cassian on the southern side of the Alps, and these rocks were subsequently corre- lated with those at Hallstatt on the northern side. On both sides of the Alps rocks of this age flank the central core, but they are better developed, thicker and less altered towards the east than towards the west. In the western Alps Triassic beds can be only dimly recognized amongst the masses of schists called the Schistes-lustres and Bundnerschiefer. In the eastern Alps, however, although there are sandy and conglomeratic members, such as the Werfen beds and Lunz sandstone, yet the most striking feature, in contrast with the continental Trias, is the prevalence of calcareous and dolomitic strata, to which must be added the enormously greater abundance of organic remains. The Alpine Trias varies in lithological character so rapidly from point to point, and has furthermore been subjected to so much dislocation, that great difficulty has been experienced in correlating the beds in different areas and in placing them in their proper order of sequence. The result of this difficulty has been the production of a nomenclature so unwieldy that no attempt at a detailed exposition is possible in the space here available. The principal members of the Alpine Trias will be found in their correct relative positions in the table. One of the most striking aspects of the Alpine Trias, on both the northern and southern sides, is the great development of dolomite which is so prominent a feature in the scenery of southern Tirol (Drei Zinnern, &c.). Some of these rocks contain the remains of corals, still more bear the fossils of calcareous algae, and although the view originally advanced by F. v. Richthofen that they represent Triassic coral reefs has been strongly opposed, it still seems to be the most reasonable explanation of their origin. The rocks of the marine Trias generally are argilla- ceous beds and dark limestones; in the Alpine regions many of the latter have been marmorized. The well-known white marble of Carrara in the Apuan Mountains is a metamorphosed Triassic lime- stone. The same type of Trias occurs also in south Italy (Longo- bardian), in Sicily, Barcelona, Balearic Islands, Crete, Bosnia, East Hungary, and the Carpathian Mountains by Bukovina and Dobrudja. The Alpine-Mediterranean Trias sea evidently had a prolongation into Western Asia, for in Asia Minor, Armenia and Bokhara rocks with closely related fossils have been found. In Central Asia Triassic rocks are known in Afghanistan (sandstones with coal), Russian Turkestan, and in the Pamir. In India the lower Trias of the Salt Range presents the most typical example of the marine deposits of this stage. The Himalayan Trias more perfectly repre- sents the upper portion of the system. Triassic limestones are found also in Kashmir and Hazara, and shales in Baluchistan. The marine Trias is known in Burma, Tongking, China and north-east Tibet; also in Japan, Siberia and in the arctic regions of Spitsbergen and Bear Island. In the Australasiatic region the marine Trias is found in the Sunda Islands, Sumatra, Roth and Timor and in New Caledonia. Climate, Vulcanism. — There seems little room for doubt that the climate of Triassic times was, over large tracts of the northern continental region, dry and arid in character, certain features in the flora tending to support this view. On the other hand, the southern continental deposits, with Clossopteris and its allies, is more suggestive of a moist climate. There is no evidence of the glacial condition of the preceding Permian period. The Triassic period was one of rest so far as crustal movements were concerned. Volcanic activity, however, was exhibited on a large scale in the north-western part of North America, the great batholith of the Coast Range being nearly 1000 m. long; in British Columbia and Alaska large bodies of igneous rock are supposed to belong to this period. On the eastern side of the continent the diabase and dolerite lava flows, veins and sills of the famous Palisades of the Hudson valley belong to the Newark system. In Europe and Asia igneous rocks are scarce, but tuffs, porphyrites, &c., occur in the Schlern district (Upper Cassian age) and at Falzarego Strasse, Trarenanzes (Wengen horizon), in the Alpine region. Life of the Triassic Period. — The plant life of this period exhibits on the whole a closer relationship with the Jurassic than with the preceding Palaeozoic formations. Flowering plants are unknown in the Triassic deposits and the dominant forms are all gymnosperms, the prevailing types being ferns and fern-like plants, cycadeans, conifers and equisetums. The Palaeozoic calamites, sigillarias and lepidodendrons became extinct early in this period; but in_ the southern hemisphere the Glossopteris flora still held on in consider- able force. Amongst the ferns were Lepidopteris, Sagenopteris, Danaeopteris, with the Carboniferous genera Sphenopteris, Pecopteris and others. Eguisetites and Schizoneura became common. Char- acteristic conifers were Voltzia, Araucariies, Brachyphyllum. The Cycadeans were represented by Pterophyllum, Cycadites, Podozamites, &c. Baiera was the representative of the ginkgos. Calcareous algae were important rock builders in some of the Triassic seas (Gyroporella, Diplopora). Fish remains are not generally common in the Trias; teeth and scales are crowded together in the " bone beds " in the Rhaetic and between the Keuper and Muschelkalk; in the marine Trias of the Alpine region skeletons are much more common. They are abundant also in the bituminous shales of the Connecticut Valley and in the Hawkesbury series of New South Wales. Selachians are represented by species of Hybodus, A crodus and Palaeobates; dipnoids by Ceratodus and Cosfordia. The ganoids, with Palaeozoic as well as younger forms, include Gyrolepis, Semionotus, Didlyopyge, Graphiurus, Belonorhynchus and Pholidopleuras. Bony fish were very feebly represented. The amphibian labyrinthpdonts (Stegocephalia) were numerous, their bones being found in the " bone beds " and in the Bunter and Keuper sandstones and their equivalents in North America, South Africa and India (Laby- rinthodont, Mastodonsaurus, Trematosaurus, Capitosaurus}. Their footprints are often very abundant, e.g. Cheirotherium. The reptiles of the Triassic deposits, unlike the amphibians, which are Permian in character, show a closer relationship with Jurassic forms; one of the most interesting facts in the life-history of the group is the development during this period of sea-going forms such as at a later geological period played so prominent a part. Early crocodilian reptiles are represented by Belodon, Mystriosuchus, Stagonolepis, Parasuchus; and Rhyncocephalia by Telerpeton and Hyperodapedon. Ichthyopterygians were represented by Mixosaurus, Nothosaurus, Cymatosaurus; early dinosaurs (carnivorous) by Zanclodon, Anchisaurus, Thecodontosaurus, Palaeosaurus ; the remarkable theromorphs (anomodonts), by Elginia, Dicynodon, Geikia, Gordonia. 26o TRIAZINES Turtles became well established during this period (Psammochelys, Chelyzoon). Of great interest is the discovery of the earliest traces of mammals in the Trias of Europe, South Africa and North America. The imperfect remains (teeth and jaw-bones) do not admit of any certainty in deciphering their relationships. Microlestes from the Rhaetic of England and Wurttemberg and Dromatherium from North America are perhaps the best known ; Tritylodon from South Africa may also be added. Among the lower forms of marine life foramini- fera and sponges play a subordinate part. Corals, which with the calcareous algae built considerable reefs in some regions, at this time began to assume a modern aspect, and henceforth the Hexacorallids took the place of the Palaeozoic Tetracorallid forms (Stylophyllum, Pinacophyllum, Thecosmilia). Crinoids were locally very numerous individually (Encrinus liliiformis, Dadocrinus gracilis). Urchins were not very common, but an important change from the Palaeozoic to the Mesozoic type of shell took place about thisjtime. Brachiopods were important; rostrate forms like Terebrattda and Rhynchonetta from this time onward became more prevalent than broad hinged genera. Pelecypods were abundant, Myophoria, Halobia, Daonella, Pseudomonotis, Avictda, Gervittia and many others. Gasteropods also were numerous; at the beginning of the period, as in other groups, many Palaeozoic forms lingered on, but one of the main changes about this time was the development and expansion of siphonostomous forms with canaliculate shells. Quite the most important Mollusca were the Cephalopods. In the early Trias there still remained a few of the Palaeozoic genera, Orthoceras, Hungarites, and forms which linked up the goniatites with tht ammonites, which henceforth took the lead in numbers and variety. Prionplobus, Aspidites, Celtites, Meekoceras, Tiroliles, Ptychites, Tropites, Ceratites, Arcestes, Psiloceras and Flemingites are a few of the prominent Triassic genera. The nautiloids were fairly well represented, but they exhibit no such marked development from Palaeozoic to Mesozoic types as js shown among the ammonoids. In the tabulated synopsis of the Triassic system given below it has been impossible to include many of the names of groups and subordinate divisions. Some of these, such as the term " Noric " (Norian), have been used in a variety of ways. A clear account of the history of the study of the Trias will be found in K. A. von< Zittel's History of Geology and Palaeontology (Eng. trans., London 1901). REFERENCES. — The literature of the Trias is very voluminous. A full account, with full references as to date of publication, in Lethaea Geognostica, ed. by F. Freeh, Theil II.; Das Mesozoicum, Bd. i. " Einleitung des Mesozoicum und der Trias" (F. Freeh); " Continentale Trias " (E. Philippi and J. Wyspgorski), 1903; 2nd Lieferung, " Die asiatische Trias " (F. Noetling), 1905; 3rd Lieferung, " Die Alpine Trias des Mediterran-Gebietes " (G. von Hathaber), Stuttgart, 1905. (J. A. H.) TRIAZINES, in organic chemistry, a series of cyclic com- pounds, containing a ring system composed of three carbon and three nitrogen atoms. Three series are possible, the positions of CONTINENTAL TRIAS. MARINE TRIAS or THE ALPINE AND INDIAN TYPES. German Trias. England. North Alpine Region. South Alpine Region. Alpine Zone Fossils. India. America. Sandstones Rhaetic or Penarth sl Kossen Rhaetic Kossen Magalodon limestone .0 and Clays S with Avicula £ contorta beds White Lias, black pa- *C E"O .a beds Dachstein beds o Lithoden- Kalk and (Azzarola J3 dronKalk Dolomite beds) Avicula contorta and "Hoch- gebergskalk " in part Star Peak beds 06 per-shales, _ C 06 Bone bed marls Bone bed ttjl Aulacothyris limestone Sandstones with dino- LI ,, Stubensand- o. stein Red and mottled « *J/»' V _, Dachstein 2 • Dachstein Sagenites beds sa u r s of Connecticut s. Hi 3 marls with M ° * Kalk and -| -2 Kalk and Turbo Coral lime- 3 0 j] rock - salt V.'SlD Coral -a •o Coral (Worthenia) stone .3 1 and gyp- •2 S*""' 2 Z limestones c .c limestones solitarius i ,•? Schilfsand- sum Sen .2 1 • Halorites bj stein Variously i i .=•§§ H 'S. beds O 0, V % Grenz dolom- §• ite jj Lettenkohlen - coloured sandstones and marls (with"Wa- C °J OH a Opponitz 5* e limestone and .2 dolomite Raibl beds Tropites subbullatus Hauerites beds o< c H -5 Taylorville beds of Cali- fornia e sandstein •j: D olomi t ic ter-stones") Conglomer- '°^%a £ Reingrabner y beds and TJ 0 Trachyceras aonides Spiti dolomite j limestones •^ and marls ate and breccia LI Lunz sand- .0 stone cs liiil Daonella beds Sandstones with plants, Haupt-Muschel- kalk c-o c ^ c.2 O C u -— o ^ e Reifling •§M!-J .2 limestone c c ~o a rtT3. Cassian e^-3 g'se beds j> o S oj.5 Wengen Trachyceras aon Daonella Daonella beds Richmond, Virginia jD.SJH ;| and Part- '5- •g-2 A g g beds lommeli "O CJ « nach beds g -o t/5u]Sl«xi Buchen- Protrachyce- Anhydrite group, (^ „ M "^ S g stein ras reitzi ^. dolomite and : j='C (O *^ .2 j> *-> g beds 1 o J= marls with rock- salt and gypsu m i c c *^* rt 13^. 2 Trinodosus beds E (Prezzo lime- Ceratites trinodosus Ptychites beds 2 'C Koipato beds fe A •c .| "Alpine o ^ u stone) H 3 *;-" Zellendolomit V w VJ Muschel- -2 "g.- (Brachiopod 3 ^i * <5 s J ka'k" ° | limestone) i.3 I§ Wellenkalk and 15* ;« (part) '5 g"13 7.3 Recoaro * u °"'3 limestone " Ihynchenella decussata Niti lime- c dolomite Z o o "" Gutten- 1C Sjs Virgloria *o c stone c1" S stein beds 06 | £•§ limestone ^g S 1 S v o J /™\ ^ __ _^_-_ n sz UJ r^i Hedenstro- cu Meekoceras Upper division Upper mot- (d<3 Campil beds Campil beds Natiria emia beds c" rt. CO beds, Idaho or Roth tled sand- .°J costata Prinolobus ^ stone Middle division Pebble beds .5(7! •2 C"S Seis beds Seis beds Pseudomono- beds t/) D O or Hauptsand- t^ &" Pj-f tis clarai OtOCCTdS g C ffl stein and (Vos- gesensandstein) Lower division Lower mot- v- en M OJ III beds "O (Permian) ^ c a sandstones with tled sand- O ^ ^ •~z 1 occasional oolite stone s S 1 (Rogenstein) £ TRIAZOLES— TRIBALLI 261 the various units of the ring system being illustrated in the annexed formulae : — c c c C/\C C\/N N 5f a-Triazines, /3-Triazines, Cyanidines. Few simple derivatives of the o-series are known, those which have been prepared result by such reactions as the condensation of aminoguanidine or a similar type of compound (e.g. semi- carbazide) with ortho-diketones (J. Thiele, Ann., 1898, 302, p. 299): /NH-NH2 OC-CaHs /NH-N^ HN:C< + I -> HN:C< >C-C6H6; \NH2 OC-C6H6 \N = C^CeHs Wolff has obtained a chloro-derivative by the action of potas- sium cyanide on diazoacetophenone and subsequent treatment with acid. The phen-a-triazines are more numerous, and are obtained either by the action of concentrated acids on the formazyl compounds (E. Bamberger, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 2786): — C6H6N:N-X /N:N C6H6-NH-N^C \N:C-COC6H6; by the reduction of symmetrical acyl-ortho-nitrophenyl hydra - zines (e.g.;NOrC6H4-NH-NH-CHO); or in the form of dihydro derivatives by the condensation of aldehydes with ortho-amino- azo compounds (H. Goldschmidt and Y. Resell, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 487), or from the aminoazo compound and a mustard oil, the resulting thiocarbanilido derivative being heated with acetic acid (M. Busch, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 2960):— .N-C(SH):N-C6H6 x.N-C:NC,H6 C,H,f -> C7H6f +H2S. C. Harries (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 1223) has also shown that as-phenylhydrazino-acetic esters, when heated with formamide and substituted formamides under pressure, yield dihydrotri- azines: — C08R 4_R'NH THO ^ CO— NR'— CH CH2-N(C6H6)NH2+ * CH,-N(C,H4)-N The phen-a-triazines are yellow-coloured crystalline compounds of a somewhat basic character. Derivatives of /3-triazines are formed by the action of nitrous acid on ortho-aminobenzylamines (M. Busch, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 445), or in small quantity by the action of nitrous acid on ortho-aminobenzoylphenylhydrazines (A. Konig and A. Reissert, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 782), the chief product in this latter reaction being an isoindazolone: /CH2-NHC6HS /CHrNH-CeHs /CH2-NC,H6 C6H/ -=>C6H4< ->C6H/ | NN=N ae«Hi-c NH8-HC1 The best drawn series of the triazines is the symmetrical or cyanidine series, members of which result from the condensation of acid anhydrides with aromatic amidines (A. Pinner, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 1624) : *KH ^N-C^-CeHa -f +(CH3co)2o^c6H6.cf >N ; \NH2 XN :CX-CH3 or by the condensation of aromatic nitriles with acid chlorides in the presence of aluminium chloride (Eitner and Krafft, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 2263). In using benzoyl chloride in this reaction the con- densation is found to proceed better if a little ammonium chloride be added : or H rxro-r H rori _^ C6H6-C-C1 OC-CeHs 2C,H6-CN+C6H6-C N-C(C,H6)-N N-C(C6H6):N The cyanidines behave as weak bases. Mention may be made here of cyanuric acid, HsCjNaOs, which contains the same ring system as the cyanidines. It was first prepared by C. Scheele and is formed when urea is strongly heated or when cyanuric chloride is treated with water. It is usually repre- sented by the inset formula and is closely related to cyanic acid and cyamelide, the relationships existing between the three compounds being shown in the diagram (see also A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 139): HO-C N Ordinary temperature Cyanic acid CNOH temperature Cyamelid (CNOH) HO Cyanuric acid Decomposes easily C02+NH, Decomposes with difficulty. N :CH NH. TRIAZOLES (pyrro-a and jS'-diazoles), in organic chemistry, a series of heterocyclic compounds containing the ring complex (annexed formula). Derivatives were obtained by J. A. Bladin HC=Nx (Ber., 1892, 25, p. 183) by the action of acetic | y>NH anhydride on dicyanophenylhydrazine (formed N : CH from cyanogen and phenylhydrazine), the resulting acetyl derivative losing water and yielding phenyl- methylcyanotriazole, which, on hydrolysis, gives the free acid. By eliminating carbon dioxide, phenylmethyltriazole results. In a similar manner, formic acid and dicyanophenylhydrazine yields a phenyl-triazole carboxylic acid, in which the phenyl group may be nitrated, the nitro group reduced to the amino group, and the product oxidized to a triazole carboxylic acid, which, by elimination of carbon dioxide, yields the free triazole: HO2C-C=N. N:CH/ ft:CH They also result when the acidylthiosemicarbazides are strongly heated, the mercapto-triazoles so formed being converted into triazoles on oxidation with hydrogen peroxide (M. Freund, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 2483); by the condensation of hydrazides with acid amides; and by the distillation of the tria/olones (see below) with phosphorus pentasulphide. The triazoles behave as weak bases, the imido-hydrogen being replaceable by metal. The keto-dihydrotriazoles or triazolones are obtained by the action of hydrazines on acetyl urethane (A. Andreocci, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 225). These compounds may be considered as 5-triazolones, a series of isomeric 3-triazolones resulting from the condensation of phenyl- semicarbazide with aromatic aldehydes in the presence of an oxidant. The diketotetrahydrotriazoles, or urazoles, are formed by condensing urea derivatives with hydrazine salts, urazole itself resulting by the action of urea or biuret on hydrazine or its salts. It behaves as a strong acid and on treatment with phosphorus pentachloride at high temperatures gives triazole. HC=N\ CO-NH\ CO-NH\ >NH, | >NH, | >NH. HN-CO/ N=CH/ NH-CCK 5-Triazolone. 3-Triazolone. Urazole. Isomeric triazoles of the following constitutions are known: — HC:N\ N:CH\ N=N\ >NH | >NH >NH HC:1SK N:CH/ HC:CH/ Osotriazole (oa'). Iminotriazole ($3'). o/S-Triazole. The osotriazoles are obtained by heating the osazones of orthodike- tones with mineral acids; by the action of acetic anhydride on the hydrazoximes of orthodiketones, or by condensing diazo-methane with cyanogen derivatives (A. Peratones and E. Azzarello, R. Acad. Lincei, 1907 [v.], 16, pp. 237, 318). They are feeble bases which distil unchanged. The ring is very stable to most reagents. The iminobiazoles are formed by conversion of diacylhydrazines into iminochlorides which with ammonia or bases yield the required triazoles (R. Stoll6, Journ. prak. Chem., 1906 [ii.], 74, pp. i, 13). M. Busch (Ber., 1905,38, pp. 856, 4049) has isolated a series of bridged ring compounds which he describes as eredo-iminodihydrotriazoTes, the triphenyl derivative (annexed formula) being \>CH prepared by condensing triphenylaminoguani- / .. din A MM-fVi ff\rm\rt ar-Jrl TK*i nitr £»!•*» of fnic Ha c<* I vipu | dine with formic acid. The nitrate of this base p, JLr_ _ Jl (known as nitron) is so insoluble that nitrates may be gravimetrically estimated with its help. Tnphenyl-e»do- .j^ b|ses combme' with the alkyl iodides '"trSz'ole to yield quaternafy ammonium salts. TRIBALLI, in ancient geography, a Thracian people whose earliest home was near the junction of the Angrus and Brongus (the east and west Morava), and included towards the south " the Triballian plain " (Herodotus iv. 49), which corresponds to the plain of Kossovo in Turkey. In 424 B.C. they were attacked by Sitalces, king of the Odrysae, who was defeated and lost his life in the engagement. On the other hand, they were overcome by the Autariatae, an Illyrian tribe; the date of 262 TRIBE— TRIBONIAN this event is uncertain (Strabo vii. 317). In 376 a large band of Triballi crossed Mt Haemus and advanced as far as Abdera; they were preparing to besiege the city, when Chabrias appeared off the coast with the Athenian fleet and compelled them to retire. In 339, when Philip II. of Macedon was return- ing from his expedition against the Scythians, the Triballi refused to allow him to pass the Haemus unless they received a share of the booty* Hostilities took place, in which Philip was defeated and nearly lost his life (Justin ix. 3), but the Triballi appear to have been subsequently subdued by him. After the death of Philip, the Triballi having taken up arms again, Alex- ander the Great in 334 crossed the Haemus and drove them to the junction of the Lyginus with the Danube. Their king Syrmus took refuge in Peuce (Peuke, an island in the Danube), whither Alexander was unable to follow him. The punishment inflicted by him upon the Getae, however, induced the Triballi to sue for peace (Arrian, Anabasis, i. i, 4; 2, 2-4; 4, 6). About 280 a host of Gauls under Cerethrius defeated the Getae and Triballi (Justin xxv. i; Pausanias x. 19, 7). Nevertheless, the latter for some fifty years (135-84) caused trouble to the Roman governors of Macedonia. In the time of Ptolemy their territory is limited to the district between the Ciabrus (Tzibritza) and Utus (Vid), in the modern Bulgaria, their chief town being Oescus (Otoxos Tpi/SaXXcoi'). Under Tiberius mention is made of Treballia in Moesia, and the Emperor Maximin (235- 237) had been commander of a squadron of Triballi. The name occurs for the last time during the reign of Diocletian, who dates a letter from Triballis. The Triballi are described as a wild and warlike people (Isocrates, Panathenaicus, 227), and in Aristophanes (Birds, 1565-1693) a Triballian is introduced as a specimen of an uncivilized barbarian. See W. Tomaschek, " Die alten Thraker " in Sitzungsberichte der k. Akad. der Wissenschaften, cxxviii. (Vienna, 1893). TRIBE (Lat. tribus, from tres, three), a word which is believed to have originally meant a " third part " of the people, in reference to the three patrician orders or political divisions of the people of Ancient Rome, the Ramnes, Titles and Luceres, representing the Latin, Sabine and Etruscan settlements. Its ethnological meaning has come to be any aggregate of families or small communities which are grouped together under one chief or leader, observing similar customs and social rules, and tracing their descent from one common ancestor. Examples of such " enlarged families " are the twelve tribes of Israel. In general the tribe is the earliest form of political organization, nations being gradually constituted by tribal amalgamation. (See FAMILY.) TRIBERG, a town and health resort of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, in the Black Forest, pleasantly situated on the Gutach and surrounded by well-wooded hills, 2250 ft. above the sea, 35 m. by rail S.E. of Oflfenburg. Pop. (1905), 3717. It has four churches, one of them Anglican. Triberg is one of the chief centres of the Black Forest clock-making industry. Straw-plaiting, saw-milling, brewing, and the manufacture of wooden wares are also carried on, and the town has a permanent industrial exhibition. Triberg is what is called a Luftkurort, a place to which convalescents resort after a course of baths elsewhere. Near the town is the fine waterfall formed by the Gutach. Triberg came into the possession of Austria in 1654 and into that of Baden in 1806. TRIBONIAN, the famous jurist and minister of Justinian, was born in Pamphylia in the latter part of the sth century. Adopting the profession of an advocate, he came to Constan- tinople and practised in the prefectural courts there, reaching such eminence as to attract the notice of the emperor Justinian, who appointed him in 528 one of the ten commissioners directed to prepare the first Codex of imperial constitutions. In the edict creating this commission (known as Haec quae) Tribonian is named sixth, and is called " virum magnificum, magisteria dignitate inter agentes decoratum " (see Haec quae and Summa reipublicae, prefixed to the Codex.) When the commission of sixteen eminent lawyers was created in 530 for the far more laborious and difficult duty of compiling a collection of extracts from the writings of the great jurists of the earlier empire, Tribonian was made president and no doubt general director of this board. He had already been raised to the office of quaestor, which at that time was a sort of ministry of law and justice, its holder being the assessor of the emperor and his organ for judicial purposes, something like the English lord chancellor of the later middle ages. The instructions given to these sixteen commissioners may be found in the constitution Deo auctore (Cod. i. 17, i), and the method in which the work was dealt with in the constitution Tanta (Cod. i. 17, 2), great praise being awarded to Tribonian, who is therein called ex- quaestor and ex-consul, and also as magister officiorum. This last constitution was issued in December 533, when the Digest was promulgated as a law-book. During the progress of the work, in January 532, there broke out in Constantinople a dis- turbance in the hippodrome, which speedily turned to a terrible insurrection, that which goes in history by the name of Nika, the watchword of the insurgents. Tribonian was accused of having prostituted his office for the purposes of gain, and the mob searched for him to put him to death (Procop. Pers. i. 24-26). Justinian, yielding for the moment, removed him from office, and appointed a certain Basilides in his place. After the suppression of the insurrection the work of codifica- tion was resumed. A little earlier than the publication of the Digest, or Pandects, there had been published another but much smaller law-book, the Institutes, prepared under Justinian's orders by Tribonian, with Theophilus and Dorotheus, professors of law (see Preface to Institutes). About the same time the emperor placed Tribonian at the head of a fourth commission, consisting of himself as chief and four others — Dorotheus, professor at Beyrut, and three practising advocates, who were directed to revise and re-edit the first Codex of imperial con- stitutions. The new Codex was published in November 534 (see constitution Cordi nobis prefixed to the Codex). With it Tribonian's work of codification was completed. But he remained Justinian's chief legal minister. He was reinstated as quaestor some time after 534 (Procop. Pers. i. 25; Anecd. 20) and seems to have held the office as long as he lived. He was evidently the prime mover in the various changes effected in the law by the novels of Justinian (Novellae constituliones) , which became much less frequent and less important after death had removed the great jurist. The date of his death has been variously assigned to 545, 546 and 547. Procopius says (Anecd. 20) that, although he left a son and many grandchildren, Justinian confiscated part of the inheritance. The above facts, which are all that we know about Tribonian, rest on the authority of his contemporary Procopius and of the various imperial constitutions already cited. There are, however, two articles in the Lexicon of Suidas under the name " Tribonianos." They appear to be different articles, purporting to refer to different persons, and have been generally so received by the editors of Suidas and by modern legal historians. Some authorities, how- ever, as for instance Gibbon, have supposed them to refer to the same person. The first article is unquestionably meant for the jurist. It is based on Procopius, whose very words are to some extent copied, and indeed it adds nothing to what the latter tells us, except the statement that Tribonian was the son of Macedonianus, was AirA SiKrj"y6ptav T&V vviipxoiv, and was a heathen and atheist, wholly averse to the Christian faith. The second article says that the Tribonian to whom it refers was of Side (in Pamphylia), was also AirA biKTiybpuv T&V {nr&pxuv, was a man of learning and wrote various books, among which are mentioned certain astronomical treatises, a dialogue On Happiness, and two addresses to Justinian. None of these books relate to law; and the better opinion seems to be that there were two Tribonians, apparently contemporaries, though possibly some of the attributes of the jurist have been, by a mistake of the compilers or transcribers of the Lexicon of Suidas, extended to the man of letters of the same name. The character which Procopius gives to the jurist, even if touched by personal spite, is entitled to some credence, because it is con- tained in the Histories and not in the scandalous and secret Anecdota. It is as follows: "Tribonian was a man of great natural powers, and had attained as high a culture as any one of his time; but he was greedy of money, capable of selling justice for gain, and every day he repealed or enacted some law at the instance of people who purchased this from him according to their several needs. . . . He TRIBUNE 263 was pleasant in manner and generally agreeable, and able by the abundance of his accomplishments to cast into shade his faults of avarice " (Pers. i. 24, 25). In the Anecdota Procopius adds as an illustration of Justinian's vanity the story that he took in good faith an observation made to him by Tribonian, while sitting as assessor, that he (Tribonian) greatly feared that the emperor might some day, on account of his piety, be suddenly carried up into heaven. This agrees with the character for flattery which the minister seems to have enjoyed. The_charge of heathenism we find in Suidas is probable enough; that is to say, Tribonian may well have been a crypto-pagan, like many other eminent courtiers and litterateurs of the time (including Procopius himself), a person who, while professing Christianity, was at least indifferent to its dogmas and rites, cherishing a sentimental recollection of the older and more glorious days of the empire. In modern times Tribonian has been, as the master workman of Justinian's codification and legislation, charged with three offences — bad Latinity, a defective arrangement of the legal matter in the Code and Digest, and a too free handling of the extracts from the older jurists included in the latter compilation. The first of these charges cannot be denied ; but it is hard to see why a lawyer of the 6th century, himself born in a Greek-speaking part of the empire, should be expected to write Latin as pure as that of the age of Cicero, or even of the age of Gaius and the Antonines. To the second charge also a plea of guiltv must be entered. The Code and Digest are badly arranged according to our notions of scientific arrangement. These, however, are modern notions. The ancients generally cared but little for what we call a philosophic distribution of topics, and Tribonian seems to have merely followed the order of the Perpetual Edict which custom had already established, and from which custom would perhaps have refused to permit him to depart. He may more fairly be blamed for not having arranged the extracts in each title of the Digest according to some rational principle; for this would have been easy, and would have spared much trouble to students and practitioners ever since. As to the third complaint, that the compilers of the Digest altered the extracts they collected, cutting out and inserting words and sentences at their own pleasure, this was a process absolutely necessary according to the instructions given them, which were to prepare a compilation representing the existing law, and to be used for the actual adminis- tration of justice in the tribunals. The so-called Emblemata (inser- tions) of Tribonian were therefore indispensable, though, of course, we cannot say whether they were always made in the best way. Upon the whole subject of the codification and legislation in which Tribonian bore a part, see JUSTINIAN. Tribonian, from the little we know of him, would seem to have been a remarkable man, and in the front rank of the great ones of his time. There is nothing to show that he was a profound and philosophical jurist, like Papinian or Ulpian. But he was an energetic, clear-headed man, of great practical force and skill, cultivated, accomplished, agreeable, flexible, possibly unscrupulous, just the sort of person whom a restless despot like Justinian finds useful. His interest in legal learning is proved by the fact that he had collected a vast legal library, which the compilers of the Digest found valuable (see const. Tanta). * The usual criticisms on Tribonian may be found in the Anti- Tribonianus (1567) of Francis Hotman, the aim of which is shown by its alternative title, Sive discursus in quo junsprudentiae Tribon- ianeae sterilitas et legum patriarum excellentia exhibetur; and an answer to them in J. P. von Ludewig, Vita Jusliniani et Theodorae, nee non Triboniani. (J. BR.) TRIBUNE (Lat. tribunus, connected with tribus, tribe), a name assigned to officers of several different descriptions in the constitution of ancient Rome. The original tribunes were no doubt the commanders of the several contingents of cavalry and infantry which were supplied to the Roman army by the early gentilician tribes — the Tities, the Ramnes and the Luceres. In the historical period the infantry in each legion were com- manded by six tribunes, and the number six is probably to be traced to the doubling of the three tribes by the incorporation of the new elements which received the names of Tities secundi, Ramnes secundi, Luceres secundi. The tribuni celerum or commanders of the horsemen no longer existed in the later times of the republic, having died out with the decay of the genuine Roman cavalry.1 So long as the monarchy lasted these tribunes •were doubtless nominated by the commander-in-chief, the king; and the nomination passed over on the establishment of the republic to his successors, the consuls. But, as the army increased, the popular assembly insisted on having a voice in the appointments, and from 362 B.C. six tribunes were annually nominated by popular vote, while in 311 the number was raised 1 In the legends of the foundation of the republic Brutus is repre- sented as having exercised authority, when the king was banished, merely by virtue of holding the office of tribunus celerum. to sixteen, and in 207 to twenty-four, at which figure it remained. The tribunes thus elected sufficed for four legions and ranked as magistrates of the Roman people, and were designated tribuni militum a populo, while those who owed their office to the consuls bore the curious title of tribuni rufuli. The name was traced to a commander Rutilius Rufus (Liv. 7, 5; and Fest. Ep. 260), but was more probably derived from the dress (Mommsen, Staats- recht, i, 434). The rights of the assembly passed on to the emperors, and " the military tribunes of Augustus " were still contrasted with those nominated in the camp by the actual commanders. The obscure designation tribunus aerarius (tribune of the treasury) had also, in all probability, a connexion with the early organization of the army. The officer thus designated may have been the levier of the tribulum, the original property tax, and was at any rate the paymaster of the troops. The soldier who was defrauded of his pay was allowed to exact it from this tribune by a very summary process. There was still another and important class of tribunes who owed their existence to the army. In the long struggle between the patri- cian and plebeian sections of the population, the first distinctions in the public service to which the plebeians forced their way were military, and the contest for admission to the consulate was, in large part, a contest for admission to the supreme command of the national forces. In 445 B.C., the year in which mixed marriages of patricians and plebeians were for the first time permitted, power was given to the senate (then wholly patrician) of determining from year to year whether consuls or military tribunes with consular authority (tribuni militares consulari potestate or imperio) should be appointed. But, even when the senate decided in favour of electing tribunes, no election was valid without the express sanction of the senate superadded to the vote of the centuriate assembly. If it happened to be too invidious for the senate openly to cancel the election, it was possible for the patricians to obtain a decision from the sacred authorities to the effect that some religious practice had not been duly observed, and that in consequence the appointment was invalid. According to tradition, recourse was had to this device at the first election, a plebeian having been successful. Forty-five years elapsed after the creation of the office before any plebeian was permitted to fill it, and it was held by very few down to the time at which it was abolished (367 B.C.) and the plebeians were fully admitted to the consulate. The number of consular tribunes elected on each occasion varied from three to six; there was no year without a patrician, and to the patrician members were probably confined the most highly esteemed duties, those relating to the administration of the law and to religion. But by far the most important tribunes who ever existed in the Roman community were the tribunes of the commons (tribuni plebis). These were the most characteristic outcome of the long struggle between the two orders, the patrician and the plebeian. When in 494 B.C. the plebeian legionaries met on the Sacred Mount and bound themselves to stand by each other to the end, it was determined that the plebeians should by themselves annually appoint executive officers to stand over against the patrician officers — two tribunes (the very name com- memorated the military nature of the revolt) to confront the two consuls, and two helpers called aediles to balance the two patrician helpers, the quaestors. The ancient traditions con- cerning the revolution are extremely confused and contradictory, and have caused endless discussions. The commonest story is that the masses assembled on the Sacred Mount bound them- selves by a solemn oath to regard the persons of their tribunes and aediles as inviolable, and to treat as forfeited to Diana and Ceres, the plebeian divinities, the lives and property of those who offered them insult. That this purely plebeian oath was the real ultimate basis of the sanctity which attached to the tribunate during the whole time of its existence can hardly be believed. The revolution must have ended in something which was deemed by both the contending bodies to be a binding compact, although the lapse of time has blotted out its terms. The historian Dionysius may have been only technically wrong in supposing 264 TRIBUNE that peace was concluded between the two parties by the fetial priests, with the forms adopted by Rome in making treaties with a foreign state. If this were fact, the " sacrosanctity " of the tribunes would be adequately explained, because all such formal foedera were " sacrosanct." But, notwithstanding that the plebeians may safely be assumed to have been conscious of having to a large extent sprung from another race than the patricians and their retainers, it is not likely that the feeling was sufficiently strong to permit of the compact taking the form of a treaty between alien powers. Yet there must have been a formal acceptance by the patricians of the plebeian conditions; and most probably the oath which was first sworn by the insur- gents was afterwards taken by the whole community, and the " sacrosanctity " of the plebeian officials became a part of the constitution. There must also have been some constitutional definition of the powers of the tribunes. These rested at first on an extension of the power of veto which the republic had introduced. Just as one consul could invalidate an order of his colleague, so a tribune could invalidate an order of a consul, or of any officer inferior to him. There was no doubt a vague understanding that only orders which sinned against the just and established practice of the constitution should be annulled, and then only in cases affecting definite individuals. This was technically called auxilium. The cases which arose most commonly concerned the administration of justice and the levying of troops. Although the revolution of 494 gave the tribunes a foothold in the constitution, it left them with no very definite resources against breaches of compact by the patricians. The traditional history of the tribunate from 494 to 451 B.C. is obscure, and, so far as details are concerned, nearly worthless; but there is a thread running through it which may well be truth. We hear of attacks by patricians on the newly won privileges, even of the assassination of a tribune, and of attempts on the part of the plebeians to bring patrician offenders to justice. The assembled plebeians attempt to set up a criminal jurisdiction for their own assembly parallel to that practised by the older centuriate assembly, in which the nobles possess a preponde- rating influence. Nay, more, the plebs attempts something like legislation; it passes resolutions which it hopes to force the patrician body to accept as valid. As to details, only a few are worth notice. In the first place, the number of tribunes is raised to ten, how we do not know; but apparently some consti- tutional recognition of the increase is obtained. Then an altera- tion is made in the mode of election. As to the original mode, the ancient authorities are hopelessly at variance. Some of them gravely assert that the appointment lay with the assembly of the curiae — the most ancient and certainly the most patrician in Rome, even if we allow the view, which, in spite of great names, is more than doubtful, that the plebeians were members of it at any time when it still possessed political importance. The opinion of Mommsen about the method of election is more plausible than the others. It was in accordance with the Roman spirit of order that the tribunes, in summoning their assemblies, should not ask the plebeians to come en masse as individuals, and vote by heads, but should organize their supporters in bands. The curia was certainly a territorial district, and the tribunes may have originally used it as the basis of their organization. If tribunes were elected by plebeians massed curiatim, such a meeting would easily be mistaken in later times for the comitia curiata. At any rate, a change was introduced in 471 by the Publilian Law of Volero, which directed that the tribunes should be chosen in an assembly organized on the basis of the Servian or local tribe, instead of the curia. This assembly was the germ of the comitia tributa. The question by what authority the Law of Volero was sanctioned is difficult to answer. Possibly the law was a mere resolution of the plebeians with which the patricians did not interfere, because they did not consider that the mode of election was any concern of theirs. In the first period of the tribunate the tribunes almost certainly agitated to obtain for their supporters a share in the benefits of the state domain. And, whatever view may be taken of the movement which led to the decemvirate, an important element in it was of a certainty the agitation carried on by the tribunes for the reduction of the law of Rome to a written code. Until they obtained this it was impossible for them effectually to protect those who appealed against harsh treatment by the consuls in their capacity of judges. During the decemvirate the tribunate was in abeyance. It was called into life again by the revolution of 449, which gave the tribunes a considerably stronger position. Their personal privileges and those of the aediles were renewed, while sacrosanctity was attached to a body of men called judices decemviri, who seem to have been the legal assistants of the tribunes. The road was opened up to valid legislation by the tribunes through an assembly summoned by them on the tribe-basis (concilium plebis), but in this respect they were submitted to the control of the senate. The growth of the influence of this assembly over legislation belongs rather to the history of the comitia (q.v.) than to that of the tribunate. After the Hortensian Law of 287 B.C. down to the end of the republic the legislation of Rome was mainly in the hands of the tribunes. The details of the history of the tribunate in its second period, from 449 to 367 B.C., are hardly less obscure than those which belong to the earlier time. There was, however, on the whole, undoubtedly an advance in dignity and importance. Gradually a right was acquired of watching and interfering with the proceedings of the senate, and even with legislation. Whether the absolute right of veto had been achieved before 367 may well be doubted. But the original auxilium, or right of protecting individuals, was, during this period,_ undergoing a very remarkable expansion. From for- bidding a single act of a magistrate in relation to a single person, the tribunes advanced to forbidding by anticipation altacts of a certain class, whoever the persons affected by them might prove to be. It therefore became useless for the senate or the comitia to pass ordinances if a tribune was ready to forbid the magistrates to carry them out. Ultimately the mere announcement of such an intention by a tribune was sufficient to cause the obnoxious project to drop; that _is to say, the tribunes acquired a right to stop all business alike in the deliberative assembly, the senate, and in the legislative assemblies, the comitia. The technical name for this right of veto is intercessio. To what extent the tribunes during the time from 449 to 367 took part in criminal prosecutions is matter of doubt. The XII. Tables had settled that offenders could only be punished in person by the centuries, but tradition speaks of prosecutions by tribunes before the tribes where the penalty sought was pecuniary. The two main objects of the tribunes, however, at the time of which we are speaking were the opening of the con- sulate to plebeians and the regulation of the state domain in the interests of the whole community. Both were attained by the Licinio-Sextian Laws of 367. Then a considerable change came over the tribunate. From being an opposition weapon it became an important wheel in the regular machine of state. The senate became more and more plebeian, and a new body of nobility was evolved which comprised both orders in the state. The tribunes at first belonged to the same notable plebeian families which attained to the consulate. The old friction between senate and tribunes disappeared. It was found that the tribunate served to fill some gaps in the constitution, and its power was placed by common consent on a solid constitutional basis. From 367 to 134 B.C. (when Tiberius Gracchus became tribune) the tribunate was for the most part a mere organ of senatorial govern- ment. As the change made by the Gracchi was rather in the practice than in the theory of the tribunate, it will be convenient at this point to give a definite sketch of the conditions and privileges attaching to the office. Even after the difference between patrician and plebeian birth had ceased to be of much practical consequence in other directions, the plebeian character was a necessity for the tribune. When the patricians P. Sulpicius Rufus and, later, P. Clodius (the antagonist of Cicero) desired to enter on a demagogic course, they were com- pelled to divest themselves of their patrician quality by a peculiar legal process. Even the patricians who became so by mere fiat of the emperors were excluded from the tribunate. The other necessary qualifications were for the most part such as attached to the other Roman magistracies — complete citizenship, absence of certain conditions regarded as disgraceful, fulfilment of military duties. The minimum age required for the office was, as in the case of the quaestorship, twenty-seven. The tribunate, however, stood outside the round of magistracies, the conditions of which were regulated by the Villian Law of 180 B.C. The election took place in a purely plebeian assembly, ranged by tribes, under the presidency of a tribune selected by lot. The tribune was bound by law to see a complete set of ten tribunes appointed. Technically, the tribunes were reckoned, not as magistrates of the Roman people, but as magistrates of the Roman plebs ; they therefore had no special robe of office, no lictors, but only messengers (viatores), no official chair, like the curule seat, but only benches (subsellia). Their right to summon the plebs together, whether for the purpose of listening to a speech (in which case the meeting was a contio) or for passing ordinances (comitia tributa), was rendered absolute by the "laws under sacred sanction " TRIBUNE— TRICHINOPOLY 265 (leges sacratae), which had been incorporated with the constitution on the abolition of the decemvirate. The right to summon the senate and to lay business before it was acquired soon after 367, but was seldom exercised, as the tribunes had abundant means of securing what they wanted by pressure applied to the ordinary presidents — the consuls or the praetor. When an interregnum came about and there were no "magistrates of the Roman people," the plebeian tribunes became the proper presidents of the senate and conductors of ordinary state business. At the end of the republic there were interregna of several months' duration, when the tribunes held a position of more than usual importance. A tenure of the tribunate did not, until a comparatively late period (probably about the time of the Second Punic War), confer a claim to a permanent seat in the senate. The candidates for the office were mainly young men of good family who were at the beginning of their political career, but the office was often filled by older men of ambition who were struggling upwards with few advantages. The plebeian aediles very soon after 367 became dissociated from the tribunes and asso- ciated with the curule aediles, so that in the political hierarchy they really ranked higher than those who were originally their superior officers. The real kernel of the tribune's power consisted in his intercessio, or right of invalidating ordinances, whether framed by the senate or proposed by a magistrate to the comitia, or issued by a magistrate in pursuance of his office. From 367 B.C. down, to the time of the Gracchi the power of veto in public matters was, on the whole, used in the interests of the aristocratic governing families to check opposi- tion arising in their own ranks. A recalcitrant consul was most readily brought to obedience by an exercise of tribunician power. But, although modern readers of the ancient historians are apt to carry away the idea that the tribunate was an intensely political office, it is safe to say that the occasions on which tribunes found it possible to play a prominent part in politics were extremely few, even in the late republic. On the other hand, the tribunes found a field for constant activity in watching the administration of justice and in rendering assistance to those who had received harsh treat- ment from the magistrates. The tribunes were, in fact, primarily legal functionaries, and constituted in a way the only court of appeal in republican Rome. It was to this end that they were forbidden to pass a whole night away from the city, except during the Latin festival on the Alban Mount, and that they were expected to keep their doors open to suppliants by night as well as by day. They held court by day in the Forum close by the Porcian basilica, and frequently made elaborate legal inquiries into cases where their help was sought. Naturally this ordinary humdrum work of the tribunes has left little mark on the pages of the historians, but we hear of it not infrequently in Cicero s speeches and in other writings which deal with legal matters. According to the general principle of the constitution, magistrates could forbid the acts of magistrates equal to or inferior to themselves. For this purpose the tribunes were deemed superior to all other officers. If a tribune exercised his veto no other tribune could annul it, for the veto could not be itself vetoed, but it was possible for another tribune to protect a definite individual from the consequences of disobedience. The number of the tribunes (ten) made it always possible that one might balk the action of another, except at times when popular feeling was strongly roused. In any case it was of little use for a tribune to move in any important matter unless he had secured the co-operation or at least the neutrality of all his colleagues. The veto was not, however, absolute in all directions. In some it was limited by statute; thus the law passed by Gaius Gracchus about the consular provinces did not permit a tribune to veto the annual decree of the senate concerning them. When there was a dictator at the head of the state, the veto was of no avail against him. One of the important political functions of the tribunes was to conduct prosecutions of state offenders, par- ticularly ex-magistrates. These prosecutions began with a sentence pronounced by the tribune upon the culprit, whereupon, exercising the right given him by the XII. Tables, the culprit appealed. If the tribune sought to inflict punishment on the culprit's person, the appeal was to the assembly of the centuries; if he wished for a large fine, the appeal was to the assembly of the tribes. As the tribune had no right to summon the centuries, he had to obtain the necessary meetings through the urban praetor. In the other event he himself called together the tribute assembly and proposed a bill for fining the culprit. But the forms of trial gone through were very similar in both cases. It is commonly stated that a great change passed over the tribunate at the time of the Gracchi, and that from their day to the end of the republic it was used as an instrument for setting on foot political agitation and for inducing revolutionary changes. This view is an inversion of the facts. The tribunate did not create the agitation and the revolutions, but these found vent through the tribunate, which gave to the democratic leaders the hope that acknowledged evils might be cured by constitutional means, and in the desperate struggle to realize it the best democratic tribunes strained the theoretic powers of their office to their ruin. For the bad tribunes did not hesitate to use for bad ends the powers which had been strained in the attempt to secure what was good. But herein the tribunate only fared like all other parts of the republican constitution in its last period. The consuls and the senate were at least as guilty as the tribunes. After a severe restriction of its powers by Sulla and a restoration by Pomoey, which gave a twenty years' respite, the essential force of the tribunate was merged into the imperial constitution, of which indeed it became the principal constituent on the civil side. The ten tribunes remained, with very restricted functions. The emperors did not become tribunes, but took up into their privileges the essence of the office, the " tribunician authority." This distinction between the principle of the office and the actual tenure of the office was a creation of the late republic. Pompey, for example, when he went to the East, was not made proconsul of all the Eastern provinces, but he exercised in them a "proconsular authority" which was equal to that of the actual proconsuls — an authority which was the germ of the imperial authority on its military side. Similarly the emperor, as civil governor, without being tribune, exercised powers of like quality with the powers of the tribune, though of superior force. By virtue of his tribunician authority he acquired a veto on legislation, he became the supreme court of appeal for the empire, and to his person was attached the ancient sacrosanctity. Augustus showed the highest statesmanship in founding his power upon a metamorphosed tribunate rather than upon a metamorphosed dictatorship, upon traditions which were democratic rather than upon traditions which were patrician and optimate. The tribunes continued to exist till a late period, with gradually vanishing dignity and rights; but it is not necessary here to trace their decay in detail. The name tribune " was once again illuminated by a passing glory when assumed by Cola di Rienzi. The movement which he headed was in many respects extremely like the early movements of the plebeians against the patricians, and his scheme for uniting Italy in one free republic was strangely parallel with the greatest dream of the Gracchi. The history of the tribunate is interwoven with that of Rome, and must, to a large extent, be sought for in the same sources. The principles attaching to the office are profoundly analysed by Mommsen in his Staatsrecht, and are clearly set forth by E. Herzpg in his Geschichte u. System der romischen Staatsverfassung (Leipzig, 1884). (J. S. R.) TRIBUNE (med. Lat. tribuna, from classical Lat. tribunal), in architecture, the term given to the semicircular apse of the Roman basilica, with a raised platform, where the presiding magistrate sat; subsequently applied generally to any raised structure from which speeches were delivered and to the private box of the emperor at the Circus Maximus. In Christian basilicas the term is retained for the semicircular recess behind the choir, as at S. Clemente in Rome, S. Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna, S. Zeno at Verona, S. Miniato near Florence, and other churches. The term is also loosely applied to various other raised spaces in secular as well as ecclesiastical buildings, in the latter sometimes in the place of " pulpit," as in that of the refectory of St Martin des Champs at Paris. It is also given to the celebrated octagon room of the Uffizi at Florence, and sometimes to a gallery or triforium. TRIBUTE (Lat. tributum, a stated payment, contribution), a sum of money or other valuable thing paid by one state or person to another state or person, either as an acknowledgment of submission, or as the price of peace or protection. Hence, in a secondary sense, an offering to mark respect or gratitude. Revenue by means of tribute was one of the most characteristic forms of the financial systems of ancient states. In imperial Athens large revenues were derived from the states of the Delian league (ri, an incision or carving), an architectural term for the vertically channelled tablets of the Doric frieze, so called because of the angular channels in them, two perfect and one divided — the two chamfered angles or hemiglyphs being reckoned as one. The square sunk spaces between the triglyphs on a frieze are called metopes. TRIGONOMETRY (from Gr. rplyuvov, a triangle, \ikrpov, measure), the branch of mathematics which is concerned with the measurement of plane and spherical triangles, that is, with the determination of three of the parts of such triangles when the numerical values of the other three parts are given. Since any plane triangle can be divided into right-angled triangles, the solution of all plane triangles can be reduced to that of right-angled triangles; moreover, according to the theory of similar triangles, the ratios between pairs of sides of a right- angled triangle depend only upon the magnitude of the acute angles of the triangle, and may therefore be regarded as functions of either of these angles. The primary object of trigonometry, therefore, requires a classification and numerical tabulation of these functions of an angular magnitude; the science is, however, now understood to include the complete investigation not only of such of the properties of these functions as are necessary for the theoretical and practical solution of triangles but also of all their analytical properties. It appears that the solution of spherical triangles is effected by means of the same functions as are required in the case of plane triangles. The trigonometrical functions are employed in many branches of mathematical and physical science not directly concerned with the measurement of angles, and hence arises the importance of analytical trigonometry. The solution of triangles of which the sides are geodesic lines on a spheroidal surface requires the introduction of other functions than those required for the solution of triangles on a plane or spherical surface, and there- fore gives rise to a new branch of science,which is from analogy frequently called spheroidal trigonometry. Every new class of surfaces which may be considered would have in this ex- tended sense a trigonometry of its own, which would consist in an investigation of the nature and properties of the functions necessary for the measurement of the sides and angles of triangles bounded by geodesies drawn on such surfaces. HISTORY Trigonometry, in its essential form of showing how to deduce the values of the angles and sides of a triangle when other angles and sides are given, is an invention of the Greeks. It found its origin in the computations demanded for the reduction of astronomical observations and in other problems connected with astronomical science; and since spherical triangles specially occur, it happened that spherical trigonometry was developed before the simpler plane trigonometry. Certain theorems were invented and utilized by Hipparchus, but material progress was not recorded until Ptolemy collated, amended and developed the work of his predecessors. In book xi. of the Almagest the principles of spherical trigonometry are stated in the form of a few simple and useful lemmas; plane trigonometry does not receive systematic treatment although several theorems and problems are stated incidentally. The solution of triangles necessitated^ the construction of tables of chords — the equivalent of our modern tables of sines; Ptolemy treats this subject in book i., stating several theorems relating to multiple angles, and by ingenious methods successfully deducing approximate results. He did not invent the idea of tables of chords, for, on the authority of Theon, the principle had been stated by Hipparchus (see PTOLEMY). The Indians, who were much more apt calculators than the Greeks, availed themselves of the Greek geometry which came from Alexandria, and made it the basis of trigonometrical calculations. The principal improvement which they introduced consists in the formation of tables of half-chords or sines instead of chords. Like the Greeks, they divided the circumference of the circle into 360 degrees or 21,600 minutes, and they found the length in minutes of the arc which can be straightened out into the radius to be 3438. The value of the ratio of the circumference of the circle to the diameter used to make this determination is 62832 : 20000, or 1 = 3-1416, which value was given by the astronomer Aryabhata (476-550) in a work called Aryabhaiya, written in verse, which was republished ' in Sanskrit by Dr Kern at Leiden in 1874. The rela- tions between the sines and cosines of the same and of complementary arcs were known, and the formula sin Ja = V(i7i9(3438-cosa)| was applied to the determination of the sine of a half angle when the sine and cosine of the whole angle were known. In the Surya-Siddhanta, an astronomical treatise which has been translated by Ebenezer Bourgess in vol. vi. of the Journal of the American Oriental Society (New Haven, 1860), the sines of angles at an interval of 3° 45' up to 90° are given; these were probably obtained from the sines of 60° and 45° by continual application of the dimidiary formula given above and by the use of the complementary angle. The values sin I5° = 89o', sin 7° 3o' = 449', sin 3° 45' = 225' were thus obtained. Now the angle 3° 45' is itself 225'; thus the arc and the sine of j*j of the circumference were found to be the same, and consequently special importance was attached to this arc, which was called the right sine. From the tables of sines of angles at intervals of 3° 45' the law expressed by the equation sin (n + 1.225') -sin (78.225') = sin (71.225') -sin (tt-i was discovered empirically, and used for the purpose of recalculation. Bhaskara (fl. 1150) used the method, to which we have now returned, of expressing sines and cosines as fractions of the radius ; he obtained the more correct values sin 3° 45' = 100/1529, cos 3° 45' =466/467, and showed how to form a table, according to degrees, from the values sin 1° = 10/573, cos I " = 6568/6569, which are much more accurate than Ptolemy's values. The Indians did not apply their trigonometrical knowledge to the solution of triangles; for astronomical purposes they solved right-angled plane and spherical triangles by geometry. The Arabs were acquainted with Ptolemy's Almagest, and they probably learned from the Indians the use of the sine. The cele- brated astronomer of Batnae, Albategnius (q.v.), who died in A.D. 929-930, and whose Tables were translated in the I2th century by Plato of Tivoli into Latin, under the title De scientia stellar-urn, employed the sine regularly, and was fully conscious of the advantage of the sine over the chord; indeed, he remarks that the continual doubling is saved by the use of the former. He was the first to calculate sin from the equation sin <#>/cos = k, and he also made a table of the length of shadows of a vertical object of height 12 for altitudes 1°, 2°, ... of the sun; this is a sort of cotangent table. He was acquainted not only with the triangle formulae in the Alma- gest, but also with the formula cos a=cos b cos c + sin 6 sin c cos A for a spherical triangle ABC. Abu'1-Wafa of Bagdad (b. 940) was the first to introduce the tangent as an independent function: his " umbra " is the half of the tangent of the double arc, and the secant he defines as the " diameter umbrae." He em- ployed the umbra to find the angle from a table and not merely as an abbreviation for sin/cos; this improvement was, however, afterwards forgotten, and the tangent was reinvented in the 1 5th century. Ibn Yunos of Cairo, who died in 1008, showed even more skill than Albategnius in the solution of problems in spherical trigonometry and gave improved approximate formulae for the calculation of sines. Among the West Arabs, Geber (q.v.), who lived 1 See also vol. ii. of the Asiatic Researches (Calcutta). 272 TRIGONOMETRY at Seville in the nth century, wrote an astronomy in nine books, which was translated into Latin in the I2th century by Gerard of Cremona and was published in 1534- The first book contains a trigonometry which is a considerable improvement on that in the Almagest. He gave proofs of the formulae for right-angled spherical triangles, depending on a rule of four quantities, instead of Ptolemy's rule of six quantities. The formulae cos B=cos b sin A, cos c = cot A cot B, in a triangle of which C is a right angle had escaped the notice of Ptolemy and were given for the first time by Geber. Strangely enough, he made no progress in plane trigonometry. Arrachel, a Spanish Arab who lived in the I2th century, wrote a work of which we have an analysis by Purbach, in which, like the Indians, he made the sine and the arc for the value 3° 45' coincide. Georg Purbach (1423-1461), professor of mathematics at Vienna, wrote a work entitled Tractatus super propositiones Ptolemaei de sinubus et chordis (Nuremberg, 1541). This treatise consists of a development of Arrachel's method of interpolation for the calcula- tion of tables of sines, and was published by Regiomontanus at the end of one of his works. Johannes Miiller (1436-1476), known as Regiomontanus, was a pupil of Purbach and taught astronomy at Padua ; he wrote an exposition of the Almagest, and a more im- portant work, De triangulis planis et sphericis cum tabulis sinuum, which was published in 1533, a later edition appearing in 1561. He reinvented the tangent and calculated a table of tangents for each degree, but did not make any practical applications of this table, and did not use formulae involving the tangent. His work was the first complete European treatise on trigonometry, and contains a number of interesting problems; but his methods were in some respects behind those of the Arabs. Copernicus (1473-1543) gave the first simple demonstration of the fundamental formula of spherical trigonometry ; the Trigonomelria Copernici was published by Rheticus in 1542. George Joachim (1514-1576), known as Rheticus, wrote Opus palatinum de triangulis (see TABLES, MATHEMATICAL), which contains tables of sines, tangents and secants of arcs at intervals of 10* from o° to 90°. His method of calculation depends upon the formulae which give sin no. and cos no. in terms of the sines and cosines of (» — i)a and (n— 2)0; thus these formulae may be regarded as due to him. Rheticus found the formulae for the sines of the half and third of an angle in terms of the sine of the whole angle. In 1599 there appeared an important work by Bartholomew Pitiscus (1561-1613), entitled Trigonometriae seu De dimensione triangulorum; this contained several important theorems on the trigonometrical functions of two angles, some of which had been given before by Finck, Landsberg (or Lansberghe de Meuleblecke) and Adriaan van Roomen. Francois Viete or Vieta (1540-1603) employed the equation (2 cos J<#>)3 — 3(2 cos Jtf>)=2 cos to solve the cubic x*— 3a*x=a*b(a> $6); he obtained, however, only one root of the cubic. In 1593 Van Roomen proposed, as a problem for all mathematicians, to solve the equation 45? -3795:v3 +95634y'i- ••• +945y41-45>|43+/5 = C. Vieta gave y = 2 sin jrf, where C=2 sin , as a solution, and also twenty-two of the other solutions, but he failed to obtain the negative roots. In his work Ad angulares sectiones Vieta gave formulae for the chords of multiples of a given arc in terms ofthe chord of the simple arc. A new stage in the development of the science was commenced after John Napier's invention of logarithms in 1614. Napier also simplified the solution of spherical triangles by his well-known analogies and by his rules for the solution of right-angled triangles. The first tables of logarithmic sines and tangents were constructed by Edmund Gunter (1581-1626), professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London; he was also the first to employ the expressions cosine, cotangent and cosecant for the sine, tangent and secant of the complement of an arc. A treatise by Albert Girard (1590- l634)t published at_the Hague in 1626, contains the theorems which give areas of spherical triangles and polygons, and applications of the properties of the supplementary triangles to the reduction of the number of different cases in the solution of spherical triangles. He used the notation sin, tan, sec for the sine, tangent and secant of an arc. In the second half of the I7th century the theory of infinite series was developed by John Wallis, Gregory, Mercator, and afterwards by Newton and Leibnitz. In the Analysis per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas, which was written before 1669, Newton gave the series for the arc in powers of its sine; from this he obtained the series for the sine and cosine in powers of the arc ; but these series were given in such a form that the law of the formation of the coefficients was hidden. James Gregory discovered in 1670 the series for the arc in powers of the tangent and for the tangent and secant in powers of the arc. The first of these series was also discovered independently by Leibnitz in 1673, and published without proof in the Acta eruditorum for 1682. The series for the sine in powers of the arc he published in 1693; this he obtained by differentiation of a series with undetermined coefficients. In the 1 8th century the science began to take a more analytical form; evidence of this is given in the works of Kresa in 1720 and Mayer in 1727. Friedrich Wilhelm v. Oppel's Analysis triangulorum (1746) was the first complete work on analytical trigonometry. None of these mathematicians used the notation sin, cos, tan, which is the more surprising in the case of Oppel, since Leonhard Euler had in 1744 employed it in a memoir in the Acta eruditorum. Jean Bernoulli was the first to obtain real results by the use of the symbol V— i; he published in 1712 the general formula for tan IKJ> in terms of tan 4>, which he obtained by means of transformation of the arc into imaginary logarithms. The greatest advance was, however, made by Euler, who brought the science in all essential respects into the state in which it is at present. He introduced the present notation into general use, whereas until his time the trigonometrical functions had been, except by Girard, indicated by special letters, and had been regarded as certain straight lines the absolute lengths of which depended on the radius of the circle in which they were drawn. Euler's great improvement consisted in his regarding the sine, cosine, &c., as functions of the angle only, thereby giving to equations connecting these functions a purely analytical interpretation, instead of a geometrical one as heretofore. The exponential values of the sine and cosine, De Moivre's theorem, and a great number of other analytical properties of the trigono- metrical functions, are due to Euler, most of whose writings are to be found in the Memoirs of the St Petersburg Academy. Plane Trigonometry. I. Imagine a straight line terminated at a fixed point O, and initially coincident with a fixed straight line OA , to revolve round 0, and finally to take up any position OB. We shall sup- Con«P"»» pose that, when this revolv- otA" ing straight line is turning °J.aay,. in one direction, say that *««»*•*• opposite to that in which the hands of a clock turn, it is describing a positive angle, and when it is turning in the other direction it is describing a negative angle. Before finally taking up the position OB the straight line may have passed any number of times through the position OB, making any number of complete revolutions round O in either direction. Each time that the straight line makes a complete revolution round O we consider it to have described four right angles, taken with the positive or negative sign, according to the direction in which it has revolved; thus, when it stops in the position OB, it may have revolved through any one of an infinite number of positive or negative angles any two of which differ from one another by a positive or negative multiple of four right angles, and all of which have the same bounding lines OA and OB. If OB' is the final position of the revolving line, the smallest positive angle which can have been described is that described by the revolving line making more than one-half and less than the whole of a complete revolution, so that in this case we have a positive angle greater than two and less than four right angles. We have thus shown how we may conceive an angle not restricted to be less than two right angles, but of any positive or negative magnitude, to be generated. 2._Two systems of numerical measurement of angular magnitudes are in ordinary use. For practical measurements the sexagesimal system is the one employed : the ninetieth part of a right ... ... angle is taken as the unit and is called a degree; the vj™ degree is divided into sixty equal parts called minutes; and the minute into sixty equal parts called seconds; *f '" .° angles smaller than a second are usually measured as „ decimals of a second, the "thirds," "fourths," &c., not MagaH being in ordinary use. In the common notation an angle, for example, of 120 degrees, 17 minutes and 14-36 seconds is written 120° 17' 14-36". The decimal system measurement of angles has never come into ordinary use. In analytical trigonometry the circular measure of an angle is employed. In this system the unit angle or radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius. The constancy of this angle follows from the geometrical propositions — (l) the circumferences of different circles vary as their radii ; (2) in the same circle angles at the centre are proportional to the arcs which subtend them. It thus follows that the radian is an angle independent of the particular circle used in defining it. The constant ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter is a number incommensurable with unity, usually denoted by IT. We shall indicate later on some of the methods which have been employed to approximate to the value of this number. Its value to 20 places is 3-14159265358979323846; its reciprocal to thesame number of places is 0-31830988618379067153. In circular measure every angle is measured by the ratio which it bears to the unit angle. Two right angles are measured by the number ir, and, since the same angle is 180°, we see that the number of degrees in an angle of circular measure B is obtained from the formula i8oX0/x. The value of the radian has been found to 41 places of decimals by Glaisher (Proc. London Math. Soc. vol. iv.) ; the value of I/IT, from which the unit can easily be calculated, is ;ivento 140 places of decimals in Crunerts Archiv (1841), vol. i. To 10 lecimal places the value of the unit angle is 57° 17' 44-8062470964". The unit of circular measure is too large to be convenient for practical purposes, but its use introduces a simplification into the series in analytical trigonometry, owing to the fact that the size of TRIGONOMETRY -273 Definition an angle and the angle itself in this measure, when the magnitude of the angle is indefinitely diminished, are ultimately in a ratio of equality. 3. If a point moves from a position A to another position B on a straight line, it has described a length AB of the straight line. It „. . is convenient to have a simple mode of indicating in Port'°ns of wmcn direction on the straight line the length AB has in Infinite been described; this may be done by supposing that a straight Pomt moving in one specified direction is describing Line. a positive length, and whe'n moving in the opposite direction a negative length. Thus, if a point moving from A to B is moving in the positive direction, we consider the length AB as positive; and, since a point moving from B to A is moving in the negative direction, we consider the length BA as negative. Hence any portion of an infinite straight line is con- sidered to. be positive or negative according to the direction in which we suppose this portion to be described by a moving point ; which direction is the positive one is, of course, a matter of convention. If perpendiculars AL, BM be drawn from two points, A, B on any straight line, not necessarily in the same plane with AB, the length LM, taken with the positive or negative sign ** according to the convention as stated above, is called Lin the projection of AB on the given straight line; the projection of BA being ML has the opposite sign to the projection of AB. If two points A,^B be joined by a number of lines in any manner, the algebraical" sum of the projec- tions of all these lines is LM — that is, the same as the projection of AB. Hence the sum of the projections of all the sides, taken in order, of any closed polygon, not necessarily plane, on any straight line, is zero. This principle of projections we shall apply below to obtain some of the most important propositions in trigonometry. 4. Let us now return to the conception of the generation of an angle as in fig. i. Draw BOB' at right angles to and equal to AA'. We shall suppose that the direction from A' to A is the positive one for the straight line AOA', and that from metrical B' to B for BOB'. Suppose OP of fixed length, equal Functions. to ^A, and let PM, PN be drawn perpendicular to A 'A, B'B respectively; then OM and ON, taken with their proper signs, are the projections of OP on A 'A and B'B. The ratio of the projection of OP on B'B to the absolute length of OP is dependent only on the magnitude of the angle POA, and is called the sine of that angle; the ratio of the projection of OP on A 'A to the length OP is called the cosine of the angle POA . The ratio of the sine of an angle to its cosine is called the tangent of PIG, 2. the angle, and that of the cosine to the sine the cotangent of the angle ; the reciprocal of the cosine is called the secant, and that of sine the cosecant of the angle. These functions of an angle of magnitude a are denoted by sin a, cos a, tan a, cot a, sec a, cosec a respectively. If any straight line RS be drawn parallel to OP, the projection of RS on either of the straight lines A 'A, B'B can be easily seen to bear to RS the same ratios which the correspond- ing projections of OP bear to OP; thus, if a be the angle which RS makes with A 'A , the projections of RS on A' A , B'B are RS cos o and RS sin a respectively, where RS denotes the absolute length RS. It must be observed that the line SR is to be considered as parallel not to OP but to OP", and therefore makes an angle TT + O with A' A ; this is consistent with the fact that the projections of SR are of opposite sign to those of RS. By observing the signs of the projections of OP for the positions P, P', P", P" of P we see that the sine and cosine of the angle POA are both positive; the sine of the angle P'OA is positive and its cosine is negative; both the sine and the cosine of the angle P'OA are negative ; and the sine of the angle P"OA is negative and its cosine positive. If o be the numerical value of the smallest angle of which OP and OA are boundaries, we see that, since these straight lines also bound all the angles 2«ir-t-o, where n is any positive or negative integer, the sines and cosines of all these angles are the same as the sine and cosine of a. Hence the sine of any angle 2nv+a is positive if a is between o and IT and negative if a is between IT and 2v, and the cosine of the same angle is positive if a is between o and |T or |T and 2* and negative if a is between |TT and iSx. In fig. 2 the angle POA is o, the angle P"'OA is — o, P'OA is T — a, P"OA is T+O, FOB is |T — a. By observing the signs of the projections we see that sin( — a) = — sin a, sin(T — a)=sin a, sin (ir+o) = — sin o, cos( — o)=cos a, COS(T — o) = — cos a, COS(T+U) = — coso, sin(|ir — a) =cos a, cos(|ir — a) =sin o. Also sin(|ir+a) =sin(ir — |ir — o) = sin(jT — a) = cosa, COS(|T-|-O) = — cos(ir — |T — a) = — cos(|ir — a) = —sin a. From these equations we have tan( — a) = — tan a, tan(7r— o) = —tan a, tan(+a) = — tan o, tan(J»r — a) =cot o, tan (Jir+o) = —cot a, with corresponding equations for the cotangent. The only angles for which the projection of OP on B'B is the same as for the given angle POA ( — a) are the two sets of angles bounded by OP, OA and OP', OA ; these angles are 27nr+a and 2nir+(ir— o), and are all included in the formula fjr+( — i)ra, where r is any integer; this therefore is the formula for all angles having the same sine as o. The only angles which have the same cosine as o are those bounded by OA, OP and OA, OP", and these are all included in the formula 2nir±a. Similarly it can be shown that nir+o includes all the angles which have the same tangent as a. From the Pythagorean theorem, the sum of the squares of the projections of any straight line upon two straight lines at right angles to one another is equal to the square on the „ . .. projected line, we get sin2a+cos2a = i, and from this ?' ; by the help of the definitions of the other functions we Trirono- deduce the relations i + tan2o = sec2o, I + cot2o = metrical cosec2a. We have now six relations between the six Fmnctloas. functions;^ these enable us to express any five of these functions in terms of the sixth. The following table shows the values of the trigonometrical functions of the angles o, |T, *•, ITT, 2ir, and the signs of the functions of angles between these values ; / denotes numerical increase and D numerical decrease : — Angle . . o O...|?r IT I*..* TT 7r...|ir I* |T...2T 2T Sine . Cosine Tangent . Cotangent Secant Cosecant . o i 0 ±00 I ±00 + / +D +1 +D +1 +D i o ±00 0 ±00 I +D -I -D -I -D +1 O • O ±00 — I ±00 -/ -D +1 +D -I -D — I o ±00 o ± OO — I -D +1 -D -I +D -I O I O ±8 i ±8 The correctness of the table may be verified from the figure by con- sidering the magnitudes of the projections of OP for different positions. The following table shows the sine and cosine of some angles for which the values of the functions may be obtained geometrically : — sine cosine IT 12 15° V6— V2 V6+V2 4 75° h* 4 IT 18° Vs-i VIO+2V5 72° 2 IO 4 4 s* 7T "6 30° i 2 2 60° "3* IT 1 36° Vio— 2VJ5 4 54° ft- 4 i i 7T 45° -12 ~V2 45° I TT 4 cosine sine 4 These are obtained as follows, (i) \ir. The sine and cosine of this angle are equal to one another, since sin Values of JT=COS (|ir — Jir) ; and since the sum of the squares Trlgono- of the sine and cosine is unity each is l/V 2. (2) |ir and Jir. n^etrk^1 Consider an equilateral triangle; the projection of one l~uact side on another is obviously half a side; hence the cosine lrson'e of an angle of the triangle is | or cos §ir = |, and from "Xes- this the sine is found. (3) T/IO, jr/5, 2ir/5, 3»Yi°- In the triangle constructed in Euc. iv. 10 each angle at the base is fjr, and the vertical angle is £ir. If a be a side and b the base, we have by the construction a(a — b)=V; hence 2& = a(V5 — i); the sine of ir/io is b/2a or i(V5 — i), and cos JTT is a/2b — J (V5 + l). (4) •j'j.x, yjjir. Consider a right-angled triangle, having an angle JTT. Bisect this angle, then the opposite side is cut by the bisector in the ratio of V3 to 2; hence the length of the smaller segment is to that of the whole in the ratio of V3 to V3+2, therefore tan jVH V3/(V3+2)j tan Jir or tan i15ir = 2-V3. and from this we can obtain sin -j^ir and cos •j'jTr. 5. Draw a straight line OD making any angle A with a fixed straight line OA, and draw OF making an angle B with OD, this p la angle being measured posi- S!ng lively in the same direction _ , as A; draw FE a perpen- — cos C = 2 sin KC+D) sin |(C— P), may be obtained directly by the method of projections. Take two equal straight lines OC, OD, making angles C, D, with OA, and draw OE perpendicular to CD. The angle which OE makes with OA is %(C+D) and that which DC makes is J(ir-t-C+.D) ; the angle COE is j(C— D). The sum of the pro- jections of OD and DE on OA is equal to that of OE, and the sum of the projections of OC and CE is equal to that of OE; hence the sum of the pro- jections of OC and OD is twice that of OE, or cos C+cos D=2 cos |(C+£>) cos %(C-D). The difference of the A projections of OD and OC an 04 pIG . is equal to twice that of ED, hence we have the formula cos D— cos C = 2 sin J(C+D) sin \(C— D). The other two formulae will te obtained by projecting on a straight line inclined at an angle + iir to OA. As another example of the use of projections, we will find the sum of the series cos o+cos ( sin £/9, AAn = D sin Jn/3; hence the sum of the series of cosines is cos (a+^» — i /S) sin J«jS cosec J/3. By a double application of the addition formulae we may obtain the formulae sin (Ai+At+A3)=sin AI cos At cos 43 +cos AI sin 42 cos 43+cos A\ cos 42 sin A3 —sin 4i sin 42 sin 43; cos (4i+42+43) =cos 4i cos 42 cos 43 —cos AI sin At sin At — sin 4i cos At sin 43 —sin AI sin 4j cos 43. We can by induction extend these formulae to the case of n angles. Assume sin (4!+42+ . . . +4n) =Si-S3+S6- . . . Series of Cosines la 'et Formulae for Sine and Cosine of Sum of Angles. where Sr denotes the sum of the products of the sines of r of the angles and the cosines of the remaining n — r angles; then we have sin (A,+At+ . . . +An+A^ =cos X»+i(5,-S,+5,- . . .) +sin A^St—St+St— . . .). I he right-hand side of this equation may be written (5i cos /l^n-l-5o sin 4^i) — (53cosy4^n-f52sin^4»+i)+ . . ., or S'i-5',+ . . . where S'r denotes the quantity which corresponds for n+i angles to 5, for n angles ; similarly we may proceed with the cosine formula. The theorems are true for n = 2 and n = 3; thus they are true generally. The formulae Formulae cos 2A - cos2 A —sin* A = 2 cos2 4 — 1 = 1—2 sin2 A , for Multiple aodSub- sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A, Multiple Angles. tan zA = 2 *a A < I -tan2 A sin $A =3 sin A— 4 sin3 A, cos j,A =4 cos3 A —3 cos A, sin nA =n cos»-i A sin A -"(n~')|(n~2)cos"-' A sin8 A + . . . cos A sin- A, cos nA =cosM — n^ ^ cos""2 A sin2 A + . . . may all be deduced from the addition formulae by making the angles all equal. From the last two formulae we obtain by division n tan A - =3 ta" A~ In the particular case of n = 3 we have tan 3^ = a" . I — 3 l-3.Il A The values of sin \A, cos J^4, tan \A are given in terms of cos A by the formulae where #> is the integral part of A/2ir, gthe integral part of A/2ir+$, and r the integral part of A ITT. Sin j.4, cos \A are given"in terms of sin A by the formulae 2 sin M = (-i)*'(l+sin4)* + (-l)«'(l-sin4)i, 2 cos \A =(-i)*'(i +sin 4)*- (-i)«'(i -sin 4)*, where £' is the integral part of A/2ir+l and q' the integral part of A/ar-i. 6. In any plane triangle ABC we will denote the lengths of the sides BC, CA, AB by a, b, c respectively, and the angles BAG, ABC, ACB by A, B, C respectively. The fact that the projec- tions of b and c on a straight line perpendicular to the Properties side a are equal to one another is expressed by the equa- of 'r'aagles- tion b sin C = c sin B; this equation and the one obtained by projecting c and a on a straight line perpendicular to a may be written a/sin A=b/sin B = c/sin C. The equation a = b cos C+c cos B expresses the fact that the side a is equal to the sum of the projections of the sides b and c on itself; thus we obtain the equations a = b cos C+c cos Bl b = c cos A -j-o cos C p c = o cos B+6cos 4J If we multiply the first of these equations by —a, the second by b, and the third by c, and add the resulting equations, we obtain the formula 62+c2-a2 = 2&c cos A or cos A =(i2+c2-o2)/2&c, which gives the cosine of an angle in terms of the sides. From this expression for cos A the formulae (s-b)(s-c) -— -- tan \A where s denotes 5(a+&+c), can be deduced by means of the dimidiary formula. From any general relation between the sides and angles of a triangle other relations may be deduced by various methods of transformation, of which we give two examples. o. In any general relation between the sines and cosines of the angles A, B, C of a triangle we may substitute pA-\-qB-\-rC, rA+pB+qC, qA+rB+pC for A, B, C respectively, where p, q, r are any quantities such that p+q+r+l is a positive or negative multiple of 6, provided that we change the signs of all the sines. Suppose p-{-q-\-r-\-l =6n, then the sum of the three angles 2nir-(pA+qB+rC),2mr-(rA+pB+qC),2mr-(qA+rB+pC)\sir; and, since the given relation follows from the condition A+B + C = TT, we may substitute for A, B, C respectively any angles of which the sum is IT; thus the transformation is admissible. 0. It may easily be shown that the sides and angles of the triangle formed by joining the feet of the perpendiculars from the angular points A, B, C on the opposite sides of the triangle ABC are respectively a cos A, b cos B, c cos C, ir — 2A, v—2B, ir — 2C; we may therefore substitute these expressions for a, b, c, A, B, C respectively in any general formula. By drawing the perpendiculars of this second triangle and joining their feet as before, we obtain a triangle of which the sides are— a cos A cos aA, — b cos B cos 2B, — c cos C cos 2C and the angles are &,A— ir, 4B— IT, 4.C— IT; we may therefore substitute these expressions for the sides and angles of the original triangle; for example, we obtain thus the formula A _a2 cos2 A cos2 2A -62 cos2 B cos2 2B-c2 cos2 C cos2 2C 2bc cos B cos C cos 2B cos 2C This transformation obviously admits of further exten- sion. Solution of (i) The three sides of a triangle ABC being given, Triangles. the angles can be determined by the formula L tan \A =io+J1og (s — 5)+| log (s— c) — } log i — i log (s—o) and two corresponding formulae for the other angles. TRIGONOMETRY 275 (2) The two sides a, b and the included angle C being given, the angles A, B can be determined from the formulae and Escribed Circles of a Triangle. L tan JG4-B)=log (o_£)_lOg (a+b) +L cot JC, and the side c is then obtained from the formula log c=log a+Z, sin C—L sin A. (3) The two sides a, b and the angle A being given, the value of sin B may be found by means of the formula L sin B=Z, sin A +log b — log a; this gives two supplementary values of the angle B, if b sin A < a. 'If b sin A > o there is no solution, and if b sin A= a there is one solution. In the case b sin A < a, both values of B give solutions provided 6 > o, but the acute value only of B is admissible if b < a. The other side c can be then determined as in case (2). (4) If two angles A, B and a side a are given, the angle C is de- termined from the formula C = ir— A— B and the side b from the formula log 6= log a+Z, sin B—L sin 4. The area of a triangle is half the product of •Areas o a gjjg ;nto tne perpendicular from the opposite . . angle on that side; thus we obtain the expressions laterals T % sin A> !*(*-<*) (s-b)(s-c)}\ for the area of a triangle. A large collection of formulae for the area of a triangle are given in the Annals of Mathematics for 1885 by M. Baker. Let a, 6, c, d denote the lengths of the sides. AB, BC, CD, DA respectively of any plane quadrilateral and A-}-C = 2a; we may obtain an expression for the area 5 of the quadrilateral in terms of the sides and the angle a. We have 2S = ad sin A+bc sin(2a— A) and J(a2+ (2) cos C= —cos A cos B+sin A sin B cos c ) In the figures we have AM = AL sin C = r sin b sin C, where r denotes the radius of the sphere. By drawing a perpendicular from A on OB, we may in a similar manner show that AM = r sin c sin B, therefore sin B sin c =sin C sin 6. By interchanging the sides we have the equation sin A sin B sin C = K sin a sin b sin c (3) If we eliminate cos b we shall find below a symmetrical form for k. between the first two formulae of (i) we have cos a sin2c = sin b sin c cos A +sin c cos c sin a cos B; therefore cot a sin c = (sin b/sin a) cos A +cos c cos B = sin B cot A +cos c cos B. We thus have the six equations cot a sin 6 = cot A sin C+cos 6 cos C cot b sin o = cot B sin C+cos a cos C cot b sin c —cot B sin A +cos c cos cot c sin b = cot C sin A +cos b cos cot c sin a=cot C sin B+cos a cos cot a sin c=cot A sin B+cos c cos When C — Jir formula (i) gives cos c = cos a cos b sin b — sin B sin c ) sin a=sin A sin c \ tan o = tan A sin 6 = tan c cos B) tan b = tan B sin a = tan c cos A ( cos c = cot A cot B (4) and (3) gives from (4) we get The formulae and cos A =cos A sin B I cos B=cos b sin A I (a) (ft) (T) W (r) follow at once from (a), (0), (7). These are the formulae which are used for the solution of right-angled triangles. Napier gave mnemonical rules for remembering them. The following proposition follows easily from the theorem in equation (3) : If AD, BE, CF are three arcs drawn through A, B, C to meet the opposite sides in D, E, F respectively, and if these arcs pass through a point, the segments of the sides satisfy the relation sin BD sin CE sin AF=sin CD sin AE sin BF; and conversely if this relation is satisfied the arcs pass through a point. From this theorem it follows that the three perpendiculars from the angles on the opposite sides, the three bisectors of the angles, and the three arcs from the angles to the middle points of the opposite sides, each pass through a point. 9. If D be the point of intersection of the three Formulee bisectors of the angles A, B, C, and if DE be drawn for Sine perpendicular to BC, it may be shown that BE and Cosine = i(a + c-Z>) and C£ = i(o + 6-c), and that of Half the angles BDE, ADC are supplementary. We have Angles. sin c sin ADB sin 6 sin ADC •.< c -51/1 also —• — 5TT = — = — nr- ' • ^n = — • — m—' therefore sin2 \A sin BD sin %A sin CD sin %A sin BD sin CD sin CDE sin BDE -- : — r — : sin o sin c sin i(a+c-6), and sin T> . . But sin ... , therefore CD sin C£>E = sin C£ = sin |(a+6-c); l(g+c— b) sin %(q+b— c) ) j , , sin & sin" - f (5) Apply this formula to the associated triangle of which ir— A, ir— B, C are the angles and v— a, v — b, c are the sides; we obtain c-a)sin|(a+6+c)) i sin b sin c ) the formula cos: . A (sir m-= j- la to t igles an A _ ( sin '2~ I » ' 276 TRIGONOMETRY tan — (7) By division we have i sin J(a+c— b) sin J(a+& — c) ) J ! sin i(b-^c—a) sin J(a+6+e) ) and by multiplication sin A = 2Jsin (a+6+c) sin J(6+c— a)sin J(c+a — 6) sin J(a+6— c)[J sin b sin c = |l — cos2a— cos2 6— cos'c +2 cos a cos jcoscjj sin b sin c. Hence the quantity k in (3) is (i— cos2o— cos26 — cos2c+2 cosacos b cos cjS/sina sin 6 sin c. (8) Of Half- Apply the polar triangle transformation to the formulae sides. (5), (6), (7) (8) and we obtain a. (cos^A+C-B) cos JQ4+B-C)i ( sin B sin C ) — cos J(B+C— .4) cos JM+B + C ) J . (10) cos- = (9) tan a ( 2~ ( -cos sin B sin C ) -A) cos |Q4 +B + CM (n) cos J(/l+C'-.0) cos $(A+H-L > ^ ' If k' = {i — cos'X — cos2B— cos'C— 2 cos A cosBcosC)J/siny4 sinBsinC, we have. kk' = I (12) 10. Let £ be the middle point of AB ; draw ED at right angles to p AB to meet AC in D; then DE bisects the angle A DB. Let CF bisect the angle DCB and draw FG per- pendicular to BC, then Delambre's Formulae. AFCG=90°-JC. From the triangle CFG we have cos CFG = cos CG sin FCG, and B from the triangle FEB cos £FB = cos £B sin FB£. Now the angles CFG, EFB are each supplementary to the angle DFB, therefore jC = sinJ(.<4+B)cos2lc. (13) Also sin CG = sin CFsin CFG and sin £B = sin BF sin EFB; therefore sinj(a — 6)cosJC = sinJ(.<4 — B)sinjc. (14) Apply the formulae (13), (14) to the associated triangle of which a, TT — b, T—C, A, IT — B, ic — C are the sides and angles, we then have B)sinlc (15) cosjC. (16) The four formulae (13), (14), (15) (16) were first given by Delambre in the Connaissance des Temps for 1808. Formulae equivalent to these were given by Mollweide in Zach's Monatliche Correspondenz for November 1 808. They were also given by Gauss ( Theoria motus, 1809), and are usually called after him. II. From the same figure we have Napier1* tan FG = tan FCG sin CG = tan FBG sin BG; Analogies, therefore cotJCsinJ(a — 6)tanJ(.4 — B)sinJ(a+&), MA r>\ sin i(a — 6) ,_ . . or tanJl4-B)=sin|^+6)cotJC. <'?) Apply this formulae to the associated triangle (T — a, b, r—c, v—A, B, TT — C), and we have If we apply these formulae (17), (18) to the polar triangle, we have ,. sin \(A —B) . n Jc (19) n Jc. (20) The formulae (17), (18), (19), (20) are called Napier's " Analogies "; they were given in the Mirif. logar.*canonis descriptio. 12. If we use the values of sin Ja, sin Jft, sin Jc, cos Ja, cos J6, cos Jc, given by (o), (10) and the analogous formulae obtained by interchanging the letters we obtain by multiplication ... . . .. c_^ cos JacosJ6sinC=cosJccosJ(.(4+B — C) V . sin Jasin Jisin C = cos JccosJ(.4+B + C) ) These formulae were given by Schmiesser in Crelle's Journ., vol. x. The relation sin b sin c+cos b cos c cos A=sin B sin C— cos B cos C cos a was given by Cagnoli in his Trigonometry (1786), and was rediscovered by Cayley (Phil. Mag., 1859). It follows from (i), (2) and (3) thus: the right-hand side of the equation equals sin B sin C+cos a (cos A — sin B sin C cos a) =sin B sin C sin2 a+cos a cos A, and this is equal to sin b sin c + cos A (cos a— sin b sin c cos A) or sin b sin c + cos 6 cos c cos A. 13. The formulae we have given are sufficient to determine three parts of a triangle when the other three parts are given ; moreover such formulae may always be chosen as are adapted , to logarithmic calculation. The solutions will be unique zjr* " ° except in the two cases (i) where two sides and the angle '"aaxies- opposite one of them are the given parts, and (2) where two angles and the side opposite one of them are given. Suppose a, b, A are the given .parts. We determine B from the formula sin B = sin b sin A /sin a; this gives two supplementary values of B, one acute and the other obtuse. Then C and c are determined from the equations cot ^ -B)> tan *- Now tan JC, tan Jc, must both be positive; hence A —B and a — 6 must have the same sign. We shall distinguish three cases. First, suppose sin 6sin a, there is no solution when sin b sin A > sin a; but if sin 6 sin ^4sin a. Thirdly, if sin 6 = sin a then B=A or v = A. If a is acute, a — b is zero or negative, hence A — B is zero or negative ; thus there is no solution unless A is acute, and then there is one. Similarly, if a is obtuse, A must be so too in order that there may be a solution. If a = b = %ir, there is no solution unless .4 = Jx, and then there are an infinite number of solutions, since the values of C and c become ' indeterminate. The other case of ambiguity may be discussed in a similar manner, or the different cases may be deduced from the above by the use of the polar triangle transformation. The method of classification according to the three cases sin &— sin a was given by Professor Lloyd Tanner (Messenger of Math., vol. xiv.). 14. If r is the angular radius of the small circle inscribed in the triangle ^4BC, we have at once tan r = tan \A sin (s — a), where 2s = a+b+c; from this we can derive the formulae tan r = n cosec s = %N sec \A sec JB sec JC = Radii of sin a sin |B sin JC sec \A (21) Circles where n, N denote the expressions Related to [sin s sin (s-a) sin (s-b) sin (i-c))J, Triangles. j— cos 5 cos (S—A) cos (5— B) cos (S— C)|J. The escribed circles are the small circles inscribed in three of the associated triangles; thus, applying the above formulae to the triangle (a, JT — b, ir—c, A, v—B, v — Q, we have for r\, the radius of the escribed circle opposite to the angle A , the following formulae tan fi=tan \A sin s — n cosec (s— a) = %Nsec \A cosec JB cosec JC = sin a cos ^B cos jC sec J.4. (22) The pole of the circle circumscribing a triangle is that of the circle inscribed in the polar triangle, and the radii of the two circles are complementary ; hence, if R be the radius of the circumscribed circle of the triangle, and 1?!, R2, R the radii of the circles circum- scribing the associated triangles, we have by writing Jrr— R for r, %-ir — Ri for TI, v—a for A, &c., in the above formulae cot R = cot Jacos (S— A) — \n cosec Ja cosec J6 cosec $c=-N sec 5 = sin A cos J6 cos Jc cosec Ja (23) cot /?i = — cot Ja cos S = Jn cosec Ja sec J6 sec \c = N sec (S—A) = sin A sin Jft sin Jc cosec Ja. (24) The following relations follow from the formulae just given: — 2tanJ? =cotri+cotr2+cotr3— cotr, 2tan.Ri =cot r -j-cot r2+cot rs— cot rt, tan r tan r\ tan r2 tan ra = n2, sin2 5 = cot r tan ri tan r2 tan rs, sin2 (s—a) =tan r cot r\ tan r2 tan ra. 15. If £ = ./4+B + C— IT, it may be shown that £ multiplied by the square of the radius is the area of the triangle. We give some of the more important expressions for the quantity E, which is called the spherical excess. We have Formulae for Spherical Excess. hence cos \(A + B) sin \C sin \(C - E) sin \C sin %C - sin \(C - E) cos j(a + 6) sin \(A + B) __ cos J(a - b) COS jC COS JC COS Jc cos J(a + b) , cos J(C - E) cos J(a - b). cos Jc a cos JC ~" ' cos \c ' sin JC +sin J(C — £) — cos J(o -f b) + cos ji(a + b) ' TRIGONOMETRY 277 therefore tan^(C-E)=tlin & tan i(J~c Similarly tan IE tan2 J(C-£) =tan |(s-a) tan |0-Z>); therefore tan JE = {tan Js tan J(.s — a) tan K$— &) tan $(s— c)ji (25) This formula was given by J. Lhuilier. Also sin JCcos JE-cos ^C sin. |£=cos^(a1+^ sin *C; COS gC i ^ i r^ i • i ^-- • i 1-* cos 4 (a — &) cos JC cos JE+sm JC sin |£ = — ^ lg cos JC; whence, solving for cos JE, we get , „ l+cos o+cos b -(-cos c cos JE = — ! - 1 — ! - nr"^ — i — (26) 4 cos ja cos J6 cos Jc This formula was given by Euler (Nova acra, vol. x.). If we find sin JE from this formula, we obtain after reduction sin JE = ; 2 cos \a cos Jft cos Ji a formula given by Lexell (Ada Petrop., 1782) CVr\m f-h«* *iniiatir\nc f o T ^ foo^ ftt\ ftA\ \\rf formula given by Lexell (Ada Petrop., 1782). From the equations (21), (22), (23), (24) we obtain the following formulae for the spherical excess : — sin2jE = tan R cot RI cot RI cot R$ 4(cot ri+cot >-2+cot ; hence cos j£ = cos M N sec j DA respectively, and *, y the diagonals AC, BD. It can easily be shown by joining the angular points Inscribed of the Quadrilateral to the pole of the circle that la Small A+C = B+P' , ll, we. use the last expression in (23) Circle e radii of the circles circumscribing the triangles BAD, BCD, we have sin A cos Ja cos jo" cosec j;y = sin C cos j6 cos jC cosec Jy; whence sin C cos \b cos \c cos \a cos {d This is the proposition corresponding to the relation A-\-C = trlor a. plane quadrilateral. Also we obtain in a similar manner the theorem sin \x sin Jy sin B cos j6~sin A cos {d' analogous to the theorem for a plane quadrilateral, thac the diagonals arc proportional to the sines of the angles opposite to them. Also the chords AB, BC, CD, DA are equal to 2 sin Ja, 2 sin J6, 2 sin %c, 2 sin %d respectively, and the plane quadrilateral formed by these chords is inscribed ^in the same circle as the spherical quadrilateral ; hence by Ptolemy's theorem for a plane quadrilateral we obtain the analogous theorem for a spherical one sin \x sin Jy = sin \a sin Jc+sin j& sin \d. It has been shown by Remy (in Crelle's Journ., vol. iii.) that for any quadrilateral, if z be the spherical distance between the middle points of the diagonals, cos o+cos 6+cos c+cos ; hence E(p/q) is the real positive value of e"'". Again E(-p/g)XE(p/q)=E(o) = l, hence E(-plq) is the real positive value of e"*!*. It has been thus shown that for any real and rational number x, the value of E(x) is the principal value of e*. This result can be extended to irrational values of *, if we assume that ex is for such a value of x defined as the limit of the sequence e11, e",. . ., where xi, x*,. . . is a sequence of rational numbers of which * is the limit, since E(XI), E(x2) . . ., then converges to £(*). Next consider (i +z/m)m, where m is a positive integer. We have by the binomial theorem, § I \ £« /"g \ ' -- nr)7\+--- + (m) lies between, and i+ (£+£+. . . +*-/) • hence the product equals i—B^.s — i/2tn where 0, is such that o<0,< i. We have now s.s — ' 2m m— il 2™ + [i-*m— J^ where z"> z2 ( z n + . . .+^-i— — -] I+03- + P. ^m\ 2m ( "3r^ Since the series for £(z) converges, s can be fixed so that for all values of m>s the modulus of z'+'/fc + i)! + . . . +zm/ml is less than an arbitrarily chosen number |«. Also the modulus of i+03Z/i + ...+0mz™-2/(»z-2)! is less than that of i+i|z|/l! + |z|2/2! +..., or of emod', hence mod R,<%t+(i/2m). mod (zV), y/m=p sin , then TRIGONOMETRY 279 £(z) = limm_co {pm(cos m-\-i sin m)\, by De Moivre's theorem. -m ^ i j -{— — } i i I -^ t we hcivG lim om \ ml ( m(V»+*/V»02) . Let r be a fixed number less than V«*+*/Vl»> then limm_co lies between i and linim-m j i-| — ^-5 f , or between i and e»2'2rt; hence since r can be taken arbitrarily large, the limit is i. The limit of m or m tan~l{y/(x+m)\ is the same as that of my/(x+m) which is y. Hence we have shown that £(z) =e*(cos y+i sin y). 21, Since E(x+iy)—iI(cos y+sin y, we have cos y+i sin y = E(iy), and cos y— i sin y=E(—iy). Therefore cos y = i{£(iy) +E(-iy)\, sin y = %i\E(iy)-E(-iy)\; and using Exponential the serjes definecl by £(i'y) and £(-iy), we find that Values of Trigono- metrical Functions. cos y = i - y2/2 ! + y4/4! - • • • . y = y /3 ! + y5/5 !—•.., where y is any real number. These are the well-known expansions of cos y, sin y in powers of the circular measure y. Where z is a complex number, the symbol ez may be defined to be such that its principal value is E(z) ; thus the principal values of e'v, tr*" are E(iy), E(—iy). The above expressions for cos y, sin y may , then be written cos y = %(eivJf-e-iv), sin y = Jt(e'»— e~'v). These are known as the exponential values of the cosine and sine. It can be shown that the symbol e? as defined here satisfies the usual laws of combination for exponents. 22, The two functions cos z, sin z may be defined for all com- plex or real values of z by means of the equations cos y = j(£(z) + , ,i__t £(-z)),sinz = (k)(£(z)-£(-z)),whereE(z)represents the sum-function of I + z+ z2/2! + . . . + z"/re! + . . . For real values of z this is in accordance with the ordinary definitions, as appears from the series obtained above for cos y, sin y. The fundamental properties of cos z, sin z can be deduced from this definition. Thus sin z=E(z). cos z—i sin z=£( — iz); therefore cos2z+sin2z = £(iz). £(— iz) = i. Again cos (Zi+z2) is given by Analytical Definitions of Trigono- metrical Functions. COS |£(zz2)—E(—«Z2)j, whence we have cos (zi+z2) = cos Zi cos z2 — sin Zi sin Z2. Similarly, we find that sin (z1+z2) =sin Zi cos Zj + cos Zi sin z2. Again the equation £(z) = l has no real roots except z=o, for e">i, if z is real and >o. Also E(z) = i has no com- plex root a+i0, fot o — if) would then also be a root, and £(20) = £(a+i/3)£(o— iff) = 1, which is impossible unless a = o. The roots of E(z) = i are therefore purely imaginary (except z = o); the smallest numerically we denote by 2 iv, so that £(2iV) = i. We have then £(2tVr) = |£(2tV))r = i, if r is any integer; therefore 2iirr is a root. It can be shown that no root lies between 2iVr and 2(r+i)zV; and thus that all the roots are given by z==t2»Vr. Since £(y+2iV) = £(z)£(2zV) =£(z), we see that £(z) is periodic, of period 2iV. It follows that cos z, sin z are periodic, of periods 2ir. The number here introduced may be identified with the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle by considering the case of real values of z. 23. Consider the binomial theorem Expansion of Powers of Sines and Cosines I" Series of puttinga = Sines and Cosines of (2 COS 0)" = Multiple Arc. +n(n-i).^(n-r+i)2cos(w_2r)9+ When n is odd the last term is 2— — and when re is even it is n(-n~ '• • • i» ! cose, If we put a=el9, 6= — e~'fl, we obtain the formula +(-i)^*-I)--r-f»-r+I>acoB(ii-.2r)a. . . (-i);- in! when re is even, and (-l)^n~I)(2sin9)"= 2sinn0-re . 2sin(re — 2)0+— — -2 sin (re — 4 sin0 when n is odd. These formulae enable us to express any positive integral power of the sine or cosine in terms of sines or cosines of multiples of the argument. There are corresponding formulae when n is not a positive integer. Consider the identity log(l -/>x)+log(l -qx) = Expansion log(l—p+qx+pqx*'). Expand both sides of this of Sines and equation in powers of x, and equate the coefficients of Cosines of X", we then get Multiple t., j %n_4Jj 2 i (/>+ 28o TRIGONOMETRY when n is even, and n-3 when n is odd. If we put p = ei9, q — e — ie, we obtain the formulae sinnfl = sin0 j (2 cose)"-1 - (n -2) (2 cos 9)""3 + ^" ~3ffi ~^ (2 cos9)"~5 where n is any positive integer ; / • (-1) »(«2-22) . , n(»*-22)(n2-42). -- s - — -3 — s - - 1-z6 — -i)2 (2 cos 0)»-> (n even); + (-i)r~(2 cos 0)"-1 (n odd). (16) If we put in the same three formulae p = elfl, q=—e~t9, we obtain the series »-2 2 Lsm ^n n 2! ; (17) ( — i) 2 cos n0 = the same series (n odd); , cos 9 n sin 0 (19) (20) . . . + ( — i)2 (2 sin 0)"~' f (» even); cos n0 = cos 0 j i — j— sin20+- ^1 ^sin40 — . . . + (2 sin0)»-' |(nodd). We have thus obtained formulae for cos nO and sin nd both in ascending and in descending powers of cos 0 and sin 0. Vieta ob- tained formulae for chords of multiple arcs in powers of chords of the simple or complementary arcs equivalent to the formulae (13) and (19) above. These are contained in his work Theoremata ad angulares sectiones. Jacques Bernoulli found formulae equivalent to (12) and (13) (Mem. de I' Academie des Sciences, 1702), and trans- formed these series into a form equivalent to (10) and (n). Jean Bernoulli published in the Acta eruditorum for 1701, among other formulae already found by Vieta, one equivalent to (17). These formulae have been extended to cases in which n is fractional, nega- tive or irrational; see a paper by D. F. Gregory in Camb. Math. Journ. vol. iv., in which the series for cos nO, sin «0 in ascending powers of cos 0 and sin 0 are extended to the case of a fractional value of n. These series have been considered by Euler in a memoir in the Nova acta, vol. ix., by Lagrange in his Calcul des fonctions (1806), and by Poinsot in Recherches sur I' analyse des sections angulaires (1825). The general definition of Napierian logarithms is that, if 24. then x+iy = \og (a+ib). Now we know that os y+ie* sin y; hence ex cos y-a, e" sin y =b' or «* = («"+&*)*- y = arc tan 6/o'*»«r, where m 'is an integer. If 6 = p, then m must be even or odd according as a is positive or negative ; hence log. 0+iJ) =log. (oj+ &)%+ i (arc tan b/a±2mr) or log. (a+ii) =log. (o2+62)i+ i (arc tan b/a^2n+r), according as a is positive or negative. Thus the logarithm of any complex or real quantity is a multiple-valued function, the differ- H b lie ence Detween successive values being 2iri; in particular, yPe' . ...,.,, 3 2 3-5 3 3-5-7 4 when x is between =*= I . Differentiating this equation with regard to x, we get arc sin x 3" '3-5 '35-7 if we put arc sin * = arc tan y, this equation becomes arc tan y = — T— j j i+- — jTT^H — "4 ( jT 2) +•••(• (23) This equation was given with two proofs by Euler in the Nova acta for 1793. It can be shown that if mod x< I, then for any such real or complex value of x, a value of log. (i+*) is given by the sum of the series x1 — *2/2 +*3/3 — ... We then have • 1 \0a ii^ = v-(-— J- — 4- — 4- • Gregory's 2 6I— x 357 Series. put iy for x, the left side then becomes zjlog (i+oO— log (i — iy)| or i arc tan y =*= mis ; 5 ,,7 •— 2-4- 3 ' 5 7 + The series is convergent if y lies between ± i ; if we suppose arc tan y restricted to values between ± Jir, we have hence arc tan y±nir=y— arc tan y=y— (24) which is Gregory's series. Various series derived from (24) have been employed to calculate the value of ir. At the end of the I7th century ir was calculated to 72 places of decimals by Abraham Sharp, by means of the series obtained by putting arc tan y = ir/6, Sertes*Br y = l/V3 in (24). The calculation is to be found in Calculation Sherwin's Mathematical Tables (1742). About the same ' time J. Machin employed the series obtained from the equation 4 arc tan J —arc tan ,,fa = Jir to calculate ir to 100 decimal places. Long afterwards Euler employed the series obtained from Jir = arc tan 3+ arc tan J, which, however, gives less rapidly- converging series (Introd., Anal, infin. vol. i.). T. F. de Lagny employed the formula arc tan i/V3=ir/6 to calculate ir to 127 places; the result was communicated to the Paris Academy in 1719. G. Vega calculated ir to 140 decimal places by means of the series obtained from the equation Jir = 5 arc tan $+2 arc tan y30. The formula Jir = arc tan |+arc tan t+arc tan i was used by J. M. Z. Dase to calculate irto 200 decimal places. W. Rutherford used the equation ir = 4 arc tan J — arc tan ,J0 + arc tan 5"^. If in (23) we put y = J and $, we have ir = 8 arc tan 3+4 arc tan ^ =2-4 a rapidly convergent series for ir which was first given by Hutton in Phil. Trans, for 1776, and afterwards by Euler in Nova acta for 1793. Euler gives an equation deduced in the same manner from the identity T = 2o arc tan $ +8 arc tan /9. The calculation of ir has been carried out to 707 places of decimals ; see Proc. Roy. Soc. vols. xxi. and xxii.; also CIRCLE. TRIGONOMETRY 281 27. We shall now obtain expressions for sin x and cos x as infinite products of rational factors. We have x . x+ir . x . x+ir Factorlza- sin x = 2 sin rsm— — = 23 sin-sin — - — lion of Sloe aodCoslae. sJnX+2*sinX+3r- 4 ' 4 proceeding continually in this way with each factor, we obtain , . X . 3C-T-T . X + 2TT . X + n—IlT sin x = 2"~l sin -sin sin — - — . . .sin , where n is any positive integral power of 2. Now . x+rir . x+n — rir . x+rir . rir—x . .fir . ,x sin - sin - = sm — - — sin - = sm2 -- sin2-, n n n n n n and sin Hence the above may be written , . x / . „ IT . „ x\ I . „ 2ir . . x\ sin x = 2n • sm-lsirr - — sin2 - I Ism2 -- sm2 rl ... n \ n n/ \ n n/ (. , for . , x\ x sm2--sm2-Jcos-, where k = Jn = i. Let x be indefinitely small, then we have 2**~^ TT 27T klT i =---81^ -sin2 -...sin'-; hence . x x f sin2 x/n\ / sin2 */« \ / sin2 x/n \ sin * = n s,n- cos - (i -ftrffc) (i -„.„. 2lr/nj . - . (i -3^^ • We may write this . x x I sin2 x/n\ / sin2 x/n \ _ sin z = n sm - cos - ^i-gy^ . . (i -^mr/n) R, where R denotes the product (sin2 x/n \ I _ sin8 x/n \ f ^ sin2 x/n \ "sin2 m + iT/n/ V~sin2 m+2K/nJ ' ' \I~sin2 k*/n} ' and m is any fixed integer independent of n. It is necessary, when we make n infinite, to determine the limiting value of the quantity R; then, since the limit of sin m*]n . n sin x/n cos xjn is unity, we have . sin x , , . is — — and that of The modulus of R — i is less than V~*~sin2m-r-iT/n/ \I+sin2 m+2*/n) '" V+sin2 kit In) "'' where /> = mod. sin x/n. Now e Pi>i+Ap1, if A is positive; hence mod. (R — i) is less than exp. jp^cosec2 m + iv/n+ ... + cosec2 kv/n) — i, or than exp. ip2»2|i/(7n-|-i)2 + . • - + !/#)— i, or than exp. (p2n2/4m2) — i. Now p2 = sin2 a/n.cosh2 jfJ/n+cos2 a/n. sinh2 0/n, if x = a+ifl; or p2 = sin2 o/n+sinh2 0/n. Hence limB=01 P2n2 = o2+/S2, limB = <>> pn = mod. x. It follows that mocK»=<» (R — i) is between o and exp. {(mod. 4)2/ xnf ) — i , and the latter may be made arbitrarily small by taking m large enough. It has now been shown that sin x = x(i — A^/?r2)(i — *2/2V) ... (i — xP/mtir2) (i+«m), where mod. em decreases indefinitely as m is increased indefinitely. When m is indefinitely increased this becomes This has been shown to hold for any real or complex value of x. The expression for cos x in factors may be found in a similar manner , ., . T— 2x $ir—2x by means of the equation cos x = 2 sin cos " , or may be deduced thus cos x = (26) If we change x into ix, we have the formulae for sinh x, cosh * as infinite products — / r2 \ " = " / h+iJT-*)- cosh x = p I1 n=0 V In the formula for sin * as an infinite product put * = lir, we , 7T I T 7 ^ 5 then get ' - J • 2 ^> 4 4 6 ' ' " we stop a''ter 2n "actors m tne numerator and denominator, we obtain the approximate equation I=2 22.42.62 ... (2n)2 •(2n + I) 2.4.6. . . 2tl : or 1 , , 2n—i = *nir' where n is a large integer. This ex- pression was obtained in a quite different manner by Wallis (Arith- metica infinitorum, vol. i. of Opp.). 28. We have Series for Cot, Cosec, Tan and Sec. or cos y+sin y cot x Equating the coefficients of the first power of y on both sides we obtain the series COt From this we may deduce a corresponding series for cosec x, for, since cosec x = cot %x— cot *, we obtain 1 -5=B+- ™ i i i '~ - By resolving — into factors we should obtain in a similar manner the series 2 • 2 2 • 2 2 +...,(29) IT — 2X JT + 2X ' 3ir — 2X 3x4-2* ' SIT — 2X 5X+2X These four formulae may also be derived from the product formulae for sin x and cos x by taking logarithms and then differentiat- ing. Glaisher has proved them by resolving the expressions for cos x/sin x and I /sin x ... as products into partial fractions (see Quart. Journ. Math., vol. xvii.). The series for cot * may also be obtained by a continued use of the equation cot * = J|cot %x+ cot i(*+x) ) (see a paper by Dr Schroter in Schlomilch's Zeitschrift, vol. xiii.). » Various series for x may be derived from the series (27), (28), (29), (30), and from the series obtained by differentiating them one or more times. For example, in the formulae (27) and (28), by putting x = ir/n we get f Series for Tr = ntan-ii-— I - * i * f ^derived n( n— I^n + l 2n — l^2n + l' ' ' V fromSerles r_.x( I I I i ) for Cot and — n sin — i i -{-— - .. i . ~ r I i . • • • ( ; Cosec. n—i If we put n=3, these become 2 \ ' 2 4 By differentiating (27) we get put* These series, among others, were given by Glaisher (Quart. Journ. Math. vol. xii.). / x*\ / x! \ 29. We have sinh rx = irxP 1 1 +r§) , cosh irx = P(i+, -J-iVV • if we differentiate these formulae after taking loga- rithms we obtain the series Certain Series. These series were given by Kummer (in Crelle's Journ. vol. xvii.) The sum of the more general series 12n+x2n+22n+x*>+.f«+x2n + . . . , has been found by Glaisher (Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., vol. vii.) If Um denotes the sum of the series ;+;+T£+ . . ., Vm that 282 TRIGONON— TRILOBITES of the series rs+rs+-r^+..., and Wm that of the series * o o Sums of -s-T^+rs-rs-l-..., we obtain by taking loga- Powers of * •* 3 ' Reciprocals rithms in the formulae (25) and (26) ot Natural /x\> , I ... /x\ « I ., /x\ « . Numbers. log (x cosec x) = t/2 ^-j +- [74 (^ - j + - Z7, ^-j + . . . , , , T. /2X\ 2 I /2X\ * . I T, /2X\ • log (sec x) = V, (-) +-V< (-) +-F6 (-)+...; and differentiating these series we get i i Ui Ut In (31) x must lie between =*=*• and in (32) between equation (30) in the form (31) (32) = iir. Write sec ~-r i "«•* I and expand each term of this series in powers of x2, then we get 'IT 7T 7T^ where x must lie between ±1^. By comparing the series (31), (32), (33) with the expansions of cot x, tan x, sec x obtained otherwise, we can calculate the values of Ui, Ut... F2, Vt... and Wi, W8 — When Ua has been found, V» may be obtained from the formula For Lord Brounker's series of *-, see CIRCLE. It can be got at once Continued bV putting 0 = 1,6=3, £=5.... in Euler's Factors /or IT. +b-a+c-b+" Sylvester gave (Phil. Mag., 1869) the continued fraction which is equivalent to Wallis's formula for jr. This fraction was originally given by Euler (Comm. Acod. Petropol. vol. xi.) ; it is also given by Stern (in Crelle's Journ. vol. x.). 30. It may be shown by means of a transformation of the series . sin x , xx2 x2 x3 Continued for cos x and —5— that tan x = :;-= -^ -^-^ -7^... Fractions •, , r n T . for Tiigono- This mav "* a'so eas»y shown as follows. Let metrical y = cos V*, and let y', y*... denote the differential Functions, coefficients of y with regard to x, then by forming these we can show that $xy"-\-2y'+y = o, and thence by Leibnitz's theorem we have Therefore ,= - 2 - hence — zVx cot Vx= — 2 — Replacing Vx by x we have tan x=-j-^ -— -r-^-. . . Euler gave the continued fraction n tan x (n1 — I ) tan'.r (n2 — 4) tan2* (n2 — 9) tan'x tciri 71 .v — ' . . . j *5 0 ~~ / ^ this was published in Mem. de I'ocod. de St Petersb. vol. vi. Glaisher has remarked (Mess, of Math. vols. iv.) that this may be derived by forming the differential equation (i — x2)j U - JTJ _ tan x tan'x 4 tfln'x = i + 3+ 5+ Treatment of Circular then Functions. s;n x. tne quantity * would be defined to } 2 /I fa i (. _ — 5Y- We should then have n d * \~x= \ V (i — -f\' Now change the variable in the integral to z, where y2+z2 = i, we then have | — x = j z . / y_ z2y and z must be defined as the cosine of x, and is thus equal to sin (iir — x), satisfying the equation sin2 x+cos2 x = l. Next consider the differential equation dy dz This is equivalent to hence the integral is yV(i— z2)+zV(i— >*)= a constant. The constant will be equal to the value u of y when z = o; whence yV(i— z2)+zV(i— y2)=«. The integral may also be obtained in the form j v(i-y2) = ~' loge' "^ ~ and sin -y = sin a cos /3+cos a sin /3, cos 7 = cos a cos ft — sin a sin ft, the addition theorems. By means of the addition theorems and the values sin iir = i, cos £JT=O we can prove that sin (^ir+x) = cos x, cos (|TT-|-X) = — sin x; and thence, by another use of the addition theorems, that sin (TT+X) = — sin x cos (ir+x) = — cos x, from which the periodicity of the functions sin x, cos x follows: — We have also J 'V V.' whence loge | V(i — y2) + iy) + log, j \'(i — z2) + iz| = a constant. Therefore j V(i - y2)| + ij{V(l - z2)-hz) = V(i - «2) + '«. since «=y when z = o; whence we have the equation (cos a + i sin a) (cos /3 + i sin /3) = cos (a + ft) + t sin (o + ft), from which De Moivre's theorem follows. REFERENCES. — Further information will be found in Hobson's Plane Trigonometry, and in Chrystal's Algebra, vol. ii. For further information on the history of the subject, see Braunmuhl's Vor- lesungen iiber Geschichte der Trigonometrie (Leipzig, 1960). (E. W. H.) TRIGONON, a small triangular harp, occasionally used by the ancient Greeks and probably derived from Assyria or Egypt. The trigonon is thought to be either a variety of the sambuca or identical with it. A trigonon is represented on one of the Athenian red-figured vases from Cameiros in the island of Rhodes, dating from the 5th century B.C., which are preserved in the British Museum. The triangle is here an irregular one, consisting of a narrow base to which one end of the string was fixed, while the second side, forming a slightly obtuse angle with the base, consisted of a wide and slightly curved sound-board pierced with holes through which the other end of the strings passed, being either knotted or wound round pegs. The third side of the triangle was formed by the strings themselves, the front pillar, which in modern European harps plays such an important part, being always absent in these early Oriental instruments. A small harp of this kind having 20 strings was discovered at Thebes in 1823. (K. S.) TRIKKALA (anc. Trika), a town of Greece, capital of the department of Trikkala, and the see of an archbishop, 38 m. W. of Larissa. In winter, when great numbers of Vlach herds- men take up their quarters in the town, its population exceeds that of Larissa. It has the appearance of a Mussulman town on account of its mosques (only two of which are in use) and it is a centre of trade in wheat, maize, tobacco and cocoons. The town was in ancient times a celebrated seat of the worship of Aesculapius. Pop. (1889), 14,820; (1907) 17,809; of the department, 90,548. TRILEMMA (Gr. rpeis, three, Xij/z/ia, something taken), in logic, an argument akin to the dilemma (q.v.), in which there are three possibilities. By getting rid of two, the third is proved, provided the original three exhaust the number. The terms " tetralemma " (four possibilities) and " polylemma " (many) have also been used. TRILOBITES, extinct Arthropoda, formerly classified with the Crustacea, but of late years relegated to the Arachnida (q.v.), which occurred abundantly in seas of the Cambrian and Silurian periods, but disappeared entirely at the close of the Palaeozoic epoch. Both their origin and the causes which led to their extinction are quite unknown. Widely diver- gent forms make their appearance suddenly in the Cambrian period amongst the earliest known fossils; and the high per- fection of structure to which they had at that time attained TRIM— TRIMMER 283 implies the antecedent existence of much simpler types, and refers the origin of life to a date immeasurably distant from that at which we have actual proof of the existence of animal and vegetable organisms. However different in structure Trilobites may be, they all agree in possessing a head-shield usually semi-circular in 'shape, which results from the fusion of apparently five segments, and bears, except in some blind forms, a pair of large reniform compound eyes like those of the king-crab (Xiphosura). This head-shield is suc- ceeded by a varying number of free segments, each of which con- sists of a medium convex tergal piece and a pair of arched lateral plates, the pleura, of which there is one on each side. The terga and pleura of each individual segment overlap those of the segment that serially succeeds it. The mid-region of the body, composed of jointed segments, is followed by a larger or smaller region con- sisting of fused segments and termed the pygidium or caudal shield, which in some cases is as large as the head-shield itself, in other cases much smaller. When the pygidium is large and composed of many segments, the number of free body segments is correspond- ingly reduced, and vice versa. It is with respect to this number of segments that respectively constitute the pygidium and the mid- region of the body that Trilobites differ most markedly from each other; and it is a singular fact that the extremes in structural organization in this particularto be met with in the Trilobita are found side by side in strata of Cambrian age. In Paradoxides, for example, there are about twenty freely movable segments followed by a very short and small pygidium, whereas in Agnostus the freely movable segments are reduced to two and the pygidium is as large as the cephalic shield. In this genus the number of segments composing the pygidium is obscured, as also it is in the genus Illaenus, which has as many as ten movable segments pre- ceding the large semi-circular pygidium; but in such forms as Ogygia and Asaphus, which have about eight free segments, the sutural lines on the pygidium indicate that it is composed of about a dozen or more segments. Somewhat resembling Agnostus is Microdiscus, with four movable segments and a large pygidium consisting of about five fused segments, the lines of union between the latter being clearly indicated. The tergal and pleural elements of the pygidium are generally well marked. They are also well marked on the cephalic shield, the tergal elements being represented by a median axial elevated area showing indistinct signs of segmentation, and a lateral unseg- mented plate, the gena, which carries the eyes. _The postero- lateral angles of the gena are commonly produced into spiniform processes, which may project backwards beyond the middle of the body as in Paradoxides, or considerably beyond its posterior termina- tion as in Trinucleus or Ampyx. The latter is further remarkable for having the median area of the head-shield, theflabellum, produced into an anteriorly directed spike. For many years only the dorsal surface of Trilobites was known, nothing having been ascertained of the ventral surface and appen- dages. Comparatively recently, however, specimens have been obtained with the ventral surface exposed, revealing the number and structure of the limbs. A pair of the latter was articulated to the sides of a moderately wide dorsal plate on each segment of the body, and similar limbs were attached to the ventral surface of the head-shield behind the mouth. Each of these limbs was two- branched, the external branch consisting of a slender fringed flagellum possibly respiratory in function, and the inner of a normal jointed ambulatory leg. These two branches arose from a common basal segment or coxa, the inner surface of which was produced into a strong process underlying the external area. In the region of the mouth the basal segments were armed with teeth and subserved the purpose of mastication. As in all Arachnida there is only a single pair of appendages in front of the mouth, and these were one- branched, long and filiform and acted as antennae. Under the pygidium or caudal shield the appendages were much shortened, and their main branch consisted of broader and flatter segments than those of the preceding limbs. Such was the structure of the appendages in Trilobites belonging to the genus Triarthrus; but considering the great structural differ- ences that obtain between Triarthrus and many other genera, it would be rash to assume that there were not corresponding differ- ences in the structure of the limbs. It must not indeed be assumed that those of the first pair were in all cases antenniform. It is probable that no satisfactory classification of the Trilobites will be proposed until the limbs of most of the genera have been examined. Up to the present time all attempts to arrange the genera in natural and definable groups have failed to meet with general approval ; and this criticism must be extended to Beecher's subdivision of the class into three orders, named Hypoparia, Proparia and Opisthoparia, based upon the form and position of a groove, the so-called genal suture, which marks the lateral portion of the head-shield. In the majority of Trilobites this groove passes backwards from the anterior or anterolateral edge of this plate to its posterior or ppstero-lateral border, dividing it into an inner portion continuous with the flabellum and fused tergal regions, and an outer portion bearing the eye. Those genera, like Paradoxides, Olenus, Asaphus, Phillipsia and others, in which this groove cuts the posterior edge of the head-shield on the inner side of its angle are referred to the Opisthoparia; those, like Dalman- ites and Phacops, in which it cuts the lateral border in front of the posterior angle, belong to the Proparia. But in certain genera, like Conocoryphe, Calymmene and Triarthrus, it cuts the margin of the head-shield so close to the posterior angle that the distinction between the two groups practically breaks down. To the Hypoparia belongs a comparatively small number of genera, like Trinucleus and Aquastus, in which this groove or genal suture is beneath the margin of the head-shield and does not appear upon its upper surface. In external form Trilobites are not unlike Isopod Crustaceans, especially the terrestrial species commonly called " woodlice "; and until the nature of their appendages was known, it was thought by some authorities that the two groups might be re- lated. Like the woodlice they were capable of rolling themselves up into a ball, many specimens having been found fossilized in this state, with the pygidium pressed tightly against the head-shield. There is very little doubt that they lived at the bottom of the sea, feeding upon worms or other soft marine organisms, crawling slowly about the sandy or muddy bottom and burying themselves beneath its surface when danger threatened. That these animals were widely distributed in former times is proved by their occurrence at the present day in palaeozoic fossiliferous strata both of the northern hemi- sphere and of Australia; and despite the fact that their remains have not been found in rocks of the Mesozoic or Kainozoic epochs, it was conceived to be possible that living specimens might be dredged from the sea-floor during the exploration of the ocean depths undertaken by the " Challenger " expedi- tion. Needless to say this faint hope was not borne out by results. (R. I. P.) TRIM, a market town and the county town of Co. Meath, Ireland, on the upper waters of the Boyne, 30 m. N.W. by W. from Dublin on a branch of the Midland Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 1513. The county buildings are here; monthly fairs are held, and there is considerable trade in corn and flour; but the chief interest of the town lies in its historical associations and remains, enhanced by a beautiful situation. It was the seat of a very early bishopric. A Norman tower, called the Yellow Steeple, is supposed to mark the site of St Patrick's Abbey of St Mary. Two gates remain from the old town walls. King John's Castle (incorrectly so called, as this monarch only resided here on the occasion of a visit) was originally founded by Hugh de Lacy in 1173, but a later date is assignable to the greater part of the magnificent moated building, of which the keep, flanking turrets, drawbridge, portcullis and barbican, still testify to its former strength, which was augmented by its frontage to the river. Other smaller fortified buildings are Talbot's and Scurlogstown Castles; the former erected by Sir John Talbot, lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1415 — afterwards earl of Shrewsbury, the latter dating from 1180. About a mile east of the town, the ruins of the abbey of St Peter and St Paul occupy both banks of the river. These include the transitional- Norman cathedral on the north bank, and a castle, guarding the crossing of the river, on the south, together with a chapel and other remains. North of the town ruins may be seen of a Domini- can friary of the I3th century. The tower of the old parish church dates from 1449. In the annals of Trim many famous names have a place; Humphrey of Gloucester and Henry of Lancaster were imprisoned here by Richard II. before Henry came to the throne; and Richard, duke of York, and father of Edward IV. held court at the castle, where also several Irish parliaments met until the middle of the isth century, and a mint was established in 1469. The residence in a house in Dublingate Street of the famous duke of Wellington is com- memorated by a Corinthian column and statue. Trim is governed by an urban district council. It was incorporated by Edward III., and returned two members to the Irish parliament until the Union in 1800. TRIMMER, JOSHUA (1795-1857), English geologist, was born at North Cray in Kent, on the nth of July 1795. He was son of Joshua Kirby Trimmer of Brentford, and grandson 284 TRIMONTIUM— TRINIDAD of Mrs Sarah Trimmer (1741-1810), authoress of the Story of the Robins (1786). At the age of nineteen he was sent to North Wales to manage a copper-mine for his father; subsequently he was placed in charge of a farm in Middlesex, where he acquired a knowledge of and an interest in soils; in 1825 he became mana- ger (for his father) of slate quarries near Bangor and Carnarvon, and in this district he remained for many years. He discovered the marine shells in the drift of Moel Tryfaen. During the years 1850-1854 he was engaged on the Geological Survey, and surveyed parts of the New Forest in Hampshire. He died in London on the i6th of September 1857. He published memoirs on the Origin of the Soils which cover the Chalk of Kent; On the Geology of Norfolk, as Illustrating the Laws of the Distribution of Soils (1847); and Proposals for a Geological Survey, specially directed to Agricultural Objects (1850); in this respect he was a pioneer in agricultural geology. He was author also of a useful work Practical Geology and Mineralogy (1841). Obituary by J. E. Portlock, in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1858). TRIMONTIUM, the name of a Roman fort at Newstead, near Melrose, Scotland, close under the three Eildon Hills (whence the name trium montium). It was an advanced post of the Romans towards Scotland both about 80 A.D. and after, and again (after an interval of evacuation) from about A.D. 140-180. Excavations during the last four years have yielded finds of almost unique importance. These include the foundations of several successive forts, one above the other, which throw much light on the character of the Roman military post; an unparalleled collection of Roman armour, including ornate helmets, and a good series of coins and datable pottery. The whole illustrate the history of the Roman army and that of Roman Scotland very remarkably and to an extent equalled by no Scottish site as yet explored. See the report published for the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland bytheexcavatorMrJamesCurle. (F. J. H.) TRINCOMALEE, a town and former naval station on the north-east coast of Ceylon, 100 m. N.E. by N. of Kandy. Pop. (1901), 11,295. It is built on the north side of the bay of Trin- comalee, on the neck of a bold peninsula separating the inner from the outer harbour. There is a lighthouse on the extremity of Foul Point at the southern side of the bay, and another on the summit of Round Island. The inner harbour is landlocked, with a safe anchorage and deep water close to the principal wharves; the outer harbour has an area of about 4 sq. m. with a depth of about 70 fathoms. With its magnificent harbour — one of the five or six greatest natural harbours in the world — it used to be the headquarters of the admiral com- manding on the East Indian station, with a garrison of infantry and British artillery. The breadth of the streets and esplanades somewhat atones for the mean appearance of the houses, but the town generally has a gloomy and impoverished aspect. Pearl oysters are found in the lagoon of Tambalagam to the west of the bay. A steamer from Colombo calls weekly with and for passengers and cargo. Average annual rainfall, 62$ in.; average temperature, 81-2° F. Some tobacco, rice, and palm are grown in the district. Attention was directed to the importance of Trincomalee as a naval base in 1896, when a commission of officers recommended its being turned into a modern fortress. The work was com- menced in 1898 and finished in 1904. All the batteries were rebuilt and fitted with modern appliances. The whole area was connected with cable and telephone communication, and armed with the latest type of guns; and the fortress was supposed to be impregnable; but in the following year the station was abandoned, the naval yard closed, and the military garrison withdrawn. A man-of-war is still kept in Trincomalee Harbour, to work the defences. The town was one of the first settlements of the Tamil race in Ceylon, who at a very early;period erected on a height at the extremity of the peninsula, now crowned by Fort Frederick, a temple dedicated to Konatha, or Konasir, named the " temple of a thousand columns." The building was desecrated and destroyed in 1622, when the town was taken by the Portuguese, who made use of the materials for the erection of the fort. The town was successively held by the Dutch (1639), the French (1673), the Dutch (1674), the French (1782), and the Dutch (1783). After a siege of three weeks it surrendered to the British fleet in 1795, and with other Dutch possessions in Ceylon was formally ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. THING, a market town in the Watford parliamentary divi- sion of Hertfordshire, England, 315 m. N.W. by W. from London by the London and North Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4349. It lies on the western slope of the Chil- tern Hills, close to the entrance to a narrow valley which pierces them, and forms one of the highways through them to London, carrying the railway, the Grand Junction Canal, and a main road. The church of St Peter and St Paul shows fine Per- pendicular work, especially in the ornate interior of the nave. Industries include straw-plaiting and the weaving of canvas and silk. The Rothschild Museum, erected in 1889, contains an extensive natural history collection. Living wild animals are also kept in a neighbouring paddock and cages. The road which passes through Tring and along the face of the hills represents the ancient Icknield Way, and there may have been a Romano-British village on the site of Tring. TRINIDAD, the most southerly and, with the exception of Jamaica, the largest of the British West Indian Islands. Pop. (1901), 236,397. It is situated 6 m. E. of the coast of Venezuela, between 10° 3' and 10° 50' N. and 60° 39' and 62° W. Its average length is 48 m., its breadth 35 m. and its area 1754 sq. m. In shape it is almost square, but it throws off two peninsulas westward from its north and south' corners. Corozal Point projecting from its north-western and Icacos Point from its south-western extremity enclose the Gulf of Paria. To the west of Corozal Point lie several islands, of which Chaca- chacare, Huevos Monos and Monos Caspar Grande are the most important. The surface is level or undulating, excepting in the north and south where there are ranges of hills, with eastern and western axes, prolongations of the Venezuelan coast ranges. Of these the northern is the more elevated ridge, its highest point being Tucuche Peak (3100 ft.). The southern hills attain an elevation of 600 ft. A small ridge runs east to west by south through the centre of the island, from Manzanilla Point to San Fernando, having an isolated elevation in Mt Tamana (1028). The hills of the northern and southern ranges are furrowed by innumerable ravines, and are clad to their summits with dense forests. There are numerous small streams, none navigable, and all flowing either east or west. In its geology, as well as in its flora and fauna. Trinidad differs little from the mainland, with which it was probably at one time connected. There are four mineral springs and several mud volcanoes, but the two most striking natural featuresare the Maracas Falls, and the Pitch Lake. The Maracas Falls are situated at the head of a valley of the same name, to the north-east of Port of Spain, where the river leaps in a foaming torrent over a sheer wall of rock, 312 ft. high. The Pitch Lake lies some 38 m. by water south-east of the capital, in the ward of La Brea. It is circular in form, about 3 m. in circumference, and 104 acres in extent. Underground forces acting on the pitch cause it to rise in unequal masses, which are rounded off like huge mushrooms, separated from one another by narrow fissures, in which the rainwater collects and forms pools. Near the centre of the lake the pitch is always soft and can be observed bubbling up in a liquid state. When the sun is hot the lightest footfall leaves an impression and the pitch emits an unplea- sant odour. The soil of the surrounding district is charged with asphalt, but is very fertile, while the road to the neighbouring port of La Brea, running on a bed of asphalt, moves slowly towards the sea like a glacier The lake is worked by a company which exports the asphalt to the United States; paying royalty to the local govern- ment on every ton exported. The mountain range which runs along the north coast is formed of clay-slates, micaceous and talcose schists, and crystalline and compact limestones, constituting the group called the Caribbean series, the age of which is unknown. The rest of the island is composed of Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary strata. The Cretaceous beds rise to the surface in the centre and are flanked to north and south by the later deposits. Owing to the rarity of satisfactory sections the relations of the various divisions of the Tertiary formation are still somewhat obscure; but they are grouped by J. B. Harrison into (i) Nariva and San Fernando beds, = Eocene TRINIDAD 285 and Oligqcene; (2) Naparima marls = Miocene and (3) Moruga series = Pliocene and Pleistocene. The Naparima marls consist of a lower division containing Globigerina and an upper division with Radiolaria and diatoms and are clearly of deep-sea origin. The bitumen of the Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits appears to have been formed by the decomposition of vegetable matter. Salses or mud volcanoes occur upon the island, but there is no evidence of true volcanic action in Tertiary or recent times, except the presence of occasional bands of pumiceous earth in some of the Tertiary deposits, and the pumice in these cases was probably derived from a distance. The presence of oil in large quantities in Trinidad had been sus- pected for many years, and early in the 2Oth century the govern- ment undertook a geological survey to determine the probabilities of an industry. This survey revealed the presence of a series of anticlines at payable depths in the southern division of the island, and experimental borings by three companies at La Brea and Point Fortin in the south-west and Guayaguayare in the south-east proved the presence of oil in large quantities. In 1910 the commercial exploitation of Trinidad oil was being rapidly pushed forward. The soil of the island is exceedingly rich, and well adapted to the growth of tropical products, especially of sugar and cocoa, which are its staples. The planting of new lands is rapidly progressing, the greater part of the unsold crown lands (various blocks of which have been formed into forest or water reserves) being covered with forests, containing a valuable supply of timber. Poisonous and medicinal herbs grow everywhere. Owing to the variety of its resources, Trinidad has suffered less from general depression than the other islands in the British West Indies. It exports cocoa, sugar, rum, molasses, coffee, tobacco, coco-nuts, fruit, timber, dye- woods, balata gum, india-rubber and asphalt. Large quantities of tonga-beans, the produce of the mainland, are cured in bond at Port of Spain. The manufacture of bitters (Angostura and others) is an important industry, as is also the raising of stock. In addition Trinidad has a large carrying trade with the neighbouring republics, and rivals St Thomas (q.v.) as a centre of distribution for British and American merchandise through the West Indies and Venezuela. Lying in the tract of the trade winds and being practically a part of the mainland, Trinidad is immune from the vicissitudes of climate to which the other Antilles are exposed. It is never visited by hurricanes and its seasons are regular, wet from May to January, with a short dry season in October known as the Indian summer and lasting usually about four weeks, and dry from end of January to middle of May. The average annual rainfall is 66-26 in. and the mean temperature is 78-6° F. A volunteer force was established in 1879, and now consists of infantry, garrison artillery and three companies of Light Horse stationed in Port of Spain, San Fernando and St Joseph. Elementary education is given chiefly in the state-aided schools of the different denominations, but there are a number of entirely secular schools managed by the government. The Presbyterian schools are conducted by a Canadian mission. Instruction is free, but in some few schools fees are paid. Agricul- ture is a compulsory subject in all the primary schools. Higher education is provided by the Queen's Royal College, a secular institution, to which the Presbyterian Naparima College and the Roman Catholic St Mary's College are affiliated. Attached to these colleges are four scholarships of the annual value of £150 for four years, tenable at any British university. The religious bodies, both Christian and pagan are exceedingly numerous. The Roman Catholics (with an archbishop at Port of Spain) and the Anglicans, with the bishop of Trinidad at their head, are the more powerful bodies. Of the inhabitants of the island, one-third are East Indians. Immigration from India is conducted under government control, and the prosperity of Trinidad is largely due to the contract labour obtained under this system. Of the rest the upper classes are Creoles of British, French and Spanish blood, while the lower classes are of pure or mixed negro origin, with a few Chinese. English is spoken in the towns and in some of the country districts, but in the north and generally in the cocoa-growing areas a French patois prevails, and in several districts Spanish is still in use. English money is legal tender, as also is the United States gold currency. Accounts are kept in dollars by the general public, but in sterling by the government. There is a complete system of main and local roads constructed or under construction; there are about 90 m. of railways, and practically all the towns of any size can be reached from Port of Spain by rail. Steamers ply daily between Port of Spain and the islands at the northern entrance to the Gulf of Paria and between San Fernando (the southern terminus of the railway) and the south-western ports of the island, while two steamers of the Royal Mail Company under contract connect Port of Spain with the other parts of Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain is also in direct communication with Southampton. The colony (Trinidad and Tobago) is administered by a governor assisted by an executive council and a legislative council of twenty members of whom ten are officials sitting by virtue of office and ten are unofficials nominated by the Crown. Port of Spain, the capital, is situated on the west coast on the shores of the Gulf of Paria. It is considered one of the finest towns in the West Indies, its streets are regular and well shaded, its water supply abundant, and an excellent service of tramways connects the various quarters of the town. It has two cathedrals, a fine block of public buildings containing the principal government departments, the courts of justice and the legislative council chamber, many other large government buildings, a public library, and many good shops, while one of its most beautiful features is its botanical garden, in which the residence of the governor is situated. The harbour is an open roadstead, safe and sheltered, but so shallow that large ships have to He at anchor half a mile from the jetties. It is, never- theless, the place of shipment not only for the produce of the entire island but also for that of the Orinoco region. The popu- lation is about 55,000. The other towns are San Fernando (pop. 7613), also on the Gulf of Paria, about 30 m. south of the capital; and Arima (pop. 4076), an inland town 16 m. by rail east of Port of Spain. Trinidad was discovered by Columbus in 1496. It remained in Spanish possession (although its then capital, San Jose de Oruna, was burned by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595) until 1797, when a British expedition from Martinique caused its capitula- tion. It was finally ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. See F. Eversley, The Trinidad Reviewer (London, 1900); Stark's Guide-book and History of Trinidad (London); the Journal of the Royal Colonial Institute, passim; and for geology, G. P. Wall and J. G. Sawkins, Report on the Geology of Trinidad (London, 1860); J. B. Harrison and A. J. Jukes-Browne, " The Oceanic Deposits of Trinidad " (British West Indies), Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (London, 1899), Iv. 177-189; R. J. L. Guppy, " The Growth of Trini- dad, " Trans. Canadian Inst. (1905), viii. 137-149, with plate. The last paper gives a list of all the more important works and papers on the geology of the island. TRINIDAD, an uninhabited island in the South Atlantic, 680 m. E. of the coast of Espirito Santo, Brazil, in 20° 30' S. 29° 30' W., 4 m. long by 2 broad. It is of volcanic formation, and has springs of fresh water. As a possible coaling and tele- graph station in mid-ocean, it formed a subject of contention between Brazil and Great Britain in 1895. The dispute was settled in favour of Brazil, which claimed on the ground of its discovery by Tristan da Cunha early in the i6th century, while Great Britain relied on its occupation by the astronomer Halley in the name of England in the year 1700. About 30 m. east are the three islets of Martin Vaz so named from the Portuguese mariner who discovered them about 1510. TRINIDAD, a city and the county-seat of Las Animas county, Colorado, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, about 100 m. S. of Pueblo. Pop. (1890) 5523; (1900) 5345 (659 foreign-born); (1910) 10,204. Trinidad is served by the Denver & Rio Grande, the Colorado & Southern, the Colorado & Wyoming, and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railways and by electric railways to the neighbouring coal-mining towns. The city is regularly laid out on a hilly site, on both sides of the Purgatory (or Las Animas) river, near a picturesque canyon and mountain district, including the Stonewall Valley, and at the foot of the Raton Mountains, of which the highest peak, Fisher's (or Raton) Peak (9586 ft.), is 10 m. south of Trinidad. The city has a Carnegie library, a Federal building, an opera house, an amuse- ment park, and the San Rafael hospital, under the charge of the Sisters of Charity. A steam heating plant pipes heat to many shops, offices and residences. Trinidad is in a coal and coke and stock-raising region, and alfalfa, frijole and sugar beets are produced in large quantities in the surrounding region, much of which is irrigated. Dry farming has been successfully carried on at an experiment farm, established in 1906, 12 m. north of the city. Trinidad has railway shops, foundry and machine shops, and coking ovens, ships large quantities of coal, has a wool- scouring mill, and various manufactures. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Trinidad was incorporated as a town in 1876, and in 1879 became a city of the second class. TRINIDAD, a town near the southern coast of Cuba, in Santa Clara Province, about 45 m. south-east of Cienfuegos, and 3 m. from its seaport, Casilda, which lies due south. 286 TRINITARIANS— TRINODA NECESSITAS Pop. (1907), 11,197. There is a small local railway, not con- nected (in 1909) with the central trunk line of the island. The city lies on the slope of La Vigia hill (900 ft.) amid higher moun- tains, and on the banks of the Jayoba (San Juan) river. The streets are narrow, broken and tortuous, and the general aspect of the town is medieval. There are some attractive buildings and a very fine market square. The fine scenery in the neighbourhood, and the climate, which is possibly the healthiest in Cuba, make the place a favourite resort for natives and foreigners. Casilda (pop. in 1907, 1246) has a land- locked, shallow harbour; but Masio Bay, a trifle farther distant, accommodates larger craft; and there are excellent deep-water anchorages among the quays off the coast. The Manati river is navigable for about 7 m. inland, and is used as an outlet for sugar and molasses crops. These and honey are the chief exports; tobacco and various vegetables and fruits are of minor importance. Trinidad is one of the seven original cities of Cuba established by Diego Velasquez. It was founded in 1514 on the coast, but after being attacked by pirates was removed inland. It was thrice sacked by English buccaneers — in 1642, 1654 and 1702; and in the following years, up to and for a time after the peace of Utrecht (1713), it maintained ships and soldiers. Indeed, throughout the first half of the i8th century it was on a continuous war footing against English corsairs, making reprisals on British ships and thriving at the same time on a large contraband trade with Jamaica and other foreign colonies. In 1818 Casilda was opened to legal commerce under the national and foreign flags. TRINITARIANS, a religious order founded in 1198 by St John of Matha and St Felix of Valois, for the liberation of Christian prisoners and slaves from captivity under the Moors and Saracens. The two founders went to Rome and there obtained the approbation of Innocent III., 1198. The rule was the Augustinian, supplemented by regulations of an austere character. The habit was white, with a red and blue cross on the breast. The Trinitarians are canons regular, but in England they were often spoken of as friars. The first monastery and head house of the order was at Cerfroy near Soissons. Among the earliest recruits were some Englishmen, and the first to go on the special mission of the order were two Englishmen, who in 1200 went to Morocco and returned thence to France with 186 liberated Christian captives. This success excited great enthusiasm and led to the diffusion of the order all over Western Christendom. At the beginning of the i8th century there were still 250 houses, and it is stated that there had been 800; this, however, includes 43 in England, where Dugdale says he could find traces only of a dozen: so that the high figures are probably apocryphal. The first house in England was at Mottenden, in Kent, founded in 1224. The ordinary method of freeing captives was by paying their ransom and for this purpose vast sums of money were collected by the Trinitarians; but they were called upon, if other means failed, to offer themselves in exchange for Christian captives. Many thousands were liberated by their efforts. In the I7th century a reform called the Barefooted Trinitarians was initiated, which became a distinct order and is the only one that survives. There are now less than 500 members. Their headquarters are at San Crisogono in Rome. They devote themselves to the ransoming of negro slaves, especially children, and a great district in Somaliland has been since 1904 entrusted to them as a field for missionary work. There were Trinitarian nuns and a Third Order. The chief modern book on the Trinitarians is Deslandres, L'Ordre franc,ais des Trinitaires (2 yols. 1903). Sufficient information will be found in Helyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1714), vol. ii. chs. 45-50; and in Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), ii. §57- (E. C. B.) TRINITY HOUSE, CORPORATION OF, an association of English mariners which originally had its headquarters at Dept- ford in Kent. In its first charter, received from Henry VIII. in 1514, it was described as the "guild or fraternity of the most glorious and undividable Trinity of St Clement." The first master appointed was the founder of the corporation, Sir Thomas Spert, comptroller of the navy to the king, and commander of the " Harry Grace de Dieu." Deptford having been made a royal dockyard by Henry VIII., and being the station where outgoing ships were supplied with pilots, the corporation rapidly developed its influence and usefulness. By Henry VIII. it was entrusted with the direction of the new naval dockyard. From Elizabeth, who conferred on it a grant of arms in 1573, it received authority to erect beacons and other marks for the guidance of navigators along the coasts of England. In 1604 a select class, was constituted called Elder Brethren, the other members being called Younger Brethren. By the charter of 1609 the sole management of affairs was conferred on the Elder Brethren; the Younger Brethren, however, having a vote in the election of master and wardens. The practical duties of the fraternity are discharged by the acting Elder Brethren, 13 in number, of whom 2 are elected from the royal navy and ii from the merchant service; but as a mark of honour persons of rank and eminence are admitted as honorary Elder Brethren. In 1647 the corporation was dissolved by parliament, but it was reconstructed in 1660, and the charter was re- newed by James II. in 1685. In 1687 a by-law of the Trinity House for the first time required an agreement in writing between the master and crew of a ship. A new hall and alms- houses were erected at Deptford in 1765; but for some time the offices of the corporation had been transferred to London, where for a while they had a house in Water Lane, Lower Thames Street, and in 1795 their headquarters were removed to Trinity House, Tower Hill, built from' the designs of Samuel Wyatt. By an act of 1836 they received powers to purchase from the Crown, as well as from private proprietors, all interests in coast lights. For the maintenance of lights, buoys, &c., they had power to raise money by tolls, the surplus being devoted to the relief of old and indigent mariners or their near relatives. In 1853 the control of the funds collected by the corporation was transferred to the board of trade, and the money over which the brethren were allowed independent control was ultimately reduced to the private income derived from funded and trust property. Their practical duties in erection and maintenance of lighthouses, buoys and beacons remain as important as ever. Similar functions are carried out by the Northern Lighthouse Board and the Irish Lighthouse Board, for Scotland and Ireland respectively. They have also the care and supervision of pilots. Other Trinity Houses established under charter or act of parliament for the appoint- ment and control of pilots are at Hull and Newcastle. The Elder Brethren of Trinity Masters also act as nautical assessors in the high court of admiralty. The corporation has a large wharf and repair shop at the mouth of the river Lea, where most of the work in connexion with buoying the Thames is carried out. See W. H. Mayo, Trinity House, London, Past and Present (London, 1905) ; C. R. B. Barrett, The Trinity House of Deptford Strand (1893). TRINITY SUNDAY, the Sunday next after Whitsunday. A festival in honour of the Trinity had been celebrated locally at various dates before Pope John XXII. in 1334 ordered its general observance on the octave of Whitsunday. According to Gervase of Canterbury, it had been introduced into England by Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1162. It has, however, never been reckoned among the great festivals of the Church. From Trinity Sunday onwards all Sundays until the close of the ecclesiastical year are reckoned as " after Trinity." In the Roman Church these Sundays are also reckoned as " after Pentecost." In the latter case they are described as dominicae trinitatis, not to be confused with dominicae post trinitalis; e.g. Dominica sexta post trinitatis is the same as Dominica seplima trinitalis. TRINODA NECESSITAS, the name used by modern historians to describe the threefold obligation of serving in the host (fyrd), repairing and constructing bridges (bryc-geweorc), and the construction and maintenance of fortresses (burhbot), to TRINOVANTES— TRIPHENYLMETHANE 287 which all freeholders were subject in Anglo-Saxon times. The obligations are usually mentioned in charters as the sole excep- tions to grants of immunities; sometimes, however, a fourth obli- gation (singulare praetium contra alium) is reserved, as in the charter granted by Wiglaf of Mercia on the 28th of December 831 (Cod. dip. i. 294). Ceolwulf's charter of 822 to Arch- bishop Wilfred is remarkable, as the military service is there restricted to expeditiones contra paganos ostes (ibid. i. 272). The threefold obligation is first mentioned in a Latin charter (expeditione pontis arcisue constructione) of doubtful authen- ticity, which professes to have been granted by Eadbald of Kent in A.D. 616 (Cod. dip. v. 2), but it is not until the 8th century that it appears in documents which are generally admitted to be genuine. Although there were correspond- ing obligations in the Prankish Empire which were called by Charles the Bald (antiquam et aliarum gentium consuetudinem) , Stubbs held that the arguments which refer them to a Roman origin want both congruity and continuity. The phrase " trinoda necessitas " is not to be found in the Anglo- Saxon laws and charters; and Selden was probably the first historian of eminence who used it. " These three exceptions," he says, " are noted by the term of a three-knotted necessity in an old charter wherein King Cedwalla granted to Wilfrid, the first bishop of Shelsey in Sussex, the village of Paganham." This charter is an nth-century copy of a lost original, but the words to which Selden referred are plainly written as trimoda necessitas not trinodanecessitas. Du Cange gives two examples of the word trimoda in medieval Latin, in which language it meant "triple"; but he cites no medieval example of trinoda; and in classical Latin the form is unknown, while trinodis (ter-nodus, " triple-knotted ") occurs only rarely (Ovid. Her. iv. 115; Fast. i. 575). See Du Cange, Glossarium ; W. Stubbs, The Constitutional History of England, i. 86, 87; J. M. Kemble, Codex anglo-saxonicus, passim; Selden, English Janus (London, 1682), p. 43; Walter de Gray Birch, Cartttlarium saxonicum, passim; Facsimiles of Ancient Charters in the British Museum, pt. iv. Cotton MS. Augustus, ii. 86. (G. J. T.) TRINOVANTES (commonly Trinobanles), a powerful British tribe about 50 B.C.-A.D. 50 dwelling north and north-east of London, rivals and neighbours of the Catuvellauni. When Caesar invaded Britain 54 B.C. they joined him against their domestic rivals and it is possible (though not certain) that half a century after Caesar's departure they succumbed to them. Certainly they were conquered by Rome in A.D. 43 and joined in Boadicea's revolt in 61. In the tribal division of Roman Britain given by Ptolemy their land included Camulo- dunum (Colchester), but nothing more is known of them. But their name plays a part in medieval legends and romances. There it was interpreted as Troy Novant, the " new Troy," and connected with the names of the Trojans Brutus and Corineus who were reputed to have given their names to Britain and Cornwall. (F. J. H.) TRIOLET, one of the fixed forms of verse invented in medieval France, and preserved in the practice of many modern litera- tures. It consists of eight short lines on two rhymes, arranged abaaabab, and in French usually begins on the masculine rhyme. The first line reappears as the fourth line, and the seventh and eighth lines repeat the opening couplet; the first line, therefore, is repeated three times, and hence the name. No more typical specimen of the triolet could be found than the following, by Jacques Ranchin (c. 1690): — " Le premier jour du mois de mai Fut le plus heureux de ma vie : Le beau dessein que je formais, Le premier jour du mois de mai ! Je vous vis et je vous aimais. Si ce dessein vous plut, Sylvie, Le premier jour du mois de mai Fut le plus heureux de ma vie." This poem was styled by Menage " the king of triolets." ' The great art of the triolet consists in using the refrain-line with such naturalness and ease that it should seem inevitable, and yet in each repetition slightly altering its meaning, or at least its relation to the rest of the poem. The triolet seems to have been invented in the i3th century. The earliest example known occurs in the Cleomades of Adenez-le-Roi (1258-1297). The medieval triolet was usually written in lines of ten syllables, and the lightness of touch 'in the modern speci- mens was unknown to these perfectly serious examples. One of the best-known is that of Froissart, " Mon cceur s'ebat en odorant la rose." The rules are laid down in the Art el Science de Rhethorique (1493) of Henry de Croi, who quotes a triolet written in words of one syllable. According to Sarrasin, who introduces the triolet as a mourner in his Pompe funebre de Voiture, it was that writer who " remis en vogue " the ancient precise forms of verse, " par ses balades, ses trio- lets et ses rondeaux, qui par sa mort (1648) retournaient dans leur ancien decri." Boileau threw scorn upon the deli- cate art of these pieces, and mocked the memory of Clement Marot because he " tourna des triolets," but Marmontel recognized the neatness and charm of the form. They continued to be written in France, but not by poets of much pretension, until the middle of the I9th century, when there was a great revival of their use. The earliest triolets in English are those of a devotional nature composed in 1651 by Patrick Carey, a Benedictine monk at Douai, where he probably had become acquainted with what Voiture had made a fashionable French pastime. In modern times, the triolet was re-introduced into English by Robert Bridges, in 1873, with his — " When first we met, we did not guess That Love would prove so hard a master; Of more than common friendliness When first we met we did not guess. Who could foretell the sore distress, This irretrievable disaster, When first we met? — we did not guess That Love would prove so hard a master." Since then the triolet has been cultivated very widely in English, most successfully by Austin Dobson, whose " Rose kissed me to-day," " I intended an Ode " and " In the School of Coquettes " are masterpieces of ingenuity and easy grace. In later French literature, triolets are innumerable; perhaps the most graceful cycle of them is " Les Prunes," attached by Alphonse Daudet to his Les Amoureuses in 1858; and there are delightful examples by Theodore de Banville. In Germany the triolet has attracted much attention. Those which had been written before his day were collected by Friedrich Rass- mann, in 1815 and 1817. But as early as 1795 an anthology of triolets had been published at Halberstadt, and another at Brunswick in 1796. Rassmann distinguished three species of triolet, the legitimate form (which has been described above), the loose triolet, which only approximately abides by the rules as to number of rhymes and lines, and single- strophe poems which more or less accidentally approach the true triolet in character. The true triolet was employed by W. Schlegel, Hagedorn, Riickert, Platen and other romantic poets of the early igth century. In many languages the triolet has come into very frequent use to give point and brightness to a brief stroke of satire; the French newspapers are full of examples of this. The triolet always, or at least since medieval times, has laboured under a suspicion of frivolity, and Rivarol, in 1788, found no more cutting thing to say of Conjon de Bayeux than that he was " si recherche pour le triolet." But in the hands of a genuine poet who desires to record and to repeat a mood of graceful reverie or pathetic humour, the triolet possesses a very delicate charm. See Friedrich Rassmann, Sammlung triolettischer Spiele (Leipzig, 1817). (E. G.) TRIPHENYLMETHANE, (C6H6)3CH, a hydrocarbon, impor- tant as being the parent substance of several series of exceedingly valuable dyestuffs, e.g. rosanilines and malachite greens derived from aminotriphenylmethanes, and aurins and phthaleins de- rived from oxytriphenylmethanes. It is obtained by condensing benzal chloride with mercury diphenyl (Kekule and Fran- chimont, Ber., 1872, 5, p. 907); from benzal chloride or benzo- trichloride and zinc dust or aluminium chloride; from chloroform or carbon tetrachloride and benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride; and deamidating di- and tri-aminotriphenylmethane TRIPOD— TRIPOLI with nitrous acid and alcohol (0. and E. Fischer, Ann., 1881, 206, p. 152). The last reaction is most important, for it established the connexion between this hydrocarbon and the rosanilines. Tri- phenylmethane is a white crystalline solid, melting at 92° and boiling at 358°. It separates from benzene and thiophene with one molecule of the " solvent of crystallization." On oxidation it gives triphenylcarbinol, (C6H6)3C-OH, and reduction with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus gives benzene and toluene. It combines with potassium to give (CeEU^CK, which with carbon dioxide gives potassium triphenylacetate, (CsHs^C-CC^K. Fuming nitric acid gives a paratrinitro substitution derivative which on reduction gives paraleucaniline; the salt of the carbinol formed on oxidizing this substance is the valuable dye rosaniline. Considerable interest is attached to the remarkable series of hydrocarbons obtained by Gomberg (Ber., iqoo, 33, p. 3150, et seq.) by acting on triphenylraethane chloride (from triphenylmethane carbinol and phosphorus pentachloride, or from carbon tetra- chloride and benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride) and its hpmologues with zinc, silver or mercury. Triphenylmethane chloride yields triphenylmethyl ; ditolylphenylmethyl and tritolyl- methyl have also been prepared. They behave as unsaturated compounds, combining with oxygen to form peroxides and with the halogens to form triarylmethane halides. Triphenylmethyl also combines with ethers and esters, but the compounds so formed are unsaturated. In the solid state triphenyl is colourless, crystal- line and bimolecular. It was thought that it might be identical with hexaphenylethane, but the supposed synthesis of this sub- stance by Ullmann and Borsum (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 2877) appeared to disprove this, although it showed that triphenylmethyl readily isomerized into their product, under the influence of catalysts. A.E. Tschitschibabin (Ber., 1908, 41, p. 2421), however, has shown that Ullmann and Borsum's preparation was para-benzhydrol- tetraphenylmethane (CeHs)aCH-C«Hi-C(C«H6)i; and the view that solid triphenylmethyl is hexaphenylethane has much in its favour. Another remarkable fact is that these substances yield coloured solutions in organic solvents; triphenylmethyl gives a yellow solu- tion, whilst ditolylphenyl and tritolylmethyls give orange solutions which on warming turn to a violet and to a magenta, the changes being reversed on cooling. Several views have been published to explain this fact. A summary is given by Tschitschibabin (Journ. prak. Chem., 1907 (ii.), 74, p. 340). It appears probable that the solutions contain a quinonoid modification (see Gomberg and Cone, Ann., 1909, 370, p. 142). TRIPOD (Gr. Tptjrous, Lat. Iripus), in classical antiquities, any " three-footed " utensil or article of furniture. The name is specially applied to the following: (i) A seat or table with three legs. (2) A stand for holding the caldron used for boiling water or cooking meat; when caldron and stand were made in one piece, the name was given to the complete ap- paratus. (3) A sacrificial tripod, or altar, the most famous of which was the Delphic tripod, on which the Pythian priestess took her seat to deliver the oracles of the god, the seat being formed by a circular slab on the top, on which a branch of laurel was deposited when it was unoccupied by the priestess. Another well-known tripod was the " Plataean," made from a tenth part of the spoils taken from the Persian army after the battle of Plataea. This consisted of a golden basin, sup- ported by a bronze serpent with three heads (or three serpents intertwined), with a list of the states that had taken part in the war inscribed on the coils of the serpent. The golden bowl was carried off by the Phocians during the Sacred War; the stand was removed by the emperor Constantino to Con- stantinople, where it is still to be seen in the Atmeidan (hippo- drome), but in a damaged condition, the heads of the serpents having disappeared. The inscription, however, has been almost entirely restored (see Frazer on Pausanias, v. 299 seq.). Such tripods were usually of bronze and had three " ears " (rings which served as handles). They also frequently had a central upright as support in addition to the three legs. Tripods are frequently mentioned in Homer as prizes in athletic games and as complimentary gifts, and in later times, highly decorated and bearing inscriptions, they served the same purpose. They were also used as dedicatory offerings to the gods, and in the dramatic contests at the Dionysia the victorious choregus (a wealthy citizen who bore the expense of equipping and training the chorus) received a crown and a tripod, which he either dedicated to some god or set upon the top of a marble structure erected in the form of a small circular temple in a street in Athens, called the " street of tripods," from the large number of memorials of this kind. One of these, the " monument of Lysicrates," erected by him to commemorate his victory in a dramatic contest in 335 B.C. is still in existence (see Frazer, ii. 207). See C. O. Muller, De tripode delphico (1820); F. Wieseler, Ueber den delphischen Dreifuss (1871); E. Reisch, Griechische Weih- geschenke (1890), and his article " Dreifuss " in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie der classischen Alteriumsunssenschaft, v. pt. 2. (1905). TRIPOLI, a Turkish vilayet (regency) of North Africa. It is bounded N. by the Mediterranean (between 11° 40' and 25° 12' E.) and has a coast-line of over noo m. Tripoli comprises at least five distinct regions — Tripoli proper, the Barca plateau (Cyrenaica), the Aujila oases, Fezzan (q.v.) and the oases of Ghadames and Ghat — which with the inter- vening sandy and stony wastes occupy the space between Tunisia and Egypt, extend from the Mediterranean south- wards to the Tropic of Cancer, and have a collective area of about 400,000 sq. m., with a population estimated at from 800,000 to 1,300,000. Towards the south and east the frontiers are undefined. But on the west side the conventional line laid down by agreement with France in 1886 was more accurately determined in 1892, when the terminal point on the Mediter- ranean was shifted from Borj-el-Biban to Ras Ajir, 18 m. to the south-east, in 33° 12' N. 11° 40' E. From this point the line passes along the Wad Magla and across the Erg (sand) dunes in such a way as to leave Ghadames to Turkey. In consequence of frontier collisions the boundary as far as Ghadames was precisely defined in 1910. South of that point the rival claims of France and Turkey remained in dispute. For some distance east of Tunisia the seaboard is low and sandy, and is often regarded as a part of the Sahara, which, however, begins only some 80 m. farther south, beyond the Jebels Nefusi, Yefren and Ghurian (Gharian). The " Jebel," as this system is locally called, terminates eastwards in the Tarhona heights of the Horns (Khoms) coast district, has a mean altitude of about 2000 ft. and culminates in the Takut (Tekuk) volcano (2800 ft.) nearly due south of the capital. It is not a true mountain range, but rather the steep scarp of the Saharan plateau, which encloses southwards the Jefara coast plains, and probably represents the original coast-line. The Ghurian section is scored in places by the beds of intermittent coast streams, and on its lower slopes is clothed with a rich sub-tropical vegetation. South of these escarpments, the vast Hammada el-Homra, the " Red Hammada," an interminable stony table-land covering some 40,000 sq. m., occupies the whole space between Tripoli proper and the Fezzan depression. The now uninhabited and water- less Hammada formerly drained through several large rivers, such as the Wadis Targelat (Uani, Kseia), Terrgurt, Sofejin, Zemzem and Bel, north-eastwards to the Gulf of Sidra (Syrtis major). Southwards the table-land is skirted by the Jebel Welad Hassan, the Jebel es-Suda, the Jebel Morai-Yeh, and other detached ranges, which have a normal west to east trend in the direction of the Aujila oases, rising a little above ihe level of the plateau, but falling precipitously towards Fezzan. The Jebel es-Suda (Black Mountains), most conspicuous of these ranges, with a mean altitude of 2800 ft., takes its name from the blackened aspect of its limestone and sandstone rocks, which have been subjected to volcanic action, giving them the appearance of basalt. Eastwards this range ramifies into the two crescent-shaped chains of the Haruj el-Aswad and Haruj el-Abiad ("Black" and "White" Haruj), which rise some 700 ft. above the Red Hammada, and enclose an extensive Cretaceous plateau. Rocks of Cretaceous age cover, indeed, an immense area of the northern part of the vilayet, recent eruptive rocks being represented by the lavas and ashes of the craters of Takut and Manterus. The later palaeozoic formations occur in Fezzan. Beyond the barren Ghadama district in the north of the Hammada the dreary aspect of the wilderness is broken by TRIPOLI 289 several tracts under grass, corn and date-palms, and containing some permanent reservoirs in the beds of the Wadis Sofejin and Zemzem, where the plateau falls from a mean height of 2000 ft. to looo and 530 ft. respectively. But it again rises rapidly southwards to a somewhat uniform level of 1600 or 1700 ft., and here the main caravan route from Tripoli to Murzuk and Lake Chad traverses for a distance of fully 130 m. a monotonous region of sandstone, underlying clays, marls, gypsum and fossiliferous silicious deposits. In its northern section this part of the Hammada, as it is locally called in a pre-eminent sense, is relieved by a few patches of herbage, scrub and brushwood, with a little water left in the rocky cavities by the heavy showers which occasionally fall. North-eastwards the Neddik pass over the Jebel Moral- Yeh leads down to the remarkable chain of low-lying oases, which, from the chief member of the group, is commonly Aai"a called the Aujila depression. Collectively the oases "' present - the aspect of a long winding valley, which is enclosed on the north side by the southern escarpments of the Barca plateau, expands at intervals into patches of perenniaj verdure and shallow saline basins, and extends from the Wadi el-Fareg, near the Gulf of Sidra, through the Bin Rassam, Aujila, Jalo, Faredgha, and Siwa oases, to the Natron lakes and the dried-up branch of the Nile delta known as the Bahr bila-Ma (waterless river). The whole region presents the aspect of a silted-up marine inlet, which perhaps in Pliocene times penetrated some 300 m. south-east- wards in the direction of the Nile. Nearly all the fossil shells found in its sands belong to the fauna now living in the Mediterranean, and Siwa is 98 ft. below sea-level. This is true also of its eastern extensions, Sittra (80) and the Birket el-Kerun in the Fayum (141). But Aujila and Jalo stand 130 and 296 ft. respectively above sea- level, so that the idea entertained by the explorer Gerhard Rohlfs of transforming the chain of oases into a marine gulf, and thus converting the Barca plateau into an island or peninsula in the midst of the Mediterranean waters, and in fact flooding the Libyan desert, must share the fate of Colonel Francois Roudaire's equally visionary scheme in respect of the Western Sahara. The Barca plateau, which consists largely of strata of tertiary formation, falls in terraces down to the Aujila depression, and presents an unbroken rampart of steep cliffs towards The Barca t|le Mediterranean, is by far the most favoured region Plateau. Qf tjje vjiayet. Its many natural advantages of climate, soil and vegetation led to the establishment of several Greek colonies, the oldest and most famous of which was that of Cyrene (q.v.), dating from about 630 B.C. From this place the whole region took the name of Cyrenaica (q.v.) and was also known as Pentapolis, from its "five cities" of Cyrene, Appllonia, Arsinoe, Berenice and Barca. The elevated plateau of Cyrenaica, which encloses the Gulf of Sidra on the west, is separated southwards by the Aujila depression from the Libyan desert, and projects northwards far into the Mediterranean, might seem, like the Atlas region in the west, to belong geologically rather to the European than to the African mainland. It has a mean altitude of considerably over 2000 ft., and in the Jebel Akhdar (Green Mountains) attains a height of nearly 3500 ft. East- wards the Barca uplands merge gradually in the less elevated Marmarica plateau, which nowhere rises more than 1800 ft. above sea-level, and disappears altogether in the direction of the Nile delta. The most easterly spot on the coast belonging to Tripoli is the head of the Gulf of Solum; from this point the frontier line separating the regency from the Egyptian dominions runs south so as to leave the Siwa oasis on the Egyptian side of the line. South of the Aujila depression the land rises steadily to a height of nearly 1200 feet in the Kufra oases, which lie between 21° and 24° E., north of the Tropic of Cancer and due east of Fezzan. i Kufra .p^e grol,p consists of five distinct oases in the heart of Oases. tjle Libyan desert — Taizerbo, Zighen, Bu-Zeima, Erbena and Kebabo — which extend for a distance of 200 m. north- west and south-east, and have a collective area of 7000 sq. m. and a population of 6000 or 7000 Arabo-Berber nomads. Good water is ob- tained in abundance from the underground reservoirs, which lie within a few feet of the surface, and support over a million date-palms. Kufra, that is, " Infidels " (in reference to the now extinct pagan Tibu aborigines), is a centre of the Senussite brotherhood, whose zawyo. (convent) at Jof, in Kebabo, ranks in importance with that of Jarabub, their chief station in Cyrenaica. This circumstance, together with the great fertility of the group and its position midway on the caravan route between Cyrenaica and Wadai, imparts excep- tional importance to these oases. Formerly the Turks did not exer- cise authority in Kufra, the influence of the Senussi being paramount. Kufra, moreover, is outside the limits usually assigned to Tripoli. But in 1910 Ottoman troops were in occupation of the oases. Ghat stands 2400 feet above the sea, on the Wadi Aghelad in the Igharghar basin, and consequently belongs, not to the Fezzan „. depression, but to the Saharan plateau. The Aghelad, or " Passage," trends north to the lasawan valley along the east foot of the Tasili plateau, that is, the divide between the waters xxvn. 10 which formerly flowed north to the Mediterranean, west to the Atlantic, and south to the Niger and Chad basins. Ghat, which is skirted eastwards by the Akakus range, is a sandy plain dotted over with clumps or groves of date-palms. In the centre is an open space where is held a great annual fair, and to this, combined with its position on one of the caravan routes across the desert, the oasis all its importance. For several years, at the end of the and beginning of the 2Oth centuries, the only caravan route used from the Niger countries to Tripoli was by way of Ghat, disturbances in Bornu and raids by Tuareg having closed all other routes. There is, in the oasis, a population of perhaps 10,000, nearly all Ihajenen Tuareg, about half of whom live in the town of Ghat (350 m. south of Ghadames and 250 south-west of Murzuk), which appears to be a relatively modern place, successor to Rapsa, a great commercial centre and military station under the Roman Empire. Ghadames, on the contrary, is ancient, being the Cydamus of the Garamantes, the capture of which by L. Cornelius Balbus Minor led to the overthrow of their empire. The oasis, . . which stands on the cretaceous Tinghert plateau 300 m. south-west of Tripoli, and 1200 ft. above the sea, is enclosed by a circular rampart over 3 m. in circumference. The town, which occupies the south-west corner of the enclosure, has a population of about 7000. Owing to its perennial springs and artesian wells, the oasis yields an abundance of dates, figs, apricots and vegetables, besides some wheat, barley and millet. It occupies a highly advan- tageous position at the converging-point of several caravan routes, and has extensive trading relations with the markets of Tripoli, Tunisia and the Sudan. Climate. — The climate of Tripoli is very variable ; cold nights often succeed warm days. The rainfall in the northern regions varies from 5 in. to 15 in. a year — December, January and February being the rainy season. The mean temperature on the coast lands is 68°; it is very much higher in the Hammada, where rain seldom falls. Flora and Fauna. — The flora in the greater part of the regency is Saharan, the date-palm being the characteristic tree. The gum- yielding acacia, the tamarisk, sapan, mastic and pistachio are found m the wadis, and ski (wormwood) grows in clusters on the stony plateaus. In the Barca plateau and in parts of the coast belt the flora is more varied, resembling that of the Mediterranean countries generally. In these regions the laurel, myrtle and other evergreens are fairly common, and the oak, cypress, pine, carob and other trees occur, notably the olive, found also in the oases. Other fruit trees are the almond, fig, pomegranate, quince and apricot. Vines flourish in a few districts. The larger wild animals are scarcely represented in Tripoli. The wild boar is found in Jebel Akhdar, the hyena, fox and jackal in the deserts. The mouflon, gazelle, hares, rabbits and marmots are among the commoner animals. Reptiles include the horned viper and the gecko. The characteristic animal is the camel, found only in the domesticated state. Horses and cattle are bred, but the horses are not numerous; goats and a fat-tailed variety of sheep are kept in large numbers. Birds include the ostrich, vultures, hoopoes, wood pigeons and doves. Bees are numerous and honey forms an article of export. The explorations of Henri Duveyrier, Victor Largeau, Erwin von Bary and H. S. Cowper during the second half of the ipth century showed that Tripoli was not only inhabited lahabi- by primitive man, but was the seat of a flourishing taats. Neolithic culture, comparable to and in many respects resem- bling that of Iberia, Brittany and the British Isles. As in other parts of Mauretania, many now arid and uninhabitable wastes are strewn with monolithic and other remains, which occur in great variety of form and in vast numbers, as many as 10,000, chiefly of the menhir type, having been enumerated in the Mejana steppe alone. All kinds of megalithic structures are found — dolmens and circles like Stonehenge, cairns, under- ground cells excavated in the live rock, barrows topped with huge slabs, cup stones, mounds in the form of step pyramids, and sacrificial altars. Most remarkable are the " Senams," or tri- lithons of the Jebel Ms!d and other districts, some still standing, some in ruins, the purpose of which has not been determined. They occur either singly or in rows, and consist of two square uprights 10 ft. high standing on a common pedestal and supporting a huge transverse beam. In the Terrgurt valley " there had been originally no less than eighteen or twenty megalithic trilithons, in a line, each with its massive altar placed before it " (Cowper). There is reason to believe that the builders of these prehistoric monuments are represented by the Berber people, who still form the substratum, and in some places the bulk, of the in- habitants of Tripoli proper. But even here the Berbers have for the most part been driven to the Ghurian and Tarhona uplands by the Arab nomads, who now occupy the Jefara flats 290 TRIPOLI about the capital, and are in almost exclusive possession of Cyrenaica, Marmarica, and the Aujila oases. In Fezzan the Saharan Berbers (Tinylkum Tuareg) are dominant, but are here largely intermingled with Negro or Negroid intruders from the Sudan. But even in the uplands many of the Berbers have been Arabized, and Cowper describes the people of the Tarbona heights as " pure-bred Arabs." Other early intruders are the Jews, some of whom arrived from Egypt in the time of the Ptolemies, and still lead the life of troglodytes in the lime- stone caves of the Ghurian escarpments. They are also numerous in the large towns, where there are also colonies of Turks, and Maltese, Italian, Cretan and other South European traders and artisans. On the other hand, no trace can be now detected either of the Greeks who colonized Cyrenaica in the ;th century B.C., Tripoli and or °f the Phoenicians who at a still earlier date other founded the three great cities of Oea, Sabrata and Towns. Leptis Magna (q.v.), from which the western region projecting seawards between the two Syrtes took the name of Tripolitana. Later, when Oea, which stood between the two others, was made the capital of the province it was called Tripolis, the " Three Cities," as it were, rolled into one, and this name it has retained since Roman times, being now distinguished from the Tripolis of Syria as West Tripolis, the Tarabulus el-Gharb of the Turks and Arabs. Tripoli (q.v.), the capital of the province, is thus one of the oldest places in the world, and no doubt owes its stability in large measure to its position over against Sicily at the northern terminus of three great historic caravan routes, one of which runs due south to Lake Chad through Fezzan and Bilma, that is, across the narrowest part of the Sahara; another runs south-west through Ghadames and Ghat to Timbuktu and Kano, and the third south by east through Sokna to Wadai and Darfur. East of Tripoli are the small seaports of Horns (Khoms) and Lebda. In Barca the largest town is Bengazi (q.v.) , the ancient Berenice, at the southern extremity of a headland which formerly enclosed a spacious natural haven on the north-east side of the Gulf of Sidra. But the harbour has been partly filled up by the ruins of a large fortress, and is inaccessible to vessels drawing over 6 or 7 ft. East of Bengazi are Merj, the ancient Barca (q.v.), and the exposed roadstead of Derna (q.v.). Marsa-Susa, the ancient Apollonia, lies under the Ras Sem headland, and was the emporium of the neighbouring city of Cyrene (Ain Shahat-Grenna). The Turkish government displayed much activity in this fertile and healthy district in the period 1897- 1903. To it were removed many of the Moslem inhabitants of Crete dissatisfied with the autonomous regime established in that island in 1898. Agriculture and Trade. — Tripoli proper is purely an agricultural and trading country; it possesses no manufactures of importance, nor exploited mineral wealth save salt. The uncertainty of the rain- fall, the apparent increasing poverty of the soil and the heavy taxation of the peasants reduced agriculture at the close of the igth century to a lower point than theretofore recorded. The cultivation of wheat was largely supplanted by that of barley — the staple food of the peasantry, whilst esparto grass, a fibre growing wild in the rural districts within the cereal zone, acquired the chief place among local exports. The importation of foreign flour, begun in 1881, assumed large dimensions in providing for the deficiencies occasioned by ever-recurring failures of the wheat and barley harvests. Besides wheat and barley the principal products of the country are esparto grass, olives, saffron, figs and dates — these last being perhaps the finest in North Africa. Fruit also is abundant in certain parts, including oranges and lemons, and so are many kinds of vegetables. There is a lucrative sponge fishery, a monopoly of Greek traders, over 100 barques being engaged in the industry. Trade, before the suppression of the oversea slave traffic, was largely in negroes, brought across the Sahara with other Sudan produce, for the Turkish market. It now consists chiefly in the export of esparto, barley in years of plenty, eggs, cattle, sponges, mats and henna, all articles of local production, and, from Central Africa, ivory, ostrich feathers, tanned goat-skins and a little gold dust. The cattle go mainly to Malta, the esparto, barley, eggs and ivory mostly to England, the feathers to Paris and London, and the skins to Nejfc York. The henna and mats are sent to Turkey, Egypt, Tunis and Malta. The exports of esparto grass vary with the success or failure of the cereal crops; thus in 1903 the value of barley exported was £70,800, and of esparto £76,400. In 1904 the exports of barley fell to £3,200 and those of esparto rose to £126,000. From Bengazi hundreds of thousands of sheep are exported to Egypt, Malta and Crete. With Egypt there is an overland as well as sea trade. The caravan trade, which in the forty years ending 1901 had an annual average value of £114,000, is so costly that only articles yielding considerable profit can be carried; the desert trade is, moreover, being deflected to the Niger and the Guinea coast. Tripoli imports, chiefly, food-stuffs (flour, rice, sugar, tea) cotton goods, tobacco, metals and hardware About two-thirds of the imports are from Great Britain. Exclusive of Bengazi the value of trade, imports and exports combined, was for the last thirty years of the igth century some £770,000 per annum. The trade of Bengazi and Derna, chiefly with Great Britain and Malta, largely increased at the beginning of the 2Oth century. For the five years 1902-1906 the average annual value of imports was £214,000, of exports £455,700. From these ports the chief exports are sheep and goats, oxen, wool and skins, barley and camels — the last sent overland to Alexandria. Food-stuffs, tea, olive oil and cotton goods are the chief imports. There is an active contraband trade with Greece and Malta in firearms and gunpowder. Barley is the chief food of the people both in Tripoli proper and in Bengazi. The nomad Arabs possess thousands of camels, cattle and sheep. They weave rough woollen garments, make reed matting, carpets of alternative strips of woven goat and woven camel hair, and manufacture butter. Olive and date-palm trees are cultivated in large numbers. Tea has become a favourite beverage both in the regency and with the Sudanese. Tea, sugar and cottons form the staple articles of exchange with the Sudanese for their produce. Communications. — The town of Tripoli is connected by telegraph cable with Malta, and telegraph lines run inland from that town to Murzuk, Bengazi, Derna and other towns in the regency, and to Gabes in Tunisia. A wireless telegraphic apparatus connects Derna and Rhodes. There are regular sailings between Malta and Tripoli and between Tunis and Tripoli. Italian vessels also call regularly at Bengazi and Derna. The shipping trade is mostly in the hands of Italians — who have more than half the total tonnage — and French, British shipping coming third. Inland communication is almost entirely by camel caravans. , Administration. — Thewi/j or governor-general, who exercises chief authority both civil and military, is appointed by the sultan of Turkey and holds office at his majesty's pleasure. The system of government, executive and judicial, resembles that of other Turkish provinces, but with some modifications in the direction of local autonomy. Bengazi or Barca is a separate sub-province with an administration responsible direct to Constantinople. Revenue is derived chiefly from customs, tithes and a poll tax called verghi. Owing to expenditure on the army, some 10,000 Turkish troops being stationed in the regency, the receipts from revenue are generally below the cost of administration. The receipts in the period 1900- 1905 averaged about £150,000 a year and the expenditure £170,000, of which amount some £100,000 was on military requirements. History. — The early history of Cyrenaica and Tripoli is distinct though similar. Cyrenaica was first colonized by Greeks, afterwards it fell under the sway of the Ptolemies and from them passed to the Romans (see CYRENAICA). Tripoli, on the other hand, was originally a Phoenician colony (vide ante, Towns). Later it was dependent on Carthage and followed its fortunes. From the Romans the province received its present name. In the sth century both Tripoli and Cyrenaica were conquered by the Vandals, whose power was destroyed by the Byzantine general Belisarius in the following century. In the middle of the 7th century the whole country was overrun by the Arabs, and Christianity gave place to Islam. From this period, for many centuries, Tripoli was subject to the successive rulers of Tunisia. It was pillaged in 1146 by the Normans of Sicily. In 1321 the Beni Ammar established an independent dynasty, which lasted with an interval (1354-1369), during which two sovereigns of the Beni Mekki reigned, until 1401 when Tripoli was reconquered by the Tunisians. In 1510 Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain took Tripoli, and in 1528 it was given to the knights of St John, who were expelled in 1553 by the Turkish corsairs Dragut and Sinan. Dragut, who afterwards fell in Malta, lies buried in a much venerated fcubba close to one of the mosques. After his decease the connexion between Tripoli and Constantinople seems to have been con- siderably weakened. But the Tripolitan pirates soon became the terror and scourge of the Mediterranean; half the states of Europe seem at one time or other to have sent their fleets to bombard the capital. In 1714 Ahmed Pasha Caramanli achieved practical independence and he and his descendants TRIPOLI 291 governed Tripoli as a regency, the claims of the Porte being recognized by the payment of tribute, or " presents." In the early part of the igth century the regency, owing to its piratical practices, was twice involved in war with the United States. In May 1801 the pasha demanded from America an increase in the tribute ($83,000) which the government of that country had paid since 1796 for the protection of their com- merce from piracy. The demand was refused and a naval force was sent from America to blockade Tripoli. The war dragged on for four years, the Americans in 1803 losing the frigate " Philadelphia," the commander (Captain William Bainbridge) and the whole crew being made prisoners. The most picturesque incident in the war was the expedition under- taken by William Eaton (g.v.), with the object of replacing upon the Tripolitan throne an exiled pasha, elder brother of the reigning sovereign, who had promised to accede to all the wishes of the United States. Eaton at the head of a motley assembly of 500 men marched across the desert from Alexandria, and with the aid of American ships succeeded in capturing Derna. Soon afterwards (June 3, 1805) peace was con- cluded, the reigning pasha relinquishing his demands but receiving $60,000 (about £12,000) as ransom for the "Phila- delphia " prisoners. In 1815, in consequence of further out- rages, Captains Bainbridge and Stephen Decatur, at the head of an American squadron, again visited Tripoli and forced the pasha to comply with the demands of America. In 1835 the Turks took advantage of a civil war to reassert their direct authority, and since that date Tripoli has been an integral part of the Ottoman Empire, rebellions in 1842 and 1844 being unsuccessful. After the occupation of Tunisia by the French (1881) the Turks increased their garrison in Tripoli considerably. After the Anglo-French agreement of 1889 recognizing the central Sahara as within the French sphere, various disputes arose as to the extent of the Tripolitan hinterland, which the French endeavoured to circumscribe (see TUNISIA). The French, on their part, believed that their opponents in Wadai and else- where in the central Sudan received support from the Turks. The khfuan (ikhwdn) or semi-religious semi-political Moslem fraternities are powerful in Tripoli. The most remarkable is that of the Senussites. The explorers Rohlfs, Nachtigal and Duveyrier found their passage barred by Senussite agents. (See SENUSSI.) AUTHORITIES. — Sir R. L. Playfair, Bibliography of the Barbary States, pt. i., " Tripoli and the Cyrenaica " (London, 1892); H. M. de Mathuisieulx, A trovers la Tripolitaine (Paris, 1903) ; Sheik el Hachaichi, Voyage au pays des Senoussia a travers la Tripolitaine (Paris, 1903) ; G. de Martino, Cirene e Cartagine (Bologna, 1908) ; A. Medana, // Vilayet di Tripoli di Barberia nett" anno 1902 (Italian Foreign Office, Rome, 1904) ; G. Rohlfs, Von Tripolis nach Alex- andrien (Bremen, 1871); and Kufra: Reise von Tripolis nach der Oase Kiifra (Leipzig, 1881); M. Bisson, La Tripolitaine et la Tunisie (Paris, 1881); M. Fournel, La Tripolitaine, &c., (Paris, 1887); F. Borsari, Geografia, &c., della Tripolitania, &c. (Naples, 1888); H. S. Cowper, Tlie Hill of lite Graces (London, 1897); " Notes on a Journey in Tripoli," Geographical Journal (February, 1896); and " Further Notes on the Tripoli Hill Range," Geographical Journal (June, 1897) ; P. V. de Regny, " La Tripolitania," in La Rassegna italiana for 1908; F. W. and H. W. Beechey, Proceedings of the Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of Africa from Tripoli Eastwards (London, 1828). Admiral W. H. Smyth's Mediterranean, (London, 1854), contains a description of the coast. The Letters (London, 1819) of Richard Tully, consul at Tripoli from 1783 to 1793. throw a strange and vivid light on Tripolitan life during the 1 8th century. See also the British Foreign Office reports on the trade of Tripoli and Bengazi and consult the bibliography under CYRENAICA. (A.H.K. ; F.R..C.) TRIPOLI (Tarabulus el-Gharb, i.e. Tripoli of the West), capital of the Turkish vilayet of Tripoli, North Africa, situated in 32° 53' 40" N. and 13° n' 32" E. on a promontory stretching out into the Mediterranean and forming a small crescent-shaped bay which shelters the harbour from the north winds. Its crenellated enceinte wall has the form of an irregular pentagon. A line of small ancient forts is supposed to protect one side of the harbour, and the citadel the other. This citadel, dating from the time of the Spanish occupation, now serves as the residence of the governor. The harbour has a depth of water varying from 15 to 24 ft.; steamers drawing 21 ft. can anchor inside, but shoals render the entry difficult. At the quayside the depth of water is from 2 to 5 ft. only. The desert almost touches the western side of the city, while on the east is the verdant oasis of Meshia, where are still to be seen the tombs of the Caramanlian sultanas and the twelve-domed fcubba of Sidi Hamonda. The aspect of the city is picturesque; the houses (many possessing beautiful gardens) rise in terraces from the seashore. The Turkish quarter contains numerous mosques whose minarets and cupolas break the monotony of the flat-roofed and whitewashed houses. The Grand mosque and the Pasha mosque (originally a church built by the Spaniards) both have octagonal minarets. By the harbour are several houses built in European style, but the general aspect of the city is Oriental. Many of the streets are arcaded; the suks or markets are the scene of much animation. Near the port stands a Roman triumphal arch. This arch, quadri- frontal in form, is made entirely of white marble, the blocks being held together with cramps, and is richly embellished with sculpture. It was begun in the reign of the emperor Antoninus, according to a still unmutilated dedicatory inscrip- tion, and finished in that of Marcus Aurelius. In the arch, now partly buried in debris, a cabaret has been installed. A few small manufactures of carpets and silks as well as " Cordova leather " are carried on, but Tripoli is essentially a trading town, being the chief Mediterranean gateway to the Sahara. The population, about 60,000, is very mixed — Berber, Arab, Turk, Jew, Maltese, Italian and Negro. The Maltese inhabitants number about 4000, the Italians 1000 and the Jews 8000. The local trade is almost entirely in the hands of the Jews and Maltese; the shipping in the port is largely Italian. See H. M. de Mathuisieulx, A travers la Tripolitaine (Paris, 1903). TRIPOLI, or TARABULUS (anc. Tripolis), the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the Beirut vilayet of Syria, situated about 2 m. inland from its port, al-Mina. The ancient Phoenician city, which we know only by its Greek name of Tripolis, was the seat in Persian times of the federal council of Sidon, Tyre and Aradus, each of which cities had its separate quarter in the " triple town." In the 2nd and ist centuries B.C., under Seleucid and Roman influences suc- cessively, it struck autonomous coins. These are succeeded by imperial coins ranging from 32 B.C. to A.D. 221. About 450, and again in 550, it was destroyed by earthquake. The Arabs took it in 638 after a prolonged siege, the inhabi- tants withdrawing by sea. Moawiya recruited the population by a colony of Jews and gave it fortifications and a garrison against the naval attacks of the Greeks, who, notwithstanding, retook it for a brief space in the time of Abdalmalik. It was again taken by the Greeks in the war of 966-69 and was besieged by Basil II. in 995, after which date it was held by a garrison in the pay of the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt, who treated the city with favour and maintained in it a trading fleet. At this time, according to the description of Nasir Khosrau, who visited it in 1047, it lay on the peninsula of Al-Mma, bathed on three sides by the sea, and had about 20,000 inhabitants and important industries of sugar and paper-making. Of the great sea-walls and towers there are still imposing remains. From this date till it was taken by the crusaders, after a five years' siege, in 1109, the ruling family was that of 'Ammar, which founded a library of over 100,000 volumes. Under the crusaders Tripoli continued to flourish, exported glass to Venice, and had 4000 looms. In 1289 it was taken and destroyed by the sultan Kola'un of Egypt, and a new city was begun on the present site, which rapidly rose to importance. Its medieval prosperity has obliterated most relics of remoter antiquity. Tripoli had a troubled existence during the period of Ottoman weakness (the i8th and early igth centuries), being frequently in dispute between the pasha of Aleppo and the rebel pashas of Acre. After the Egyptian conquest of Syria it was made the capital of a province in 1834; but in 1840 it reverted to the minor position which it now holds. It is connected by a 292 TRIPOLITSA— TRISTAN carriage road with Horns and by a steam tramway with Beirut, and is the natural outlet of the upper Orontes valley; but its inland trade has been greatly damaged by the Horns-Aleppo railway. From its own district, however, it exports silk, tobacco, oil, soap, sponges, eggs and fruit, and is a prosperous and growing place with a large Christian element in its popu- lation (about 30,000, the port-town included). It is served regularly by the Levantine lines of steamers. (D. G. H.) TRIPOLITSA, officially Tripolis, a town of Greece, capital of the nomarchy of Arcadia, and the seat of an archbishop, situated in a plain over 2,000 ft. above sea-level, 22 m. S.W. of Argos. The name has reference to the three ancient cities of Mantineia, Pallantium and Tegea, of which Tripolitsa is the modern representative. It does not stand on any ancient site. Before the war of independence it was the capital of the Morea and the seat of a pasha, with about 20,000 inhabitants; but in 1821 it was taken and sacked by the insurgents, and in 1825 its ruin was completed by Ibrahim Pasha. The town has since been rebuilt, and contains 10,789 inhabitants (1907). TRIPTOLEMUS, in Greek mythology, the inventor of agri- culture, first priest of Demeter, and founder of the Eleusinian mysteries. His name is probably connected with the " triple ploughing" (rpls, iroXeic), recommended in Hesiod's Works and Days and celebrated at an annual festival. It may be noted that in some traditions he is called the son of Dysaules (possibly identical with diaulos, the " double furrow " traced by the ox), and that, according to the Latin poets (e.g. Virgil, Georgics, i. 19), he is the inventor of the plough.1 Later, as the god of ploughing, he is confounded with Osiris, and on a vase-painting at St Petersburg he is represented leaving Egypt in his dragon-drawn chariot on his journey round the world. According to the best known Attic legend (Apollodorus, i. 5, 2) Triptolemus was the son of Celeus, king of Eleusis, and Metaneira. Demeter, during her search for her daughter Persephone, arrived at Eleusis in the form of an old woman. Here she was hospitably received by Celeus, and out of gratitude would have made his son Demophon immortal by anointing him with ambrosia and destroying his mortal parts by fire; but Metaneira, happening to see what was going on, screamed out and disturbed the goddess. Demophon was burnt to death, and Demeter, to console his parents, took upon herself the care of Triptolemus, instructed him in everything connected with agriculture, and presented him with a wonder- ful chariot, in which he travelled all over the world, spreading the knowledge of the precious art and the blessings of civiliza- tion. In another account (Hyginus, Fab. 147) Triptolemus is the son of Eleusinus, and takes the place of Demophon in the above narrative. Celeus endeavoured to kill him on his return, but Demeter intervened and forced him to surrender his country to Triptolemus, who named it Eleusis after his father and instituted the festival of Demeter called Thes- mophoria. In the Homeric hymn to Demeter, Triptolemus is simply one of the nobles of Eleusis, who was instructed by the goddess in her rites and ceremonies. The Attic legend of Eleusis also represented him as one of the judges of the under- world. His adventures on his world-wide mission formed the subject of a play of the same name by Sophocles. In works of art Triptolemus appears mounted on a chariot (winged or drawn by dragons, symbols of the fruitfulness of the earth), with Demeter and Persephone handing him the implements of agriculture. His attributes were a sceptre of ears of corn, sometimes a drinking-cup, which is being filled by Demeter. His altar and threshing-floor were shown on the Rarian plain near Eleusis; hence he is sometimes called the son of Rarus. See the Homeric hymn to Demeter, 153, 474; Ovid, Metam. v. 642-661; Virgil, Georgirs. i. 19, and Servius ad loc.', Hyginus, Astronom. ii. 14; Dion Halic. i. 12; Preller, Griechische Mythologie (4th ed., 1894). TRIPTYCH (Gr. Tpiirrvxos, three-fold, made in three layers, rpi-, rpeis, three; irrux'7, a fold, irrvcata>, to fold, double over), 1 Other suggested derivations are from rptfiu, ai>X\tiuK (= " triple fighter," see DEMETER). a painting, carving or other decorative design, executed on three compartments or panels, so constructed that the two wings may fold on hinges over the centre-piece; the backs of the wing-pieces are often also painted, carved or otherwise decorated. The subject of the side-pieces are usually appropriate and subsidiary to, that of the centre. The trip- tych is most frequently designed as an altar-piece. An earlier use of the term is for a set of three wooden or ivory writing- tablets, hinged or otherwise fastened together, the central tablet being waxed on both sides for the impression of the stilus or writing implement, the outer tablets only on the inside. The three tablets thus formed a small book. TRISECTRIX, a curve which is a variety of the limacon (q.v.) of Pascal, and named from its property of trisecting an angle. The polar equation is r=i + 2 cos 6 and the form of the curve is shown in the figure. To trisect an angle by means of this curve, ov describe a circle with centre O and radius OE, and let the given angle which is to be trisected be laid off from OE and cut the circle at S; let the chord ES cut the tri- sectrix in J. Then OJ trisects the given angle. TRISTAN, or TRISTRAM, one of the most famous heroes of medieval romance. In 'the earlier versions of his story he is the son of Rivalin, a prince of North West Britain, and Blancheflor, sister to King Mark of Cornwall. Rivalin is .killed in battle, and Blancheflor, after giving birth to a son, dies of grief. The boy is brought up as his own by Roald, or Rual, seneschal of the kingdom, who has him carefully trained in all chivalric and courtly arts. With the possible exception of Horn, Tristan is by far the most accomplished hero in the whole range of knightly romance; a finished musician, linguist and chess-player, no one can rival him in more knightly arts, in horsemanship or fencing. He has, besides, the whole science of " venerie " at his finger-tips; in fact Tristan is the " Admirable Crichton " of medieval romance, there is nothing he cannot do, and that superlatively well — it must be regretfully admitted that he is also a most accomplished liar! Attracted by his gifts, pirates from the North Sea kidnap the boy, but terrified by the storms which subsequently beset them, put him ashore on the coast of Cornwall, whence he finds his way to the court of his uncle King Mark. Here we have a first proof of his talent for romancing; for alike to two pilgrims who show him the road and to the huntsmen of Mark's court (whom he instructs in the rightful method of cutting up and disposing the quarry), Tristan invents different, and most detailed, fictions of his land and parentage. He becomes a great favourite at court, and when Roald, who has sought his young lord far and wide, at last reaches Tintagel, Mark welcomes the revelation of Tristan's identity with joy. Cornwall is at this time in subjection to the king of Ireland, Gormond, and every third year must pay tribute; the Irish champion, Morolt, brother to the queen, arrives to claim his toll of thirty youths and as many maidens. The Cornish knights (who in Arthurian romance are always represented as hopeless cowards), dare not contest his claim but Tristan challenges him to single combat, slays him and frees Cornwall from tribute. Unfortunately he himself has been wounded in the fight, and that by a poisoned weapon; and none but the queen of Ireland, Is61t, or Iseult, possessed the secret of healing. Tristan causes himself to be placed in a boat with his harp, and committed to the waves, which carry him to the shores of Ireland. There he gives himself out for a minstrel, Tantris, and as such is tended and healed by Queen Iseult and her daughter of the same name. When recovered he makes a plausible excuse for leaving Ireland (pretending he has left a wife in his native land) and returns to Cornwall. His uncle receives him with joy, but- the barons of the court are bitterly jealous and plot his destruction. They persuade Mark that he should marry, and Tristan, who has sung the praises of the princess Iseult, is despatched to Ireland to demand her hand, a most dangerous errand, as .Gorrriond, incensed at TRISTAN 293 the death of Morolt, has sworn to slay any Cornish knight who sets foot in Ireland. Tristan undertakes the mission, though he stipulates that he shall be accompanied by twenty of the barons, greatly to their disgust. His good fortune, however, does not forsake him; he lands in Ireland just as a fierce dragon is devastating the country, and the king has pro- mised the hand of the princess to the slayer of the mpnster. Tristan achieves this feat, but, overcome by the venom exhaled from the dragon's tongue, which he has cut out, falls in a swoon. The seneschal of the court, a coward who has been watching for such an opportunity, cuts off the dragon's head, and, pre- senting it to the king, claims the reward, much to the dismay of Iseult and her mother. Suspecting that the seneschal is not really the slayer of the dragon, mother and daughter go secretly to the scene of the combat, find Tristan, whom they recognize as the minstrel, Tantris, and bring him back to the palace. They tend him in secret, but one day, through the medium of a splinter from his sword, which had remained fixed in Mor61t's skull, and been preserved by the queen, the identity of Tantris and Tristan is made clear. The princess would slay him, but is withheld by her mother, who sees they have need of Tristan's aid to unmask the seneschal. This is done in the presence of the court; Tristan is pardoned, formally declares his errand, and receives the hand of Iseult for his uncle King Mark. Tristan and Iseult set sail for Cornwall, Iseult accompanied by her waiting-woman, Brangaene (who, in some versions, is also a kinswoman), to whose care the queen, skilled in magic arts, confides a love-potion. This is intended to be drunk by king and queen on their bridal night and will ensure their undying love for each other. Unhappily, on the voyage, by some mistake (accounted for in different ways), Tristan and Iseult drink the love drink, and are forthwith seized with a fatal passion each for the other. From this moment begins a long-drawn-out series of tricks and subterfuges, undertaken with the view of deceiving Mark, whose suspicions, excited by sundry of his courtiers, from time to time get beyond his control, and are as often laid to rest by some clever ruse on the part of his nephew, or his wife, ably seconded by Brangaene. In the poems, Mark is, as a rule, represented in a favourable light, a gentle, kindly man, deeply attached to both Tristan and Iseult, and only too ready to allow his suspicions to be dispelled by any plausible explanation they may choose to offer. At the same time the fact that the lovers are the helpless victims of the fatal force of a magic spell is insisted upon, in order that their career of falsehood and deception may not deprive them of sympathy. One episode, in especial, has been most charmingly treated by the poets. Mark, in one of his fits of jealousy, banishes Tristan and Iseult from the court; the two fly to the woods, where they lead an idyllic life, blissfully happy in each other's company. Mark, hunting in the forest, comes upon them sleeping in a cave, and as Tristan, who knows that the king is in the neighbourhood, has placed his sword between them, is convinced of their innocence. Through a cleft in the rock a ray of light falls upon Iseult's face, Mark stops up the crevice with his glove (or with grass and flowers), and goes his way, determined to recall his wife and nephew. He does so, and the same drama of plot and counter-plot is resumed. Event- ually Mark surprises the two under circumstances which leave no possible room for doubt as to their mutual relation; Tristan flies for his life and takes refuge with Hoel, duke of Britanny. After some time, hearing nothing of Queen Iseult, and believing himself forgotten, he weds the duke's daughter, Iseult of the white hand, but weds her only in name, remaining otherwise faithful to Iseult of Ireland. Later on he returns to Cornwall in disguise, and has more than one interview with his mistress. Ultimately, while assisting his brother-in-law in an intrigue with the wife of a neighbouring knight, Tristan is wounded by a poisoned arrow; unable to find healing, and being near to death, he sends a messenger to bring Queen Iseult to his aid; if successful the ship which brings her is to have a white sail, if she refuses to come, a black. Iseult of the white hand overhears this, and when the ship returns, bringing Iseult to her lover's aid, either through jealousy or by pure inadvertence (both versions are given), she tells Tristan that the sail is black, whereon, despairing of seeing his love again, the hero turns his face to the wall and dies. Iseult of Ireland lands to find the city in mourning for its lord; hastening to the bier, she lays herself down beside Tristan, and with one last embrace expires. (One dramatic version represents her as finding the wife seated by the bier, and ordering her away, " Why sit ye there, ye who have slain him ? Arise, and begone ! ") The bodies are sent to Cornwall, and Mark, learning the truth, has a fair chapel erected and lays them in tombs, one at each side of the building, when a sapling springs from the heart of Tristan, and reaching its boughs across the chapel, makes its way into the grave of Iseult. However often the tree may be cut down it never fails to grow again. (In some versions it is respectively a vine and a rose which grow from either tomb and interlace midway.) We need have little wonder that this beautiful love-story was extremely popular throughout the middle ages. Medieval literature abounds in references to Tristan and Iseult, and their adventures were translated into many tongues and are found depicted in carvings and tapestries. Probably the story was first told in the form of short lais, each recounting some special episode, such as the lai known as the chewefemlle; how old these may be it is impossible to say. Professor Zimmer, in his examination of the story, sees reason to believe that the main incidents may repose on a genuine historic tradition, dating back to the Qth or loth century, the period of Viking rule in Ireland. The name of Iseult's father, Gormond, is distinctly Scandinavian; she, herself, is always noted for her golden hair, and it is quite a misrendering of the tradition to speak of her as a dark-haired Irish princess. In the German tradition she is die lichte, Iseult of Britanny die schwarze Is61t; it is this latter who is the Celtic princess. The name Tristan is now generally admitted to be the equivalent of the Pictish Drostan, and on the whole, the story is now very generally allowed to be of insular, probably of British, origin. Some time in the i2th century the story was wrought into consecutive poems. The latest theory, championed with great skill by M. Bedier, is that there was one poem, and one only, at the root of the various versions preserved to us, and that that poem, composed in England, probably by an Anglo- Norman, was a work of such force and genius that it determined for all time the form of the Tristan story. The obvious objection to this view is that a work of such importance, composed at so comparatively late a date, is scarcely likely to have perished so completely as to leave no trace; if there were one poet held as an authority, the name of that poet would surely have been mentioned. Moreover the evidence of the author of the principal Tristan poem preserved to us points in another direction. This poet was an Anglo-Norman named Thomas; and, although little over 3000 lines of his poem have been preserved, we have three translations; a German, by Gottfried von Strassburg; a Scandinavian, by a certain Brother Robert; and an English, by Thomas, sometimes identified with Thomas of Ercildoune, though this is doubtful. With the help of the extant fragments and these translations We can form a very good idea of the character and content of Thomas's work, a task now rendered far more easy by M. Bedier's skilful recon- struction (cf. vol. i. of his edition of Thomas). It was certainly a work of great merit and charm. As authority Thomas cites a certain Breri, who has now been identified with the Bleheris quoted as authority for the Grail and Gawain stories, and the Bledhericus referred to by Giraldus Cambrensis as Jamosus illejabidator. This is what Thomas says: — " Seignurs, cest cunte est mult divers, E pur go 1'uni par mes vers E di en tant cum est mester E le surplus voil relesser. Ne vol pas trop en uni dire! Ici diverse la matvre. 294 TRISTAN DA CUNHA Entre ceus qui solent cunter E del cunte Tristran parler, II en cuntent diversement : O'i en ai de plusur gent. Asez sai que chescun en dit E co qu'il unt mis en escrit, Mes sulun go que j'ai o'i Nel dient pas sulun Br6ri Ky solt les gestes e les cuntes De tuz les reis, de tuz les cuntes, Ki orent este en Bretaingne." (THOMAS, i. 377). These are not the words of a man who is following a complete and authoritative poem; judging from the context of the other references to Bleheris he was rather a collector and versifier of short episodic tales, and it seems far more natural to under- stand Thomas as having wrought into one complete and con- secutive form the various poems with which the name of Breri was associated, than to hold that that, or a similar, work had already been achieved by another. Thomas's work, fortunately, fell into the hands of a true poet in the person of Gottfried von Strassburg, whose Tristan und Isolde is, from a literary point of view, the gem of medieval German literature. Gottfried is a far greater master of style than Wolfram von Eschenbach, and his treatment of some of the episodes, notably the sojourn in the woods, is most exquisite. He did not live to complete his poem, but happily he carried it up to the point where the original fragments li^gin, so that we can judge very fairly what must have been the effect of the whole, the style of the two poets being very similar. Inspir- ing as the Tristan story is, it seems improbable that it should have been handled, and that within a comparatively short period, by three writers of genius, and that of these three the first, and greatest, should have utterly disappeared! The translators of Thomas do not fail to quote him as their source, why then has no one quoted the original poet? Besides the version of Thomas, we have a fragment by a certain Beroul, also an Anglo-Norman, and a German poem by Eilhart von Oberge, both of which derive from a common scurce. There also exists in two manuscripts a short poem, La Folie Tristan, relating how Tristan, disguised as a fool, visits the court of King Mark. This poem is valuable, as, presuming upon the sufficiency of his disguise, Tristan audaciously gives a resume of his feats and of his relations with Iseult, in this agreeing with the version of Thomas. The "Gerbert" con- tinuation of the Perceval contains the working over of one of two short Tristan poems, called by him the Luite Tristran; the latter part, probably a distinct poem, shows Tristan, in the disguise of a minstrel, visiting the court of Mark. Here the tradition is more in accordance with Beroul. Besides the poems, we possess the prose Tristan, an enormous compilation, akin to the prose Lancelot, where the original story, though still to be traced, is obscured by a mass of later Arthurian adventures. The interest here centres in the rivalry between Tristan and Lancelot, alike as knights and lovers, and in the later redaction, ascribed to Helie de Borron, the story is spun out to an interminable length. Certain points of difference between the poetical and the prose versions should be noted. Tristan is here the son of Meliadus, king of Loonois; his father does not die, but is de- coyed away by an enchantress, and the mother, searching for her husband, gives birth to her child in the forest and dies. Meliadus marries again, and the second wife, jealous of Tristan, tries to kill him. Mark has another nephew, Andret, who is Tristan's enemy throughout the romance. Mark himself is a cowardly, treacherous and vindictive character. Some of the early printed editions follow the original version of Tristan's death, now found in one manuscript only (B.N. 103), the majority represent him as having been stabbed in the back by Mark in the presence of the queen, as we find in Malory, who drew the larger portion of his compilation from the prose Tristan. It should be noted that Tristan is never more than superficially connected with Arthur, an occasional visitor at his court; though in its later form ranked among the Arthurian romances, the Tristan is really an independent story, and does not form a part of the ordinary cyclic redaction. The Italian prose text, La Travola ritonda differs from the French in adhering to the original version, and is classed by N. Bedier among the derivatives from Thomas. Like the story of Perceval that of Trigtan has been made familiar to the present generation by Richard Wagner's noble music drama, Tristan und Isolde, founded upon the poem of Gottfried von Strassburg; though, being a drama of feeling rather than of action, the story is reduced to its simple elements; the drinking of the love-potion, the passion of the lovers, their discovery by Mark and finally their death. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Thomas, Roman de Tristan, ed. J. Bedier (2 vols., Societe des anciens textes frangais, 1902, 1905) ; Beroul, Roman de Tristan (ed.E. Muret.same series, I9O3);E. Kolbing, Die nordische und dieenglischeVersionder Tristansaga (1877, 1883), pt. i., Tristrams Saga, pt. ii., Sir Tristrem. " La Folie Tristan " was published by F. Michel in his Tristan (1835), a collection of all the extant fragments of Tristan poems; " Tristan Menestrel " from the Perceval, ed. J. L. Weston and J. B6dier (Romania, vol. xxxv., Oct. 1906). Gottfried's Tristan und Isolde has been several times published ; the best editions are those of Bechstein (1890) and Golther (1889); modern German versions by Kurz, Simrock and Hertz; English prose rendering, J. L. Weston, 2 vols. (Arthurian Romances, No. ii.). Cf. also Piquet, L'Originalite de Gottfried de Strassburg (1905). Eilhart von Oberge, Tristan, ed. Lichtenstein (1877); La Tavola ritonda, ed. Polidori, (3 vols., 1864-1865). There is no modern edition of the prose romance, but a detailed analysis of the contents, compiled from the numerous manuscripts in the Paris Library, was published by E. Loseth in Le Roman en prose de Tristan (1890). The general reader will find Gaston Paris's study of the legend in Poemes et legendes du moyen age most interesting; also Joseph B<;dier's popular retelling of the tale Tristan et Iseult. For Wagner's version cf. J. L. Weston, Legends of the Wagner Drama. For an exhaustive study of the Tristan legend and literature, see the recent work by Professor Golther; also an examination of the Welsh fragments by Ivor John in the Grimm Library. (J. L. W.) TRISTAN DA CUNHA, the general name for a group of three small volcanic islands belonging to Great Britain, situated in the South Atlantic, the summit of the largest being in 37° 5' 50" S., 12° 16' 40" W. They are about 2000 m. W. of the Cape of Good Hope and about 4000 m. N.E. of Cape Horn and lie somewhat north of a line drawn between the two capes. St Helena lies about 1500 m. N.N.E. of the group. The islands rise from the submarine elevation which runs down the centre of the Atlantic and on which are likewise situated Ascension, St Paul's Rocks and the Azores; the average depth on this ridge is from 1600 to 1700 fathoms, while depths of 3000 fathoms are found on each side of it. The depth between the islands is in some places over 1000 fathoms. Tristan, the largest and northernmost island, has an area of 16 sq. m., is nearly circular in form, about 7 m. in diameter, and has a volcanic cone (7640 ft.), usually capped with snow, in the centre. Precipitous cliffs, 1000 to 2000 ft. in height, rise directly from the ocean on all sides, except on the north-west, where there is an irregular plain, 100 ft. above the sea, and 2j m. in length and | m. in breadth. A stream crosses the northern end of the plateau, falling over the cliff edge in a fine cascade. The crater of the central cone contains a fresh- water lake about 150 yds. in diameter. This and other crater lakes are said never to be frozen over. Inaccessible Island, the westernmost of the group, is about 20 m. from Tristan. It is quadrilateral in form, the sides being about 2 m. long, and its area is about 4 sq. m. The highest point (1840 ft.) is on the west side; all round there are perpendicular cliffs about 1000 ft. in height. At the base of the cliffs in some places are narrow fringes of beach a few feet above the sea-level. Nightingale Island, the smallest and most southern of the group, is 10 m. from Inaccessible Island. Its area is not more than I sq.m. Its coasts, unlike those of the other two islands, are surrounded by low cliffs, from which there is a gentle slope up to two peaks, the one iioo ft., the other 960 ft. high. There are two small islets — Stoltenkoff (325 ft.) and Middle (150 ft.) — and several rocks adjacent to the coast. The rocks of Tristan da Cunha are felspathic basalt, dolerite, augite-andesite, sideromelane and palagonite; some specimens of the basalt have porphyritic augite.1 The caves in Nightingale Island indicate that it has been elevated several feet. On almost 1 On the occurrence in Tristan da Cunha of rock of continental type (gneiss) see E. H. L. Schwarz of the Geological Survey, Cape Colony, in the Transactions South African Philosoph. Soc,. No. 16 of 1905. TRISTAN DA CUNHA 295 all sides the islands are surrounded by a broad belt of kelp, the gigantic southern seaweed (Macrocystis pyrifera), through which a boat may approach the rocky shores even in stormy weather. There is no good anchorage in rough weather. The beaches and lower lands are covered with a dense growth of tussock grass (Spartina arundinacea) , 8 to IO ft. in height. It shelters vast numbers of penguins (Eudyptes chrysocoma), which there form their rookeries. There is one small tree (Phylica nitida), which grows in detached patches on the lower grounds. Indepen- dently of introduced plants, fifty-five species have been collected in the group, twenty-nine being flowering plants and twenty-six ferns and lycopods. A majority of the species are characteristic of the present general flora of the south temperate zone rather than any particular part of it : botanically the group is generally classed with the islands of the Southern Ocean. A finch (Nesospiza acunhae), a thrush (Nesocichla eremita), and a water-hen (Gallinula nesiotis) are the only land birds — the first two being peculiar to the islands. In addition to the penguins numerous other sea birds nest on the islands, as petrels, albatrosses, terns, skuas and prions. One or two land shells, a few spiders, several Coleoptera, a small lepidopter and a few other insects are recorded, but no Orthoptera or Hymenop- tera. There appear to have been no indigenous mammals or reptiles. Seals frequent Nightingale and Inaccessible Islands, and the whale (Balaena australis) is found in the adjacent waters. The prevailing winds are westerly. December to March is the fine season. The climate is mild and on the whole healthy, the temperature averaging 68° Fahr. In summer, 55° in winter— some- times falling to 40°. Rain is frequent ; hail and snow fall occasionally on the lower grounds. The sky is usually cloudy. The islands have a cold and barren appearance. The tide rises and falls about 4 ft. History. — The islands were discovered in 1506 by the Por- tuguese admiral Tristan, or more correctly Tristao da Cunha,1 after whom they are named, during a voyage to India. There- after the islands (which were uninhabited) were occasionally visited by outward bound ships to the Indies. Dutch vessels brought back reports on the islands in 1643, and in 1656 Van Riebeek, the founder of Cape Town, sent a ship from Table Bay to Tristan to see if it was suitable for a military station, but the absence of a harbour led to the project being abandoned. Later in the i7th century ships were sent from St Helena by the English East India Company to Tristan to report on a proposed settlement there, but that project also came to naught. A British naval officer who visited the group in 1760 gave his name to Nightingale Island. John Patten, the master of an English merchant ship, and part of his crew lived on Tristan from August 1790 to April 1791, during which time they captured 5600 seals; but the first permanent inhabitant was one Thomas Currie, who landed on the island in 1810. At this time American whalers frequented the neighbouring waters and, in the same year, an American named Lambert " late of Salem, mariner and citizen thereof " and a man named Williams made Tristan their home. Lambert declared himself sovereign and sole possessor of the group (which he renamed Islands of Refreshment) " grounding my right and claim on the rational and sure ground of absolute occupancy." Lambert's sovereignty was short lived, as he and Williams were drowned while out fishing in May 1812. Currie was joined, however, by two other men and they busied themselves in growing vegetables, wheat and oats, and in breeding pigs. War having broken out in this year between the United States and Great Britain the islands were largely used as a base by American cruisers sent to prey on British merchant ships. This and other considera- tions urged by Lord Charles Somerset, then governor of Cape Colony, led the British government to authorize the islands being taken possession of as dependencies of the Cape. The formal proclamation of annexation was made on the i4th of August 1816. A small garrison was maintained on Tristan until 1 Tristan da Cunha (ft. 1460-1540) was nominated first viceroy of Portuguese India in 1504, but was unable to serve owing to temporary blindness; in 1506 he was placed in command of a fleet which operated on the east coast of Africa and in the Indies, Alphonso d'Albuquerque (q.v.) having charge of a squadron under da Cunha. After discovering the islands which now bear his name, da Cunha landed in Madagascar, subsequently visiting Mozambique, Brava (where he reduced the Arab power) and Sokotra, which he conquered. He also distinguished himself in the Indies in various actions. In 1514 he was ambassador to Pope Leo X. to pay homage for the new conquests of Portugal, and was, later on, made a member of the Portuguese privy council. November of the following year. At their own request William Glass (d. 1853), a corporal in the Royal Artillery, with his wife and two children and two masons were left behind, and thus was begun the present settlement. From time to time additional settlers arrived or shipwrecked mariners decided to remain; in 1827 five coloured women from St Helena were induced to migrate to Tristan to become the wives of the five bachelors then on the island. Later coloured women from Cape Colony married residents in the island. Other settlers are of Dutch, Italian and Asiatic origin. Thus the inhabitants are of mixed blood, but the British strain greatly predominates. Over the little community Glass (1817-1853) ruled in patriarchal fashion. Be- sides raising crops, the settlers possessed numbers of cattle, sheep and pigs, but their most lucrative occupation was seal fishing. The island was still frequented by American whalers, and in 1856 out of a total population of about 100 twenty-five emigrated to the United States. The next year forty-five of the inhabitants removed to Cape Colony; whither the younger or more restless members of the community have since gone — or else taken to a seafaring life. The inhabitants had of necessity made their settlement on the plain on the north-west of Tristan; here a number of substantial stone cottages and a church were built. It is named Edinburgh in memory of a visit in 1867 by the duke of Edinburgh. In October 1873 the islands were carefully surveyed by the " Challenger," which removed to Cape Town two Germans, brothers named Stoltenhoff, who had been living on Inaccessible Island since November 1871. This was the only attempt at colonization made on any save the main island of the group. After the death of Glass the head of the community for some time was an old man-of-war's man named Cotton, who had been for three years guard over Napoleon at St Helena; Cotton was succeeded by Peter William Green, a native of Amsterdam who settled in the island in 1836. During Green's " reign " the economic condition of Tristan was considerably affected by the desertion of the neighbouring seas by the whalers; this was largely due to the depredations of the Confederate cruisers " Alabama " and " Shenandoah " during the American Civil War, many whaling boats being captured and burnt by them. As a result the number of ships calling at Tristan considerably diminished and trade languished. In 1880 the population appears to have attained its maximum — 109. In 1885 a serious disaster befell the islanders, a lifeboat which went to take pro- visions to a ship in the offing was lost with all hands — fifteen men — and only four adult males were left on the island. At the same time a plague of rats — survivors of a shipwrecked vessel — wrought much havoc among the crops. Plans were made for the total removal of the inhabitants to the Cape, but the majority preferred to remain. Stores and provisions were sent out to them by the British government. The ravages of the rats have rendered impossible the growing of wheat; the wealth of the islanders now consists in their cattle, sheep, potatoes and apple and peach trees. The population in 1897 was only 64; in 1901 it was 74, and in 1909, 95. They manage their own affairs without any written laws, the project once entertained of providing them with a formal constitution being deemed unnecessary. The inhabitants are described as moral, religious, hospitable to strangers, well mannered and industrious, healthy and long lived. They are without in- toxicating liquors and are said to commit no crimes. They are daring sailors, and in small canvas boats of their own building voyage to Nightingale and Inaccessible islands. They knit garments from the wool of their sheep; are good carpenters and make serviceable carts. From time to time ministers of the Church of England have lived on the island and to their efforts is mainly due the education of the children. In 1906 the islanders passed through a period of distress owing to great mortality among the cattle and the almost total failure of the potato crop. The majority again refused, however, to desert the island, though offered allotments of land in Cape Colony. Similar proposals had been made and declined several times since the question was first mooted in 1886. In 1905 a lease of 296 TRISTAN L'HERMITE— TRIUMPH Nightingale, Inaccessible and Gough islands, for the purpose of working the guano deposits, was granted by the British government. Cough Island. — Gough Island or Diego Alvarez lies in the South Atlantic in 40° 20' S., 9° 44' W., and is 250 m. S.S.E. of Tristan da Cunha and some 1500 m. west by south of Cape Town. It is of volcanic origin, is rugged and mountainous, the highest peak rising to 4380 ft. The island is about 8 m. long by 4 m. broad and has an area of 40 sq. m. Precipitous cliffs, from 200 to 1000 ft. high, characterize the coast. They are divided by picturesque valleys, which, in some instances, have been cut down to sea-level and afford landing-places. Streams fall over the cliffs into the sea in fine cascades. The island is visited by vast numbers of penguins and contains valuable guano deposits. It is also the home of numerous seals. The rainfall is heavy and vegetation abundant. The island is believed to have been discovered by the Portuguese in the i6th century. Originally called Diego Alvarez, it derives its other name from a Captain Gough, the commander of a British ship which visited it in 1731. It has been claimed as a British possession since the annexation of Tristan da Cunha. In 1904 Gough Island was visited by the Antarctic exploring ship " Scotia ' of the Bruce expedition, which discovered a rich marine fauna, two new buntings and three new species of plants. It has no permanent population. A comprehensive account of Tristan da Cunha appeared in The Cape Times (January-March 1906), in a series of articles by W. Hammond Tooke, the commissioner sent to the islands by the Cape government in 1904. See also Transactions of the Linnean Society for 1819 (contains a report of an ascent of the summit by Captain Dugald Carmichael in 1817); A. Earle, Narrative of a . . . Residence in New Zealand . . . together with a Journal of a Residence in Tristan d'Acunha (London, 1832); Mrs K. M. Barrow, Three Years in Tristan da Cunha (London, 1910); H. N. Moseley, Notes by a Naturalist on the "Challenger' (new ed., London, 1892); F. and G. Stoltenhoff, " Two Years on Inaccessible," in Cape Monthly Mag. (December 1873). Among papers relating to Tristan da Cunha published by the British government, see especially reports issued in 1897, 1903, 1906 — which gives a detailed account of the island and islanders — and 1907. For the discovery of Tristan see The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalboquerque (Hakluyt Society's Series, 1875, vol. 53). For Gough Island, see R. N. R. Brown of the " Scotia " expedition, " Diego Alvarez or Gough Island," in Scottish Geog. Mag. (August 1905); Brown and others, " The Botany of Gough Island," in Journ. Linnean Soc. (Botany) (1905), and The Voyage of the " Scotia " ch. xii. (London, 1906). The Africa Pilot, pt. ii. (5th ed., 1901), contains descriptions both of Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island. TRISTAN L'HERMITE, FRANfOIS (1601-1655), French diamatist, was born at the chateau de Soliers in the Haute Marche about 1601. His adventures began early, for he killed his enemy in a duel at the age of thirteen, and was obliged to flee to England. The story of his childhood and youth he embroiders in a burlesque novel, the Page disgracie. He was in succession poet to Gaston d'Orleans, to the duchesse de Chaulnes and the duke of Guise. He died on the 7th of September 1655. His first tragedy, Mariamne (1636), was also his best. It was followed by Penthee (1637), La Mart de Seneque (1644), La Mart de Crispe (1645) and the Parasite (1653). He was also the author of some admirable lyrics. Three of his best plays are printed in the Theatre franQais of 1737. TRITHEMIUS, JOHANNES (1462-1516), German historian and divine, was born at Trittenheim on the Moselle, on the ist of February 1462. His name was originally " von Heidenberg," but according to the fashion of the times he adopted the name of his birthplace. After an unhappy childhood, he studied at Heidelberg, and at the age of twenty entered the Benedictine monastery of Sponheim near Kreuznach, of which, in 1485, he became abbot. He established an excellent library, and through his strict discipline and consummate scholarship soon raised the monastery to an educational institution of a high order. In 1506 he resigned, and was appointed soon after abbot of the monastery of St Jakob at Wiirzburg; and in this city he died on the I3th of December 1516. Trithemius was, though an accomplished scholar, untrustworthy as a chronicler, and his Annales hirsaugienses (1514), Annales de origine Fran- corum, as well as his Chronologia mystlca (1516) are, on this account, of doubtful value. More reliance can, however, be placed on his De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis (1404) and the Catalogus illustrium virorum Germaniae (1491). He also wrote a fanatical book against sorcery, Antipalus maleficiorum (1508). See Silbernagel, J. Trithemius (1868; 2nd ed., 1885); Schneegans. Abt Joh. Trithemius und Kloster Sponheim (1882); and F. X. Wegele, in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic. TRITON, in Greek mythology, son of Poseidon and Amphi- trite, the personification of the roaring waters. According to Hesiod (Theog. 930), he dwelt with his parents in a golden palace in the depths of the sea. The story of the Argonauts places his home on the coast of Libya. When the Argo was driven ashore on the Lesser Syrtes the crew carried the vessel to Lake Tritonis, whence Triton, the local deity, guided them across to the Mediterranean (Apollonius Rhodius iv. 1552). He was represented as human down to the waist, with the tail of a fish. His special attribute was a twisted seashell, on which he blew to calm or raise the waves. Its sound was so terrible, when loudly blown, that it put the giants to flight, who imagined it to be the roar of a mighty wild beast (Hyginus, Poet, astronom. ii. 23). When Misenus, the trumpeter of Aeneas, challenged him to a contest of blowing, Triton in his jealousy flung him into the sea. In course of time Triton became the name for individuals of a class, like Pan and Silenus, and Tritons (male and female) are mentioned in the plural, usually as forming the escort of marine divinities. The beings called Centauro-Tritons or Ichthyocentaurs were of a triple nature, with the forefeet of a horse in addition to the human body and fish tail. Pausanias (ix. 21) gives a detailed description of the ordinary Triton. It is probable that the idea of Triton owes its origin to the Phoenician fish-deities. See Preller, Griechische Mythologie (4th ed., 1894); F. R. Dressier, Triton und die Tritonen (Wurzen, 1892). TRIUMPH (triumphus) , amongst the ancient Romans, the highest honour bestowed upon a victorious general. Originally it was only granted on certain conditions, which were subse- quently relaxed in special cases. Only those who had held the .office of dictator, consul or praetor were entitled to the distinc- tion; the war must have been brought to a definite conclusion, resulting in an extension of the boundaries of the state; at least 5000 of the enemy must have been slain; the victory must have been gained over a foreign enemy, victories in civil war or over rebels not being counted. The power of granting a triumph rested with the senate, which held a meeting outside the city walls (generally in the temple of Bellona) to consider the claims put forward by the general. If they were considered satisfactory special legislation was necessary to keep the general in possession of the imperium on his entry into the city. Without this, his command would have expired and he would have become a private individual the moment he was inside the city walls, and would have had no right to a triumph. Consequently he remained outside the pomoerium until the special ordinance was passed; thus Lucullus on his return from Asia waited outside Rome three years for his triumph. The triumph consisted of a solemn procession, which, starting from the Campus Martius outside the city walls, passed through the city to the Capitol. The streets were adorned with garlands, the temples open, and the procession was greeted with shout's of lo triumphe I At its head were the magistrates and senate, who were followed by trumpeters and then by the spoils, which included not only arms, standards, statues, &c., but also representations of battles, and of the towns, rivers and moun- tains of the conquered country, models of fortresses, &c. Next came the victims destined for sacrifice, especially white oxen with gilded horns. They were followed by the prisoners who had not been sold as slaves but kept to grace the triumph; when the procession reached the Capitol they were taken off to prison and put to death. The chariot which carried the victorious general (triumphator) was crowned with laurel and drawn by four horses. The general was attired like the Capi- toline Jupiter in robes of purple and gold borrowed from the treasury of the god; in his right hand he held a laurel branch, in his left an ivory sceptre surmounted by an eagle. Above his head the golden crown of Jupiter was held by a slave who reminded him in the midst of his glory that he was a mortal man. Last came the soldiers shouting lo triumphe and singing TRIUMPHAL ARCH PLATE I. Photo, Bmfils. FIG. i.- -ARCH OF HADRIAN, ATHENS. FIG. 2.— ARCH OF TRAJAN, BENEVENTO. Photo, Alinari. FIG. 3.— ARCH OF TRAJAN, ANCONA. XXVII. 206. Photo, Anderson. FIG. 4.— ARCH OF TITUS, ROME. PLATE II. TRIUMPHAL ARCH TRIUMPHAL ARCH— TRIVANDRUM 297 songs both of a laudatory and scurrilous kind. On reaching the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, the general placed the laurel branch (in later times a palm branch) on the lap of the image of the god, and then offered the thank-offerings. A feast of the magistrates and senate, and sometimes of the soldiers and people, concluded the ceremony, which in earlier times lasted one day, but in later times occupied several. Generals who were not allowed a regular triumph by the senate had a right to triumph at the temple of Jupiter Latiaris on the Alban Mount. Under the empire only the emperors celebrated a triumph, because the generals commanded under the auspices of the emperors (not under their own) merely as lieutenants (legati); the only honour they received was the right of wearing the triumphal insignia (the robes of purple and gold and the wreath of bay leaves) on holidays. After the time of Trajan, when all consuls were allowed to wear the triumphal dress on entering office and in festal processions, the only military reward for a successful general was a statue in some public place. The last triumph recorded is that of Diocletian (A.D. 302). A naval or maritime triumph was sometimes allowed for victories at sea, the earliest being that celebrated by C. Duilius in honour of his victory over the Carthaginians in 260 B.C. See Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht (1887), i. 126-136; Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung (1884), ii. 582-593; H. A. Goll, De triumphi romani origins, permissu, apparatu, via (1854); S. Pcine, "De ornamentis triumphalibus " (1885), in C. E. Ascherson's Berliner Studien, ii. TRIUMPHAL ARCH, the term given to arches erected to commemorate some special victory, but here extended to include those built as memorial arches to some benefactor of the Roman Empire, such as those at Rimini, Ancona and Benevento; arches erected as monumental entrances to towns, as at Nimes and Autun; arches on bridges, as at Chamas in France and Alcantara in Spain; and lastly those which preceded the entrance to a forum or sacred enclosure, or formed part of a colonnaded street, as in Syria. There is every reason to suppose that in early times in Greece and Etruria temporary erections, such as those of the present day, were set up on the occasion of the public entry, after a great victory, of some emperor or general; but the Romans would seem to have been the first to erect such struc- tures in stone or marble, to enrich them with sculpture, and to raise aloft on their summit the quadriga or four-horsed chariot with statues and trophies. The time involved in the construc- tion of such a memorial, and more especially that which would be required for its enrichment with sculpture, rendered it im- possible that they should be set up on the occasion of the trium- phal entry itself, and it is known that the arch of Titus was not erected till some time after his death by his successor Domitian. There is always some difficulty in deciding between triumphal and memorial arches, as they were virtually similar in design, equally enriched with sculpture, generally surmounted with a quadriga and statues, and as a rule were isolated structures. The earlier arches were pierced with a single arch and were comparatively simple in design, being decorated by pilasters or semi-detached columns only; the existence of chariots and statues on their summit is known only from coins or gems, on which such features are always shown. The arch of Titus in Rome (fig. 4), A.D. 81, is the first one enriched with bas-relief sculpture, in this case representing the triumphs of Titus with the seven-branched candlestick and the golden table brought from Jerusalem. The next sculptural arch of triumph is that built at Benevento (fig. 2) in South Italy (A.D. 112) by Trajan, recording the Dacian victories. The triumphal arch (fig. 5) of Septimius Severus (A.D. 203) has a central and two side arches, the bas-reliefs on it representing the Parthian victories; and the last important arch in Rome is that of Constantine (fig. 6), which had also three arches, and was embellished with bas-reliefs, representing the Dacian victories, which were taken from the arch of Trajan on the Via Appia and others of Constantine's time, representing the conquest of Maxentius. Passing to other countries, we have the triumphal arches at St Remy and at Orange (fig. 8) ; those at Carpentras and Cavail- lon, also in France, which were probably of later date, as possibly also the triple arch at Reims. The triumphal arch with three arches at Fano in Italy is said to have been commenced by Augustus, but completed by Constantine, who probably added the two side arches and decorated it with inferior sculpture. At Timgad (Thamugada) ?n North Africa is a triumphal arch with central and two side arches, probably of Hadrian's time, and one with triple arches at Sbeitla (Suffetula), also in North Africa, and another example at Saintes in France, built on a bridge. Of memorial arches the earliest are the examples of Rimini (fig. 7) and Aosta, erected to Augustus, and later the arch at Ancona (fig. 3) erected to Trajan (A.D. 112) as a record of the construction of the port there. At Pola, in Istria, is an archway erected in memory of the Sergii. Of less important examples in Rome are the arches of Dolabella (A.D. 10), Drusus (A.D. 23), Gallienus (A.D. 262), the silversmith's arch (A.D. 204); in Verona, the Porta dei Borsari and the Porta de Leoni, erected by Gallienus (A.D. 265) ; at Aix-les-Bains in France, an arch of late 3rd century; and at Lambessa, in North Africa, the arches of Commodus (A.D. 187) and of Septimius Severus (A.D. 200). In Spain there are two monumental arches erected by Trajan at Alcantara, in the centre of the bridge built by him (A.D. 108), and the arch of Santiago* at Merida; a third example exists in the Arco di Bara at Tarragona. Quadriportal archways are those which were built in the centre of four cross roads, such as the arch of Janus in Rome, built by Constans (A.D. 350), the arch of Caracalla at Tebesse (Thevesti) in North Africa, and many examples in Syria, of which the arch at Ladikiyah (Laodicea ad Mare) is in perfect preservation. The colonnaded streets in Syria were entered through magnifi- cent archways, of which the finest examples are those at Palmyra and Gerasa. As entrance gateways to towns there are many examples which were sometimes built as memorial arches, but formed'part of the city walls, such as the entrance gate at Susa in Italy, erected in memory of Augustus (8 B.C.), decorated with reliefs of the Suovetaurelia (sacrifices); the Porte d'Avroux and Porte St Andre at Autun, and the Porte d'Auguste at Nimes, in France; the Porte d'Auguste at Perugia in Italy and the Porta Nigra at Treves in Germany; to these should be added the three entrance gateways to the palace of Spalato (A.D. 303), one of these, the Porta Aurea, or Golden Gate, showing in its enriched design certain decadent forms which led to the Byzantine and Renaissance styles; lastly there are the arched entrances to sacred or civil enclosures, such as the example at Sbeitla (SuffetuFa) in North Africa, the arch of Hadrian at Athens (fig. i), built to his memory by his successors, and the archway of the Propylaea at Damascus. The triumphal arch found no place in medieval architecture, but in Renaissance works there are many examples, of which the triumphal entrance arch of King Alfonso at Naples (A.D. 1470) comes first. Of isolated structures, there are in Paris the Porte St Martin (1647), St Denis (1684), arch of Carrousel in the Tuileries (1808), and the Arc de 1'Etoile in the Champs Elysees, completed in 1830; in Berlin the Brandenburger Thor (1790); in Munich the Siegesthor (1843) ar>d Metzger Thor (1880); in Milan the Arch of Peace, commenced by Napoleon in 1807 and completed in 1857 by the Austrians (an interesting example, as it still preserves the chariot and horses and statues which formerly crowned all triumphal arches); and in London the Marble Arch, originally built in front of Buckingham Palace, but removed to the north-east angle of Hyde Park in 1843, and the Wellington Arch at Hyde Park Corner, without the statue of the duke on horseback, afterwards set up at Aldershot. (R. P. S.) TRIVANDRUM, or TREVANDRUM, a city of southern India, capital of the state of Travancore, situated 2 m. from the sea- coast. Pop. (1901), 57,882. It is the residence of the maharaja, and contains an observatory and a museum, besides several other fine buildings. The chief fame of the place, however, centres upon the shrine of Sri Ananta Padmanabhaswami, a great resort of pilgrims, round which the city grew up. The 298 TRIVET— TROGLODYTES best houses and chief public buildings stand on hilly terraces. The city contains the maharaja's college, a Sanskrit college, a high school, a school for girls, an industrial school of arts, and a hospital and medical school. There is little trade, but a speciality of wood-carving. Trivandrum has a small seaport, but the vessels that touch here have to anchor at some consider- able distance from the shore, and the port itself is not fitted for any great commercial development. TRIVET, a small metal tripod for holding cooking vessels near a fire. The word is also applied to a round, square or oval openwork plate, usually of steel or brass, fixed to the bars of a grate by a socket for keeping hot plates, dishes, or food. TRIVIUM (Lat. for cross-road, i.e. where three roads meet, from tres, three, and via, road), in medieval educational systems, the curriculum which included grammar, rhetoric and logic. The trivium and the quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy) together made up what are known as the seven liberal arts (see EDUCATION: Schools). From the word in its original sense is derived the adjective " trivial " (post- Aug. Lat. trivialis), that which can be seen at the cross-roads, i.e. unimportant, commonplace. In botany and zoology the " trivial " name is the adjectival name which follows the genus name in a binominal system of nomenclature, as canina, perennis, in Rosa canina, Bellis perennis. TRNOVO, or TIRNOVO, an episcopal city and the capital of a department of Bulgaria; 124 m. E.N.E. of Sofia, on the river Yantra, and on the Sofia- Varna railway, at the junction of the branch line from Rustchuk. Pop. (1906), 12,171. The city consists of two divisions — the Christian quarter, situated chiefly on a high rocky plateau, and the so-called Turkish quarter, on the lower ground; but many of the Turkish inhabi- tants emigrated after 1878. On the Tsarevetz Hill above the city are the remains of the ancient citadel. The Husarjaini mosque is used as a military powder and dynamite factory. In the Christian quarter there are some interesting churches of the middle ages, notably that of the Forty Martyrs, in which the Bulgarian tsars were crowned. Numerous antiquarian remains have also been discovered. There are a gymnasium and a high-class girls' school. The city possesses large dye- works, and important manufactures of copper utensils. Trnovo was the ancient capital of Bulgaria, and from 1186 until its capture by the Turks, I7th of July 1394, the residence of the Bulgarian tsars. From the beginning of the i3th century it was also the seat of the patriarchate of Bulgaria, until the suppression of the patriarchate in 1767. In 1877 it was taken from Turkey by the Russians, and in 1879 Prince Alexander of Battenberg was here elected prince of Bulgaria. On the 5th of October 1908 the independence of Bulgaria was proclaimed here by King Ferdinand, in the church of the Forty Martyrs. TROCHAIC (from Gr. rpoxaios, Tpoxcuicos; Lat. trochaeus), the name of a metre very commonly used by the Greeks and Romans in their tragedies and comedies. Its character- istic foot is a trochee consisting of two syllables, one long, one short (-«j). The usual form, in which the Greeks employed the measure, was the trochaic tetrameter catalectic, the scheme of which is as follows: — — v — o — v — \J — \J — u — w — — — u w — u w — • \J V -3 — \J w - w — uo — wu — w — «u — o u The trochaic metre is rapid in movement and breathless, and is generally used to depict strong emotions or to tell an exciting narrative. It is, however, very closely related to the ordinary iambic metre; in fact, by subtracting the first foot and a half of the longer line, we find ourselves left with a pure iambic line as used by the tragedians. In modern times, the trochaic measure has been adopted by the prosody of England, Germany and Scandinavia. The swift and hurrying movement of it, which we see reflected in its derivation, as the Greek name is certainly to be traced back to the verb rpextiv, to run, has made it a favourite with our lyrical poets. In the early English writers on versification the foot is called a trocheus. TROCHU, LOUIS JULES (1815-1896), French general, was born at Palais (Belle-Ile-en-Mer) on the i2th of March 1815. Educated at St Cyr he received 'a commission in the Staff Corps in 1837, was promoted lieutenant in 1840, and captain in 1843. He served as a captain in Algeria under Marshal Bugeaud, who, in recognition of his gallantry in the battles of Sidi Yussuf and Isly, made him his aide-de-camp and entrusted him with important commissions. He was promoted major in 1845, and colonel in 1853. He served with distinction throughout the Crimean campaign, first as aide-de-camp to Marshal St Arnaud, and then as general of brigade, and was made a commander of the Legion of Honour and general of division. He again distinguished himself in command of a division in the Italian campaign of 1859, where he won the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. In 1866 he was employed at the ministry of war in the preparation of army reorganization schemes, and he published anonymously in the following year L'Armee frangaise en 1867, a work inspired with Orleanist sentiment, which ran through ten editions in a few months and reached a twentieth in 1870. This brochure brought him into bad odour at court, and he left the war office on half -pay, and was 'refused a command in the field at the outbreak of the Franco-German War. After the earlier disasters in 1870, he was appointed by the emperor first commandant of the troops of Chalons camp, and soon afterwards (Aug. 17) governor of Paris and commander-in- chief of all the forces destined for the defence of the capital, including some 120,000 regular troops, 80,000 mobiles, and 330,000 National Guards. He worked energetically to put Paris in a state of defence and throughout the siege showed himself a master of the passive defensive. At the revolution of the 4th of September he became president of the government of national defence, in addition to his other offices. His " plan " for defending the city raised expectations doomed to disappointment; the successive sorties made under pressure of public opinion were unsuccessful, and having declared in one of his proclamations that the governor of Paris would never capitulate, when capitulation became inevitable he resigned the governorship of Paris on the 22nd of January 1871 to General Vinoy, retaining the presidency of the government until after the armistice in February. He was elected to the National Assembly by eight departments, and sat for Morbihan. In October he was elected president of the council general for Morbihan. In July 1872 he retired from political life, and in 1873 from the army. He published in 1873 Pour la verite el pour la justife, in justification of the government of national defence, and in 1879 L' Armee fran$aise en iSjg, par un qfficier en relraiie, a sort of supplement to his former work of 1867. He died at Tours on the 7th of October 1896. TROGEN, a neat and clean little town in the Ausser Rhoden half of the Swiss canton of Appenzell. By light railway it is 6 m. from St Gall, or by carriage road 7 m. from Heiden (the chief goats' whey cure resort in the canton), or 9 m. from Alt- statten in the Rhine valley. It is built on the side of a steepish hill, and in 1900 had 2496 inhabitants, mostly Protestant and German-speaking. In the square before the parish church the Lands gemeinde or primitive democratic assembly of Ausser Rhoden meets in the even years (in other years at Hundwil, not far from Herisau) on the last Sunday in April. Like other towns in Appenzell, Trogen is engaged in the manufacture (in the houses of the workpeople) of embroidery and muslins. TROGLODYTES (TporyXoWrai, from rp6yy\n, hole, 56w, creep), " cave-dwellers," a name applied by ancient writers to different tribes in various parts of the world. Strabo speaks of them in Moesia, south of the Danube (vii. 318), in the Caucasus (xi. 506), but especially in various parts of Africa from Libya (xvii. 828) to the Red Sea. The troglodyte Ethiopians of Herodotus (iv. 183) in inner Africa, very swift of foot, living on lizards and creeping things, and with a speech like the screech of an owl, have been identified with the Tibbus of Fezzan. TROGON--TROGUS, G. P. 299 According to Aristotle (Hist. An. viii. 12) a dwarfish race of Troglodytes dwelt on the upper course of the Nile, who possessed horses and were in his opinion the Pygmies of fable. But the best known of these African cave-dwellers were the inhabitants of the " Troglodyte country " (T/xo7Xo6uTuo7) on the coast of the Red Sea, as far 'north as the Greek port of Berenice, of whom an account has been preserved by Diodorus (iii. 31) and Photius (p. 454 Bekker) from Agatharchides of Cnidus, and by Artemidorus in Strabo (xvi. 776). They were a pastoral people, living entirely on the flesh of their herds, or, in the season of fresh pasture, on mingled milk and blood. But they killed only old or sick cattle (as indeed they killed old men who could no longer follow the flock), and the butchers were called " un- clean "; nay, they gave the name of parent to no man, but only to the cattle which provided their subsistence. This last point seems to be a confused indication of totemism. They went almost naked; the women wore necklaces of shells as amulets. Marriage was unknown, except among the chiefs — a fact which agrees with the prevalence of female kinship in these regions in much later times. They practised circumcision or a mutilation of a more serious kind. Their burial rites were peculiar. The dead body, its neck and legs bound together with withies of the shrub called paliurus, was set up on a mound, and pelted with stones amidst the jeers of the onlookers, until its face was com- pletely covered with them. A goat's horn was then placed above it, and the crowd dispersed with manifestations of joy. It is supposed that the Horim or Horites, the aboriginal inhabitants of Mount Seir, if their name is correctly interpreted "cave- dwellers," were a kindred people to the Troglodytes on the other side of the Red Sea. TROGON, a word apparently first used as English1 by G. Shaw (Mus. Levcrlanum, p. 177) in 1792, and now for many years accepted as the general name of certain birds forming the family Trogonidae of modern ornithology. The trogons are birds of moderate size: the smallest is hardly bigger than a thrush and the largest less bulky than a crow. In most of them the bill is very wide at the gape, which is invariably beset by recurved bristles. They seize most of their food, whether caterpillars or fruits, on the wing, though their alar power is not exceptionally great, their flight being described as short, rapid and spasmodic. Their feet are weak and of a unique structure, the second toe, which in most birds is the inner anterior one, being reverted, and thus the trogons stand alone, since in all other birds that have two toes before and two behind it is the outer toe that is turned backward. The plumage is very remark- able and characteristic. There is not a species which has not beauty beyond most birds, and the glory of the group culminates in the quezal (q.v.). But in others golden green and steely blue, rich crimson2 and tender pink, yellow varying from primrose to amber, vie with one another in vivid coloration, or contrasted, as happens in many species, with a warm tawny or a sombre slaty grey — to say nothing of the delicate freckling of black and white, as minute as the markings of a moth's wing — the whole set off by bands of white, producing an effect hardly equalled in any group. The plumage is further remarkable for the large . size of its contour-feathers, which are extremely soft and so loosely seated as to co'me off in scores at a touch, and there is no down. The tail is generally a very characteristic feature, the rectrices, though in some cases pointed, being often curiously squared at the tip, and when this is the case they are usually 1 Trogonem (the oblique case) occurs in Pliny (H. N. x. 16) as the name of a bird of which he knew nothing, save that it was mentioned by Hylas, an augur, whose work is lost ; but some would read Trygonem (turtle-dove). In 1752 Mohring (Av. Genera, p. 85) applied the name to the " Curucui " (pronounced " Suruqua," vide Bates, Nat. Amazons, i. 254) o_f Marcgrav (Hist. not. Brasiliae, p. 21 1), who described and figured it in 1648 recognizably. In 1760 Brisson (Ornithologie, iv. 164) adopted Trogon as a generic term, and, Linnaeus having followed his example, it has since been universally accepted. 2 Anatole Bogdanoff determined the red pigment of the feathers of Pharomacrus auriceps to be a substance which he called " zooxan- thine " (Comptes rendus, Nov. 2, 1857, xlv. 690). barred ladder-like with white and black.3 According to J. Gould, they are larger and more pointed in the young than in the old, and grow squarer and have the white bands narrower at each succeeding moult. He also asserts that in the species which have the wing coverts freckled, the freckling becomes finer with age. So far as has been observed, the nidifkation of these birds is in holes of trees, wherein are laid without any bedding two roundish eggs, generally white, but certainly in one species (quezal) tinted with bluish green. The trogons form a very well-marked family, belonging to the coraciiform birds, and probably to be placed in that assemblage near the colics (see MOUSE BIRD) and swifts (q.v.). The remains of one, T. gallicus, have been recognized by A. Milne-Ed-wards (Ois. foss. de la France, ii. 395, pi. 177, figs. 18-22) from the Miocene of the Allier. This fortunate discovery seems to account for the remarkable distribution of the trogons at the present day. While they chiefly abound, and have developed their climax of magnifi- cence, in the tropical parts of the New World, they yet occur in the tropical parts of the Old. The species now inhabiting Africa, forming the group Hapaloderma, can hardly be separated generi- cally from those of the Neotropical Trogon, and the difference between the Asiatic forms, if somewhat greater, is still comparatively slight. It is plain then that the Trogons are an exceptionally persistent type; indeed in the whole class few similar instances occur, and perhaps none that can be called parallel. The extreme development of the type in the New World just noticed also furnishes another hint. While in some of the American trogons (Pharo- macrus, for instance) the plumage of the females is not very much less beautiful than that of the males, there are others in which the hen birds retain what may be fairly deemed a more ancient livery, while the cocks flaunt in brilliant attire. Now the plumage of both sexes in all but one 4 of the Asiatic trogons, Harpactes, resembles rather that of the young and of those females of the American species which are modestly clothed. The inference from this fact would seem to be that the general coloration of the Trogons prior to the establishment, by geographical estrangement, of the two types was a russet similar to that now worn by the adults of both sexes in the Indian region, and by a portion only of the females in the Neotropical. The Ethiopian type, as already said, very closely agrees with the American, and therefore would be likely to have been longer in connexion therewith. Again, while the adults of most of the American trogons (Pharomacrus and Euptilotis excepted) have the edges of the bill serrated, their young have them smooth or only with a single notch on either side near the tip, and this is observable in the Asiatic trogons at all ages. At the same time the most distinctive features of the whole group, which are easily taken in at a glance, but are difficult to express briefly in words, are equally possessed by both branches of the family, showing that they were in all likelihood — for the possibility that the peculiarities may have been evolved apart is not to be overlooked — reached before the geographical sundering of these branches (whereby they are now placed on opposite sides of the globe) was effected. About sixty species of trogons are recognized, which J. Gould in the second edition of his Monograph of the family (1875) divides into seven genera. Pharomacrus, Euptilotis and Trogon inhabit the mainland of tropical America, no species passing to the north- ward of the Rio Grande nor southward of the forest district of Brazil, while none occur on the west coast of Peru or Chile. Priono- telus and Tmetotrogon, each with one species, are peculiar respectively to Cuba and Haiti. The African form Hapaloderma has two species, one found only on the west coast, the other of more general range. The Asiatic trogons, Harpactes (with eleven species accord- ing to the same authority), occur from Nepal to Malacca, in Ceylon, and in Sumatra, Java and Borneo, while one species is peculiar to some of the Philippine Islands. (A. N.) TROGUS, GNAEUS POMPEIUS, Roman historian from the country of the Vocontii in Gallia Narbonensis, nearly contem- porary with Livy, flourished during the age of Augustus. His grandfather served in the war against Sertorius with Pompey, through whose influence he obtained the Roman citizenship; hence the name Pompeius, adopted as a token of gratitude to his benefactor. His father served under Julius Caesar in the capacity of secretary and interpreter. Trogus himself seems to have been a man of encyclopaedic knowledge. He wrote, after Aristotle and Theophrastus, books on the natural history of animals and plants, frequently quoted by the elder Pliny. But his principal work wa's Historiae Philippicae in forty-four 3 In the trogon of Cuba, Prionotelus, they are most curiously scooped out, as it were, at the extremity, and the lateral pointed ends diverge in a way almost unique among birds. 4 Or two species if N. macloti be more than a local form of H. reinwardti. 300 TROIA— TROLLHATTAN books, so called because the Macedonian empire founded by Philip is the central theme of the narrative. This was a general history of the world, or rather of those portions of it which came under the sway of Alexander and his successors. It began with Ninus, the founder of Nineveh, and ended at about the same point as Livy (A.D. 9). The last event recorded by the epitomator Justin (q.v.) is the recovery of the Roman standards captured by the Parthians (20 B.C.). He left untouched Roman history up to the time when Greece and the East came into contact with Rome, possibly because Livy had sufficiently treated it. The work was based upon the writings of Greek historians, such as Theopompus (also the author of a Philippica), Ephorus, Timaeus, PoJybius. Chiefly on the ground that such a work was beyond the powers of a Roman, it is generally agreed that Trogus did not gather together the information from the leading Greek historians for himself, but that it was already combined into a single book by some Greek (very probably Timagenes of Alexandria). His idea of history was more severe and less rhetorical than that of Sallust and Livy, whom he blamed for putting elaborate speeches into the mouths of the characters of whom they wrote. Of his great work, we possess only the epitome by Justin, the prologi or summaries of the 44 books, and fragments in Vopiscus, Jerome, Augustine and other writers. But even in its present mutilated state it is often an important authority for the ancient history of the East. Ethnographical and geographical excursuses are a special feature of the work. Fragments edited by A. Bielowski (1853); see also.A.H.L.Heeren, De Trogi P.fontibus et auctoritate (prefixed to C. H. Frotscher's edition of Justin); A. Enmann on the authorities used by Trogus for Greek and Sicilian history (1880); A. von Gutschmid, Uber die Fragmente des Pompeius Trogus (1857); M. Schanz, Geschichte der rdmischen Litteratur (2nd ed., 1899), ii., where all that is known of Timagenes is given; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature, § 258; and article JUSTIN. TROIA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Foggia, situated 1440 ft. above sea-level, 7 m. N.W. of the station of Giardinetto-Troia, which is 16 m. S.W. of Foggia. Pop. (1901), 6674. Troia occupies the site of the ancient Aecae, 1 2 m. S. of Luceria, on the Via Traiana, a town which fell to Hannibal after the victory of Cannae, but was won back by the Romans in 214. Under the empire it appears to have become a colony. Troia was itself founded in 1017 by the Greek prefect Basilius Bugianus. The cathedral dates from 1107, but the upper part of the facade with its curious sculptures, fine rose- window and polychromatic decoration, the choir apse and the interior were restored early in the I3th century. The latter has been somewhat spoilt by recent decorations. The bronze doors, partly in relief and partly in niello, of 1119 and 1127 respectively, were cast in Beneventum by Oderisius Berardus. The small domed church of S. Basilio has an ambo of 1 1 58. TROILUS, in Greek legend, son of Priam (or Apollo) and Hecuba. His father, when upbraiding his surviving sons for their cowardice, speaks in the Iliad (xxiv. 257) of Tro'ilus as already slain before the action of the poem commences. Accord- ing to a tradition drawn from other sources and adopted by Virgil (Aen. i. 474), when a mere boy he fell by the hand of Achilles. In another account, he was dragged to death by his own horses. His death formed the subject of a lost tragedy by Sophocles. There is no trace in classical writers of the story of Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida, the materials for which were derived from Chaucer's poem of the same name, Lydgate's History, Sege, and Destruction of Troy, Caxton's Recuyell of the Historyes of Troy (trans, from Norman French of Raoul le Fevre), Chapman's translation of Homer, and perhaps a play on the subject by Dekker and Chattle. TROITSK, a town of eastern Russia, in the government of Orenburg, situated in a fertile steppe, 315 m. N.E. of Orenburg, and 77 m. S. of Chelyabinsk, on the Siberian highway. Pop. (1885), 18,497; Oooo), 23,293- It has grown rapidly in modern times. The Troitskiy fort, erected in 1743, became a centre for trade with the Kirghiz steppe and Turkestan, and in that trade Troitsk is now second only to Orenburg. Cotton, silk, and especially horses and cattle are imported, while leather, cotton, woollen and metal wares are exported. An active trade in corn for the Ural gold mines is carried on. The place has ironworks and tanneries. TROLLE, HERLUF (1516-1565), Danish naval hero, was born on the i4th of January 1516 at Lillo. At the age of nineteen Trolle went to Vor Frue Skele at Copenhagen, subsequently completing his studies at Wittenberg, where he adopted the views of Melanchthon, with whom he was in intimate corre- spondence for some years. His marriage with Brigitte, the daughter of Lord Treasurer Mogens Gjoe, brought him a rich inheritance, and in 1557 he took his seat in the senate. Both Christian III. and Frederick II. had a very high opinion of Trolle's trustworthiness and ability and employed him in various diplomatic missions. Trolle was, indeed, richly endowed by nature, and his handsome face and lively manners made him popular everywhere. His one enemy was his wife's nephew Peder Oxe, the subsequently distinguished finance minister, whose narrow grasping ways, especially as the two men were near neighbours, did not contribute towards family harmony. It was Trolle whom Frederick II. appointed to investigate the charges of malversation brought against Oxe. Both Trolle and his wife were far renowned for their piety and good works, and their whole household had to conform to their example or seek service elsewhere. A man of culture, moreover, he translated David's 3ist Psalm into Danish verse. He also promoted literature and learning by educating poor students both at home and abroad, endowing Latin schools and encourag- ing historical research. In 1559 Trolle was appointed admiral and inspector of the fleet, a task which occupied all his time and energy. In 1563 he superseded the aged Peder Skram as admiral in chief. On the icth of May he put to sea with twenty- one ships of the line and five smaller vessels and, after uniting with a Lubeck squadron of six liners, encountered, off the isle of Gland, a superior Swedish fleet of thirty-eight ships under Jacob Bagge. Supported by two other Danish ships Trolle attacked the Swedish flagship "Makalos" (Matchless), then the largest battleship in northern waters, but was beaten off at nightfall. The fight was renewed at six o'clock the following morning, when the " Makalos " was again attacked and forced to surrender, but blew up immediately afterwards, no fewer than 300 Lubeck and Danish sailors perishing with her. But the Swedish admiral was captured and the remnant of the Swedish fleet took refuge at Stockholm. Despite the damage done to his own fleet and flagship " Fortuna " by this great victory, Trolle, on the I4th of August, fought another but indecisive action with a second Swedish fleet under the famous Swedish admiral Klas Horn, and kept the sea till the i3th of October. Trolle spent the winter partly at his castle of Herlufsholm com- pleting his long cherished plan of establishing a school for all classes, and partly at Copenhagen equipping a new fleet for the ensuing campaign. On the ist of June 1565 he set sail with twenty-eight liners, which were reinforced off Femern by five Lubeck vessels. Klas Horn had put to sea still earlier with a superior fleet and the two admirals encountered off Fehmarn on the 4th of June. The fight was severe but indecisive, and both commanders finally separated to repair their ships. Trolle had been severely wounded in the thigh and shoulder, but he would not let the ship's surgeon see to his ihjuries till every one else had been attended to. This characteristic act of unselfishness was his undoing, for he died at Copenhagen on the 2 5th of June, seventeen days after they had put him ashore. TROLLHATTAN, a town of Swed&n in the district (Ian) of Elfsborg, 45 m. by rail N. by E. of Gothenburg. Pop. 6000. It lies on the left (east) bank of the Gota at the point where that river descends 108 ft. in the course of nearly a mile by the famous falls of Trollhattan (six in number) and several rapids. The scenic setting of the falls is not striking, but the great volume of water, nearly 18,000 cub. ft. per second, renders them most imposing. The narrowed river here surrounds several islands, on either side of one of which (Toppo) are the first falls of the series, Toppo and Tjuf. These are 42 ft. in height. The water- power is used in rolling-mills, a cellulose factory and other works. TROLLOPE 301 Several " giant's caldrons '' are seen in the exposed bed of a former channel. Below the falls are valuable salmon fisheries. To the east of the river the Berg canal, part of the Gb'ta canal system, ascends in a series of eleven new locks (Akersvass) completed in 1844. An old series of locks (1800) is in use for small vessels. There are also ruins of an abortive attempt made to lock the falls in 1755. (See GOTA.) TROLLOPE, ANTHONY (1815-1882), English novelist, was born in London, on the 24th of April 1815. His father, Thomas Anthony Trollope (1780-1835), a barrister who had been fellow of New College, Oxford, was reduced to poverty by unbusiness- like habits and injudicious speculation, and in 1829 Anthony's mother, FRANCES MILTON TROLLOPE (1780-1863), went with her husband to the United States to open a small fancy-goods shop in Cincinnati. The enterprise was a failure, but her three years' stay in that country resulted in a book on the Domestic Manners of the Americans (1832), of which she gave an unflattering account that aroused keen resentment. Returning to England her husband was compelled to flee the country in order to escape his creditors, and Mrs Trollope thereafter supported him in Bruges until his death by her incessant literary work. She published some books of travel, most of which are coloured by prejudice, and many novels, among the best known of which are The Vicar of Wrexhill (1837) and the Widow Barnaby (1839), studies in that vein of broad comedy in which lay her peculiar gift. She wrote steadily for more than twenty years, until her death, at Florence, on the 6th of October 1863. (See Frances Trollope, her Life and Literary Work, by her daughter-in-law 1895.) Her eldest son THOMAS ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE (1810- 1892), was educated at Winchester and Oxford, and spent most of his life in Italy. He wrote a number of works on Italian subjects, among them Homes and Haunts of Italian Poets (1881), in collaboration with his second wife, Frances Eleanor Trollope, herself a novelist of no mean ability. He was a voluminous author, and perhaps the quantity of his work has obscured its real merit. Among his novels are La Beata (1861)* Gemma (1866), and The Gar slangs of Garstang Grange (1869). (See his autobiography, What I Remember 1887.) Anthony Trollope was the third son. By his own account few English men of letters have had an unhappier childhood and youth. He puts down his own misfortunes, at Harrow, at Winchester, at Harrow again, and elsewhere, to his father's pecuniary circumstances, which made his own appearance dirty and shabby, and subjected him to various humiliations. But it is permissible to suspect that this was not quite the truth, and that some peculiarities of temper, of which in after life he had many, contributed to his unpopularity. At any rate he seems to have reached the verge of manhood as ignorant as if he had had no education at all. After an experience as usher in a private school at Brussels he obtained, at the age of nineteen, by favour (for he could not pass even the ridiculous examination then usual) a position in the London post office. Even then his troubles were not over. He got into debt; he got into ridiculous entanglements of love affairs, which he has very candidly avowed; he was in constant hot water with the authorities; and he seems to have kept some very queer company, which long afterwards stood him in good stead as models for some of his novels. At last in August 1841 he obtained the appointment of clerk to one of the post office surveyors in a remote part of Ireland with a very small salary. This, however, was practically quadrupled by allowances; living was cheap; and the life suited Trollope exactly, being not office work, which he always hated, but a kind of travelling inspectorship. In the discharge of his duties he evinced a business capacity quite unsuspected by his former superiors. Here he began that habit of hunting which, after a manner hardly possible in later conditions of official work, he kept up for many years even in England. Within three years of his appointment he became engaged to Rose Heseltine, whom he had met in Ireland but who was of English birth. They were married in June 1844. His headquarters had previously been at Banagher; he was now transferred to Clonmel. Trollope had always dreamt of novel-writing, and his Irish experiences seemed to supply him with promising subjects. With some assistance from his mother he got published his first two books, The Macdermots of Ballycloran (1847) and The Kellys and the O'Kellys (1848). Neither was in the least a success, though the second perhaps deserved to be, and a third, La Vendee (1850), besides being a much worse book than either, was equally a failure. Trollope made various literary attempts, but for a time ill fortune attended all of them. Meanwhile he was set on a new kind of post office work, which suited him even better than his former employment — a sort of roving com- mission to inspect rural deliveries and devise their extension, first in Ireland, then throughout the west of England and South Wales. That he did good work is undeniable; but his curious conception of official duty, on his discharge of which he prided himself immensely, is exhibited by his confessions that he "got his hunt- ing out of it," and that he felt " the necessity of travelling miles enough " — he was paid by the mileage — " to keep his horses." It was during this work that he struck the vein which gave him fortune and fame. A visit to Salisbury Close inspired him with the idea of The Warden (1855). It brought him little immediate profit, nor was even Barchester Towers, which followed in 1857, very profitable, though it contains his freshest, his most original, and, with the exception of The Last Chronicle of Barset, his best work. The two made him a reputation, however, and in 1858 he was able for the first time to sell a novel, The Three Clerks, for a substantial sum, £250. A journey on post office business to the West Indies gave him material for a book of travel, The West Indies and the Spanish Main (1859), which he frankly and quite truly acknowledges to be much better than some subsequent work of his in the same line. From this time his production, mainly of novels, was incessant, and the sums which he received were very large, amounting in one case to as much as £3525 for a single book, and to nearly £70,000 in the twenty years between 1859 and 1879. All these particulars are given with great minuteness by himself, and are characteristic. The full high tide of his fortunes began when the Cornhill Magazine was established. He was asked at short notice to contribute a novel, and wrote in 1861 Framley Parsonage, which was extremely popular; two novels immediately preceding it, The Bertrams (1859) and Castle Richmond Ci86o1 had been much less successful. As it will be possible to notice few of his other works, the list of them, a sufficiently astonishing one, may be given here: Doctor Thome (1858); Tales of All Countries (3rd series 1863); Orley Farm; North America (1862); Rachael Ray (1863); The Small House at Allington, Can You Forgive Her? (1864); Miss Mackenzie (1865); The Belton Estate (1866); The Claverings, Nina Balatka, The Last Chronicle of Barset (1867); Linda Tressel (1868); Phineas Finn, He Knew He Was Right (1869); The Struggles of Brown, Jones and Robinson, the Vicar of Bullhampton, An Editor s Tales, The Com- mentaries of Caesar (1870); Sir Harry Hotspur of Humblethwaite, Ralph the Heir (1871); The Golden Lion of Granpere (1872); The Eustace Diamonds, Australia and New Zealand (1873); Phineas Redux, Harry Heathcote of Gangoil, Lady Anna (1874) ; The Way We Live Now (1875) ; The Prime Minister (1876) ; The American Senator (1877); Is He Popenjoy? So^lth Africa (1878); John Caldigate, An Eve for an Eye, Cousin Henry, Thackeray (1879); The Duke's Children, Cicero (1880); Ayala's Angel, Dr Wortle's School (1881); Frau Froh- mann, Lord Palmerston, The Fixed Period, Kept in the Dark, Marion Fay (1882); Mr Scarborough's Family, The Land Leaguers (1883); and An Old Man's Love (1884), and several volumes of short stories. How this enormous total was achieved in spite of official work (of which, lightly as he took it, he did a good deal, and which he did not give up for many years), of. hunting three times a week in the season, of whist-playing, of not a little going into general society, he has explained with his usual curious minuteness. He reduced novel-writing to the con- ditions of regular mechanical work — so much so that latterly he turned out 250 words every quarter of an hour, and wrote at this rate three hours a day. He divided every book before- hand into so many days' work and checked off the amount as he wrote. A life thus spent could not be very eventful, and its events may be summed up rapidly. In 1858 he went to Egypt on post office business, and at the end of 1859 he got himself 302 TROMBA MARINA— TROMBONE transferred from Ireland to the eastern district of England. Here he took a house, at Waltham. He took an active part in the establishment of the Fortnightly Review in 1865; he was editor of St Paul's for some time after 1867; and at the end of that year he resigned his position in the post office. He stood as a parliamentary candidate for Beverley and was defeated ; he received from his old department special missions to America and elsewhere — he had already gone to America during the Civil War. He went to Australia in 1871, and before going broke up his household at Waltham. When he returned he established himself in London, and lived there until 1880, when he removed to Harting, on the confines of Sussex and Hampshire. He had visited South Africa in 1877 and travelled elsewhere. He died of paralysis on the 6th of December 1882. Of Trollope's personal character it is not necessary to say much. Strange as his conception of official duty may seem, it was evidently quite honest and sincere, and, though he is said to have been as an official popular neither with superiors nor inferiors, he no doubt did much good work. Privately he was much liked and much disliked — a great deal of real kindness being accom- panied by a blustering and overbearing manner, and an egotism, not perhaps more deep than other men's, but more vociferous. None of his literary work except the novels is remarkable for merit. His Caesar and Cicero are curious examples of a man's undertaking work for which he was not in the least fitted. Thackeray exhibits, though Trollope appears to have both admired Thackeray as an artist and liked him as a man, grave faults of taste and judgment, and a complete lack of real criticism. The books of travel are not good, and of a kind not good. Nina Balatka and Linda Tressel — stories dealing with Prague and Nuremberg respectively — were published anonymously and as experiments in the romantic style. They have been better thought of by the author and by some competent judges than by the public or the publishers. The Struggles of Brown, Jones and Robinson was still more disliked, and is certainly very bad as a whole, but has touches of curious originality in parts. Trollope seldom creates a character of the first merit; at the same time his characters are always alive. Dr Thorne, Mr Harding, who has the courage to resign his sinecure in The Warden, Mr Crawley, Archdeacon Grantley, and Mrs Proudie in the same ecclesiastical series, are distinct additions to the personae of English fiction After his first failures he never produced any thing that was not a faithful and sometimes a very amusing transcript of the sayings and doings of possible men and women. His characters are never marionettes, much less sticks. He has some irritating mannerisms, notably a trick of repetition of the same form of words. He is sometimes absolutely vulgar — that is to say, he does not deal with low life, but shows, though always robust and pure in morality, a certain coarseness of taste. He is constantly rather trivia), and perhaps nowhere out of the Barset series (which, however, is of itself no in- considerable work) has he produced books that will live. The very faithfulness of his representation of a certain phase of thought, of cultivation, of society, uninformed as it is by any higher spirit, in the long run damaged, as it had first helped, the popularity of his work. But, allowing for all this it may and must still be said that he held up his mirror steadily to nature, and that the mirror itself was fashioned with no inconsiderable art. Trollope wrote an' Autobiography, edited by his son Henry M. Trollope in 1883, explaining his literary methods with amusing frankness. See also Sir L. Stephen's Studies of a Biographer (1898), James Bryce's Studies in Contemporary Biography (1903), and Henry James's Partial Portraits (1888). TROMBA MARINA, or MARINE TRUMPET (Fr. trompetle marine; Ger. Marine Trompete, Trompetengeige, Nonnengeige, Tympanischiza or Trummscheit), a triangular bowed instru- ment about 6 ft. in length, which owes its characteristic timbre to the peculiar construction of the bridge. The tromba marina consists of a body and neck in the shape of a truncated cone resting on a triangular base. In the days of Michael Praetorius (1618), the length of the Trummscheit was 7 ft. 3 in. and the three sides at the base measured 7 in., tapering to 2 in. at the neck. These measurements varied considerably, as did also the shape of the body and the number of strings. In some cases the base of the body was left open, and in others there were sound-holes. The bridge, from its curiously irregular shape, was known as the " shoe "; it was thick and high at the one side on which rested the string, and low and narrow at the other which was left loose so that it vibrated against the belly with every movement of the bow, producing a trumpet- like timbre. It is to this»feature, in conjunction with its general resemblance in contour to the marine speaking-trumpet of the middle ages, that the name of the instrument is doubtless due. There was at first but one string, generally a D violoncello string, which was not stopped by the fingers in the usual way, but played only in harmonics by lightly touching it with the thumb at the nodal points. The heavy blow, similar to that of the violoncello, is used between the highest positions of the left hand at the nodal points and the nut of the head. In a Trummscheit in the collection of the Kgl. Hochschule, at Charlottenburg (No. 772 in catalogue) the frets are lettered A,D,F,A,D,F,G,A,B,C,D. Sometimes an octave string, half the length of the melody string, and even two more, respectively the twelfth and the double octave, not resting on the bridge but acting as sympathetic strings, were added to improve the timbre by strengthening the pure harmonic tones without increasing the blare due to the action of the bridge. In Germany, at the time when the trumpet was extensively used in the churches, nuns often substituted the tromba marina, whence the name Nonnengeige. In France, the Grande Ecurie du Roi comprised five trumpets-marine and cromornes among the band in 1662, when the charge was mentioned for the first time in the accounts; and in 1666 the number was increased to six. The instrument fell into disuse during the first half of the i8th century, and was only to be seen in the hands of itinerant and street musicians. (K. S.) TROMBONE (Fr. trombone, Ger. Posaune, Ital. Irombono), an important member of the brass wind family of musical instruments formerly known as sackbut. The trombone is characterized by the slide, consisting of two parallel cylindrical tubes, over which two other cylindrical tubes, communicating at their lower extremities by means of a short semicircular FIG. i. — Tenor Trombone (Besson & Co.). pipe, slip without loss of air. The outer tube, therefore, slides upon the inner, and as it is drawn downwards by the right hand opens a greater length of tube proportional to the depth of pitch required. When the slide is closed the instrument is at its highest pitch. To the upper end of one of the inner tubes is fastened the cup-shaped mouthpiece and to the end of the other tube is fixed the bell-joint. This joint, on the proper proportions of which depend in a greater measure the acoustic properties of the trombone, consists of a length of tubing with conical bore widening out into a large bell and doubled back once upon itself in a plane at right angles to that of the slide. The bell-joint is strengthened by two or three stays, and the slide also has two, one between the inner immovable tubes and the other on the outer sliding tubes, by means of which the slide is drawn out and pushed in. Sound is produced on the trombone, as on the horn, by means of the lips stretched like a vibrating reed across the cup mouthpiece from rim to rim; the acoustic principles in- volved are the same for both instruments. By overblowing, i.e. by the varying tension of the lips and pressure of breath, the harmonic series is obtained, which is effective between the second and the tenth harmonics, the fundamental being but rarely of practical use. There are seven positions of the slide on the trombone, each TROMBONE 3°3 giving a theoretical fundamental tone and its upper partials a semitone lower than the last, and corresponding to the seven shifts on the violin and to the seven positions on valve instru- ments. These seven positions are found by drawing out the slide a little more for each one, the first position being that in which the slide remains closed. The performer on the trombone is just as dependent on an accurate ear for finding the correct positions as a violinist. The table of harmonics for the seven positions of the tenor trombone in Bb is appended; they furnish a complete chromatic compass of two octaves and a sixth. Position I. (with closed slide). II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. These notes represent all the notes in practical use, although it is possible to produce certain of the higher harmonics. The instru- ment being non-transposing, the notation represents the real sounds. The four chief trombones used in the orchestra are the following : — The Alto in E flat or F. HF 1 The Tenor-Bass in B flat. The Bass in F or G -ET 1 or(^) to IE J£ (with double slide in E flat). : The Contra-Bass in B flat. An octave below the Tenor-Bass. £ -to 8"" bassa The compass given above is extreme and includes the notes obtained by means of the slide; the notes in brackets are very difficult; the fundamental notes, even whefl they can be played, are not of much practical use. The contra-bass trombone, although not much in request in the concert hall, is required for the Nibelungen Ring, in which Wagner has scored effectively for it. The quality of tone varies greatly in the different instruments and registers. The alto trombone has neither power nor richness of tone, but sounds hard and has a timbre between that of a trumpet and a French horn. The tenor and bass have a full rich quality suitable for heroic, majestic music, but the tone depends greatly on the performer's method of playing; the modern tendency to produce a harsh, noisy blare is greatly to be deplored. Besides the slide trombone, which is most largely used, there are the valve trombones, and the double-slide trombones. The former are made in the same keys as the instruments given above and are constructed in the same manner, except that the slide is replaced by three pistons, which enable the performer to obtain a greater technical execution; as the tone suffers thereby and loses its character- istic timbre, the instruments have never become popular in England. FIG. 2. The double-slide trombone (fig. 2) — patented by Messrs Rudall Carte & Co. but said to have been originally invented by Halary in 1830 — is made in Bb, G bass and Eb contrabass. In these instruments each of the branches of the slide is made half the usual length. There are four branches instead of two and the two pairs lie one over the other, each pair being connected at the bottom by a semi- circular tube and the second pair similarly at the top as well. The usual bar or stay suffices for drawing out both pairs of slides simul- taneously, but as the lengthening of the air column is now doubled in proportion to the shift of the slide, the extension of arm for the lower positions is lessened by half, which increases the facility of execution but calls for greater nicety in the adjustment of the slide, more especially in the higher positions. The history of the evolution of the trombone from the buccina is given in the article on the Sackbut (q.v.), the name by which the earliest draw or slide trumpets were known in England. The Germans call the trombone Posaune, formerly buzaun, busine, pusin or pusun in the poems and romances of the I2th and i3th century, words all clearly derived from the Latin buccina. The modern designation " large trumpet " comes from the Italian, in which tromba means not only trumpet, but also pump and elephant's trunk. It is difficult to say where or at what epoch the instrument was invented. In a psalter (No. 20) of the nth century, preserved at Boulogne, there is a drawing of an instrument which bears a great resemblance to a trombone deprived of its bell. Sebastian Virdung, Ottmar Luscinius, and Martin Agricola say little about the trombone, but they give illustrations of it under the name of busaun which show that early in the i6th century it was almost the same as that employed in our day. It would not be correct to assume from this that the trombone was not well known at that date in Germany, and for the following reasons. First, the art of trombone playing was in the I5th century in Germany mostly in the hands of the members of the town bands, whose duties included playing on the watch towers, in churches, at pageants, banquets and festivals, and they, being jealous of their privileges, kept the secrets of their art closely, so that writers, such as the above, although acquainted with the appearance, tone and action of the instrument would have but little opportunity of learning much about the method of producing the sound. Secondly, German and Dutch trombone players are known to have been in request during the 1 5th century at the courts of Italian princes.1 Thirdly, Hans Neuschel of Nuremberg, the most celebrated performer and maker of his day, had already won a name at the end of the isth century for the excellence of his " Posaunen," and it is recorded that he made great improvements in the construction of the instrument in I4Q8,2 a date which probably marks the transition from sackbut to trombone, by enlarging the bore and turning the bell-joint round at right angles to the slide. Finally in early German translations of Vegetius's De re militari (1470) the buccina is described (bk. in., 5) as the trumpet or posaun which is drawn in and out, showing that the instrument v/as not only well known, but that it had been identified as the descendant of the buccina. By the i6th century the trombone had come into vogue in England, and from the name it bore at first, not sackbut, but shakbusshe, it 1 E. Van der Straeten, Les Musiciens neerlandais p. 26. 2 See G. von Retberg " Zur Gesch. d. Musik-instrumente " in Anzeiger fur Kunde der deutschen Vorzeit p. 241. (Nuremberg, 1860), See also letters from Jorg Neuschell 1540-1545 in Monatsheftef. Musikwissenschaft, ix. p. 149 seq. 3°4 TROMP is evident that the instrument had been introduced from Spain and not from France (where it bore the name of saquebute), as some have assumed from the more frequent use of the word sackbut. The band of musicians in the service of Henry VIII. included ten sackbut players, and under Elizabeth, in 1587, there were six English instrumentalists then enjoyed a certain reputation and were sought for by foreign courts; thus in 1604 Charles III. of Lorraine sought to recruit his sackbut players from English bands.1 Praetorius2 classes the trombones in a complete family, the relative tonalities of which were thus composed: I -Alt-Posaun, 4 Gemeine rechte Posaunen, 2 Quart-Posaunen, i Octav-Posaun — eight in all. The Alt-posaun was in D. With the slide closed, it gave the first of the accompanying harmonics: — "3: ^E£ •4- The gemeine rechte Posaunen, or ordinary trombones, were Without using the slide they gave the subjoined sounds : — A in A. The Quart-Posaun was made either in E, the fourth below the gemeine rechte Posaun, or in D, the lower fifth. In the latter case it was exactly an octave below the Alt-Posaun. The Octav-Posaun was in A. It was, constructed in two different fashions: either it had a length double that of the ordinary trombone, or the slide was shortened, the length of the column of air being still maintained by the adaptation of a crook. The first system, which was invented by Hans Schreiber four years before the work of Praetorius appeared, gave the instrumentalist a slide by which he* could procure in the lower octave all the sounds of the ordinary trombone. The second system, which Praetorius had known for years, was distinguished from the first, not only by modifications affecting the form, but also by a larger bore. Mersenne 3 calls the trombone trompette harmo- nique, or tuba tractilis. He describes carefully the seven positions and gives the diatonic scale for the first octave, but he does not, like Praetorius, mention the pitch of the trombones in use in his day. He established this fact, however, that it was customary in France, as in Germany, to lower the instrument a fourth below the pitch of the ordinary trombone by means of a tortil, a kind of crook with a double turn that was fitted between the bell and the slide, " in order," he said, " to make the bass to hautbois concerts." This system, so simple and rational, might have been expected always to serve for the basis of the technique of the instrument; but from the middle of the i8th century the art of playing the trom- bone became the object of purely empiric teaching. Owing to the decline in the popularity of the trombone during the 1 8th century in England, France, Germany and Italy, writers of that period are sometimes at a loss to describe the working and effect of theslide, as were the early 16th-century authors. J. J. Eisel, and after him Jacob Lotter, whose work is a rechauffe of Eisel's, mention four principal positions, " the others not being of much importance." The lowering of the pitch effected by means of these four positions, however, is almost equal to that of the seven positions of the modern trombone. The tenor or ordinary trombone is given as an example. It stood in the first position in A. The second position, equal to the modern third produced the harmonic series of the fundamental G one tone lower than the first position. The third position gave F again a tone lower and corresponding to our sixth position. The fourth position, which extended so far outward "that the arm could hardly reach it," gave E as fundamental. The intermediate semitones, instead of being considered as positions, are treated as accidentals, lowering or raising any note obtained in one of the positions by draw- ing out, or pushing in, the slide approximately an extra two-fingers breadth. It would not be correct to state without qualification that four positions only were used on the trombone in the i8th century. Samuel VVesley, who has left notes on the scales of various instru- ments, in his own hand (Add MS. 35011 fol. 166 Brit. Mus.), has added under the scales of the trombones — bass, tenor and alto — • the remark " sacbut or double trumpet, the scale of which is wanting." Of all wind instruments the trombone has perhaps been least modified in form; changes have occasionally been attempted, but for the most part with only trifling success. The innovation which has had the most vogue dates from the end of the l8th century; it consisted in bending the tube of the bell in a half circle above the head of the executant, which produced a very bizarre effect. It also gave rise to very serious inconveniences : by destroy- ing the regularity of the proportions of the bell it prejudicially affected the quality of tone and intonation of the instrument. For a long time the curved bell with its serpent's mask known as the Bucin — a term borrowed from the French in this instance— was maintained in military music, and it is not so very long since it was completely given up. By giving a half turn more to the bell tube its opening was directed to the back of the executant ; but this 1 See A. Jacquot, La Musique en Lorraine, p. 6l. 2 Organographia (Wolfenbuttel, 1619). 1 Harmonic universelle (Paris, 1636). FIG. 3. — Contrabass Trombone (Boosey & Co.). form, in fashion for a little while about 1830, was not long adhered to, and the trombone reassumed its primitive form, which is still maintained. As appears from a patent deposited by Stolzel and Bliimel at Berlin on the I2th of April 1818 the application of ventils or pistons was then made for the first time.4 The ventils, at first two in number, effected a definite lengthening of the instrument. The first augmented the length of the tube by a tone, lowering by as much the natural harmonics. The second produced a similar effect for a semitone, and the simultaneous employment of the two pistons resulted in the depression of a tone and a half. The principle, therefore, of the employment of ventils or pistons is the same as that which governs the use of slides (see VALVES). Notwithstanding the increased facility obtained by the use of pistons, they are very far from having gained the suffrage of all players: many prefer the slide, believing that it gives a facility of emission that they can- not obtain with a piston trombone. The flat tonalities having been preferred for military music since the beginning of the igth century the pitch of each variety of trombones has been raised a semitone. At present six trombones are more or less in use, viz. the alto trombone in F, the alto in Eb (formerly in D), the tenor in Bb (formerly in A), the bass in G, the bass in F (formerly in E), the bass in Eb (formerly in D), and the contrabass in B|>. This transposition has no reference to the number of vibrations that may be officially or tacitly adopted as the standard pitch of any country or locality. A trombone an octave lower than the tenor has recently been re- introduced into the orchestra, principally by Wagner. The different varieties just cited are constructed with pistons or slides, as the case may be. Further information on the trombone will be found in the mono- graphs by the Rev. F. W. Galpin, "The Sackbut: its Evolution and History," Proc. Mus. Assoc. (1906-1907); by Victor Mahillon, Le Trombone, son histoire, sa theorie, sa construction (Brussels, London, 1907). Before his recent death Professor George Case had in preparation an important work on the trombone. (V. M.; K. S.) TROMP, the name of two famous Dutch admirals. i. MARTIN HARPERTZOON TROMP (1597-1653) was born at Brielle, South Holland, in 1597. At the age of eight he made a voyage to the East Indies in a merchantman, but was made prisoner and spent several years on board an English cruiser. On making his escape to Holland he entered the navy in 1624, and in 1637 was made lieutenant-admiral. In February 1639 he surprised, off the Flemish coast near Gravelines, a large Spanish fleet, which he completely destroyed, and in the following September he defeated the combined fleets of Spain and Portugal off the English coast — achievements which placed him in the first rank of Dutch naval commanders. On the outbreak of war with England Tromp appeared in the Downs in command of a large fleet and anchored off Dover. On the approach of Blake he weighed anchor and stood over towards France, but suddenly altered his course and bore down on the English fleet, which was much inferior to his in numbers. In the engagement which followed (May 19, 1652) he had rather the worst of it and drew off with the loss of two ships. In November he again appeared in command of eighty ships of war, and a convoy of 300 merchantmen, which he had under- taken to guard past the English coast. Blake resolved to attack him, and, the two fleets coming to close quarters near Dungeness on the 3oth of November, the English, after severe losses, drew off in the darkness and anchored off Dover, retiring next day to the Downs, while Tromp anchored off Boulogne 4 This was mentioned in the Leipzig Allg. musik. Ztg. (1815), the merit of the invention being assigned to Heinrich 'StSlzel of Pless in Silesia. TROMSO— TROON 305 till the Dutch merchantmen had all passed beyond danger. The statement that he sailed up the Channel with a broom at his masthead in token of his ability to sweep the seas is probably mythical. In the following February (1653), while in charge of a large convoy of merchantmen, he maintained a running fight with the combined English fleets under Blake, Penn and Monk off Portland to the sands of Calais, and, though baffling to some extent the purposes of the English, had the worst of the encounter, losing nine ships of war and thirty or forty merchantmen. On the 3rd of June he fought an indecisive battle with the English fleet under Richard Dean in the Channel, but the arrival of reinforcements under Blake on the following day enabled the English to turn the scale against him and he retired to the Texel with the loss of seventeen ships. Greatly discouraged by the results of the battle, the Dutch sent commissioners to Cromwell to treat for peace, but the proposal was so coldly received that war was immediately renewed, Tromp again appearing in the Channel towards the end of July 1653. In the hotly contested conflict which followed with the English under Monk on the 2gth Tromp was shot by a musket bullet through the heart. He was buried with great pomp at Delft, where there is a monument to his memory in the old church. 2. CORNELIUS VAN TROMP (1620-1691), the second son of the preceding, was born at Rotterdam on the gth of September 1629. At the age of nineteen he commanded a small squadron charged to pursue the Barbary pirates. In 1652 and 1653 he served in Van Galen's fleet in the Mediterranean, and after the action with the English fleet off Leghorn on the I3th of March 1653, in which Van Galen was killed, Tromp was promoted to be rear-admiral. On the i3th of July 1665 his squadron was, by a hard stroke of ill-fortune, defeated by the English under the duke of York. In the following year Tromp served under De Ruyter, and on account of De Ruyter's complaints of his negligence in the action of the sth of August he was deprived of his command. He was, however, reinstated in 1673 by the stadtholder William, afterwards king of England, and in the actions of the 7th and of the I4th of June, against the allied fleets of England and France, manifested a skill and bravery which completely justified his reappointment. In 1675 he visited England, where he was received with honour by King Charles II. In the following year he was named lieutenant-admiral of the United Provinces. He died at Amsterdam, on the 2gth of May 1691, shortly after he had been appointed to the command of a fleet against France. Like his father he was buried at Delft. See H. de Jager, Het Ceslacht Tromp (1883). TROMSO, a seaport of Norway, capital of the ami (county) and slift (diocese) of the same name on the north-western coast. Pop. (1900), 6955. It stands on the eastern shore of a low fertile islet between Kvalo and the mainland, in 69° 38' N., 18° 55' E. (the latitude is that of Disco, Greenland). The vegetation of the island (mountain ash and birch) is remarkably luxuriant. The buildings, mostly of wood, include the town-hall and a museum, which contains a good zoological collection. Sealskins and other furs, and whale and seal oil, are exported, and the herring fishery is very productive. Imports are coal, textiles, salt, grain and flour. Mean temperature of year 36-4° F.; February 25°; July 51-8°., Tromso was founded in 1794. A number of Lapps usu illy encamp in the neighbouring Tromsdal during summer. Thi coast scenery, with its islands and snowy mountains, is wild ai i beautiful. TRONCHET, FRA1 £018 DENIS (1726-1806), French jurist, was born in Paris -called " tropelnes." On distillation with caustic baryta or so( a lime it decomposes into methylamine and tropilidine, CyHg (A. Ladenburg, Ann. 1883, 217, p. 74), the same hydrocarbon being also obtained when it is destructively methylated, a cer ain amount of tropi- line, CrHioO, being produced simultaneously When heated with fuming hydrochloric acid to 150-180° C. it yields tro- pidine, CjHisN, and with hydriodic acid similarly forms an 8 A fourth species, P. indicus, has been described from the Gulf of Oman, but doubt has been expressed as to its validity (Legge, pp. 1173, 1174). 4 Sulidae (Gannet), Pelecanidae (Pelican), Plotidae (Snake-bird). Phalacrocoracidae (Cormorant,) and Fregatid;ie (Frigate-bird). TROPPAU--TROSSACHS, THE 307 i i NMe CHOH I I I NMe CO I I NMe I H2C-CH— CH2 H2C-CH— CH2 H2C-CH-CO2H iodo-compound, CgHisNIj, which, on reduction with zinc and hydrochloric acid, is converted into hydrotropidine, C8Hi5N. It yields various oxidation products. With an alkaline solu- tion of potassium permanganate it yields tropigenine, CrHuNO; with chromic acid in the presence of acetic acid it yields tropinone, CsHisNO; and with chromic acid in the presence of sulphuric acid it yields tropinic acid, C6HnN(CO2H)2. Tropidine, CsHnN, is a liquid having an odour resembling that of conine. It is a strong tertiary base, and is an unsaturated compound, forming addition products with the halogen acids. Hydrotropidine, C8Hi6N, is also a liquid. Its hydrochloride on dis- tillation loses methyl chloride and yields norhydrotropidine, C7Hi3N, a compound which is a secondary base, and whose hyclro- chloride when distilled over zinc dust yields a-ethylpyridine. Tropinic acid, C6HnN(CO2H)2, obtained as above, is inactive; it was resolved by J. Gadamer (Arch. Pharm., 1901, 239, p. 663) by means of its cinchonine salt. It is a dibasic acid, and the methiodide of its dimethyl ester on fusion with caustic alkalis yields n-adipic acid. It is apparently a derivative of N — methyl pyrrollidine, since it may be oxidized ultimately to N — methyl succinimide. Tropigenine, C;HuNO, is a secondary base. The most important of the oxidation products of tropine is tropinone, CaHuNO, which is a ketone containing the grouping -~CH2-CO-CH2 — since it yields a di-isonitroso derivative, a dibenzal derivative, and also forms mono- and di-oxalic esters. It is. a strong base and has a powerful reducing action. Its constitution is determined by the above facts and also because tropinic acid on destructive methylation yields a diolefine dicarboxylic acid which on reduction is converted into n-pimelic acid. These data point to tropine possessing an unbranched chain of seven carbon atoms and incidentally determine the constitution of the other various oxidation products, &c. (R. Willstiitter, Ber., 1895-1901). These compounds may consequently be represented as H2C CH— CH2 H2C-CH— CH2 H2C-CH-CH2-CO2H H2C-CH— CH2 iNMe CH I I •CH— CH Tropine Tropinone Tropinic acid Tropidine. On the synthesis of tropine, see R. Willstatter, Ber., 1901, 34, PP- JS0. 3l63- Tropic acid, C9H10O3, the other decomposition product of atropine, is a saturated hydroxy-acid which is readily converted into atropic acid, CjHsO2, by dehydrating agents. This latter acid is shown by all its reactions to be C6H6C(:CH2)-CO2H, a fact which is confirmed by its synthesis from acetophenone by the action of phosphorus pentachloride, followed by the decomposition of the resulting chloride with an alcoholic solution of potassium cyanide and subsequent hydrolysis of the nitrile so formed. These results show that tropic acid must be either C6H6-CH(CH2OH)-CO2H or C6H6C-(OH)(CH3)-CO2H, and since the latter compound has been prepared from acetophenone by the addition of the elements of hydrocyanic acid, followed by subsequent hydrolysis and is an isomer of tropic acid, it follows that tropic acid must be represented by the former of the two formulae. Hence the alkaloid atropine, being a tropine-tropate, must have the annexed formula — H2C-CH— CH2 CH2OH III I NMe CH-O-CO-CH H2C-CH--CH2 C,H6 Atropine. TROPPAU (Polish, Oppava; Czech, Opava), the capital of the Austrian duchy and crown land of Silesia, 180 m. N.E. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 26,725. It is situated on the Oppa river, close to the Prussian frontier, and is a well-built town with extensive suburbs. The industries comprise the manufacture of cloth, industrial machines, sugar-refining, jute fabrics and brewing. Troppau was founded in the i3th century; but almost its only claim to historical mention is the fact that in 1820 the monarchs of Austria, Russia and Prussia met here to deliberate on the tendencies of the Neapolitan revolution. This congress of Troppau, however, left nearly the whole matter to be considered and decided at Laibach. The former principality of Troppau is now divided between Austria and Prussia, the latter holding the lion's share. TROPPAU, CONGRESS OF, a conference of the allied sove- reigns or their representatives to discuss a concerted policy with regard to the questions raised by the revolution in Naples of July 1820. At this congress, which met on the 2oth of October 1820, the emperor Alexander I. of Russia and Francis I. of Austria were present in person; King Frederick William III. of Prussia was represented by the crown prince (afterwards Frederick William IV.). The three eastern powers were further represented by the ministers responsible for their foreign policy: Austria by Prince Metternich, Russia by Count Capo d'Istria, Prussia by Prince Hardenberg. Great Britain, on the other hand, which objected on principle to the suggested concerted action against the Neapolitan Liberals, sent no plenipotentiary, but was represented by Lord Stewart, ambas- sador in Vienna. France, too, though her policy was less clearly defined, had given no plenary powers to her representatives. Thus from the very first was emphasized that division within the concert of the powers which the outcome of the congress was to make patent. The characteristic note of this congress was its intimate and informal nature; the determining fact at the outset was Metternjch's discovery that he had no longer anything to fear from the " Jacobinism " of the emperor Alexander. In a three hours' conversation over a cup of tea at the little inn he had heard the tsar's confession and promise of amendment: " Aujourd'hui je deplore tout ce que j'ai dit et fait entre les annees 1814 et 1818 . . . Dites-moi ce que vous voulez de moi. Je le ferai " (Metternich to Esterhazy, Oct. 24, 1820, F. 0. Austria Dom. Sep.-Dec. 1820). His failure to convert Castlereagh to his views was now of secondary importance; the " free " powers being in accord, it was safe to ignore the opinions of Great Britain and France, whose governments, what- ever their goodwill, were fettered by constitutional forms. In a series of conferences — to which the representatives of Great Britain and France were not admitted, on the excuse that they were only empowered to " report," not to " decide " — was drawn up the famous preliminary protocol signed by Austria, Russia and Prussia on the igth of November. The main pronouncement of the " Troppau Protocol " is as follows: " States which have undergone a change of government due to revolution, the result of which threaten other states, ipso facto cease to be members of the European Alliance, and remain excluded from it until their situation gives guarantees for legal order and stability. If, owing to such alterations, immediate danger threatens other states the powers bind themselves, by peaceful means, or if need be, by arms, to bring back the guilty state into the bosom of the Great Alliance." No effort was made by the powers to give immediate effect to the principles enunciated in the protocol; and after its promulgation the conferences were adjourned, it being decided to resume them at Laibach in the following January (see LAIBACH). For authorities see the bibliography to ch. i. " The Congresses," by W. Alison Phillips, in the Cambridge Mod. Hist. x. 787. TROSSACHS, THE (Gaelic, " the bristled country," a crude allusion to its physical features), a defile in the south-west of Perthshire, Scotland. It is a narrow, beautifully wooded glen, of no great depth, extending from Loch Achray to Loch Katrine, and continued thence by a strip on the north-eastern shore to a point above the now submerged Silver Strand opposite to Ellen's Isle — a total distance of i\ m. It is situated 8 m. W. of Callander and 5 m. N. of Aberfoyle, with both of which places there is daily communication by coach during the tourist season. It lies between the steep green slopes of Ben Venue (2393 ft.) on the S.W. and the precipitous craigs of Ben A'an (1750 ft.) on the N.E. Characterized by lovely scenery, owing to its harmonious blending of wood, water, rock and hill, the region has been famous ever since the appearance of Sir Walter Scott's The Lady of the Lake and Rob Roy. Before the construction of the road that now winds through the pass, Sir Walter says that the only access to the lake was by means of a ladder formed out of the branches and roots of trees. A rustic pier has been built at the Trossachs end of Loch Katrine for the convenience of tourists, and a large hotel stands on the northern shore of Loch Achray, near the beginning of the pass. 3o8 TROTZENDORFF— TROUBADOUR TROTZENDORFF (or TROCEDORTTUS), VALENTIN FRIED- LAND (1490-1556), German educationist, called Trotzendorff from his birthplace, near Gorlitz, in Prussian Silesia, was born on the i4th of February 1490, of parents so poor that they could not keep him at school. The boy taught himself to read and write while herding cattle; he made paper from birch bark and ink from soot. When difficulties were overcome and he was sent for education to Gorlitz, his mother's last words were " Stick to the school, dear son." The words determined his career: he refused all ecclesiastical promotion, and lived and died a schoolmaster. He became a distinguished student, learned Ciceronian Latin from Peter Mossellanus and Greek from Richard Croke, and after graduation was appointed assistant master in the school at Gorlitz. There he also taught the rector and other teachers. When Luther began his attack on indul- gences, Trotzendorff resigned his position and went to study under Luther and Melanchthon, supporting himself by private tuition. Thence he was called to be a master in the school at Goldberg in Silesia, and in 1524 became rector. There he re- mained three years, when he was sent to Liegnitz. He re- turned to Goldberg in 1531 and began that career which has made him the typical German schoolmaster of the Reformation period. His system of education and discipline speedily attracted attention. He made his best elder scholars the teachers of the younger classes, and insisted that the way to learn was to teach. He organized the school in such a way that the whole ordinary discipline was in the hands of the boys themselves. Every month a " consul," twelve " senators " and two " cen- sors " were chosen from the pupils, and over all Trotzendorff ruled as " dictator perpetuus." One hour a day was spent in going over the lessons of the previous day. The lessons were repeatedly recalled by examinations, which were conducted on the plan of academical disputations. Every week each pupil had to write two " exercitia styli," one in prose and the other in verse, and Trotzendorff took pains to see that the subject of each exercise was something interesting. The fame of the Goldberg School extended over all Protestant Germany, and a large nurrber of the more famous men of the following generation were taught by Trotzendorff. He died on the aoth of April 1556. See Herrmann, Merkwurdige Lebensgeschichle eines beruhmten Schulmanns, V. F. Trotzendorffs (1727); Frosch, V. F. Trotzendorff, Rektor zu Goldberg (1818); Pinzger, V. F. Trotzendorff (with the Goldberg portrait, and a complete list of his writings, 1825); Koehler, V. F. Trotzendorff, ein biographischer Versuch (1848). The biographical facts appear to be derived from a funeral or memorial oration delivered by Balthasar Rhau in the university of Wittenberg on the isth of August 1564, and published in an edition of Trotzendorffs Rosarium (1565). TROUBADOUR, the name given to the poets of southern France and of northern Spain and Italy who wrote in the langtte d'oc from the i2th to the i4th centuries. In Provencal the word is spelt trobaire or Irovador, and is derived from the verb Irobar, to find, or to invent (Fr. Ir owner}. The troubadour was one who invented, and originally improvised, poetry, who " found out " new and striking stanzaic forms for the elaborate lyrics he com- posed. In later times, the word has been used for romantic and sentimental persons, who dress in what is supposed to be medieval fashion, and who indite trivial verses to the sound of a lute; but this significance does less than justice to the serious artistic aims of the original and historic troubadours of Provence. The earliest troubadour of whom anything definite is known is Guilhem IX. (b. 1071), ccunt of Poitiers and duke of Aquitaine, whose career was typical of that of his whole class, for, according to his Provencal biographer, " he knew well how to sing and make verses, and for a long time he roamed all through the land to deceive the ladies." The high rank of this founder of the tradition was typical of its continuation; by far the largest number of the tioubadours belonged to the noble class, while no fewer than twenty-three of their number were reigning princes. Among them is a king of England, Richard I., who is believed to have written in langite d'oil as well as in langue d'oc, and who has left at least one canzo, that written in prison, which is of remarkable beauty. These noble troubadours were distinguished by their wealth and independence from those who made their song their profession, and who wandered from castle to castle and from bower to bower. But whether dependent or indepen- dent, the poets exercised a social influence which was extremely remarkable, and had been paralleled by nothing before it in the history of medieval poetry. They had great privileges of speech and censure, they entered into questions of politics, and above all they created around the ladies of the court an atmosphere of cultivation and amenity which nothing had hitherto approached. The troubadour was occasionally accompanied in his travels by an apprentice or servant, called a joglar, whose business was to provide a musical setting for the poet's words; sometimes it was not the troubadour himself, but his joglar, who sang the songs. It was a matter of jealous attention to the troubadour to keep his name and fame clear of the claims of the joglar, who belonged to a lower caste; although it is true that some poets of very high talent rose from being joglars and attained the rank of troubadours. The latter were looked upon with deep admiration, and their deeds and sayings, as well as their verses, were preserved and were even embroidered with fiction. There were recognized about four hundred troubadours, during the whole period in which they flourished, from Guilhem de Poitiers down to Guiraut Riquier (c. 1230-1294). Several MS. collections of biographies have been preserved, and from these we gain some idea of the careers of no fewer than 1 1 1 of the poets. In this respect, the troubadours possess an immense advantage over the trouveres of northern France, of whose private life very little is any longer known. Early in the living history of the troubadours their personal adventures came to be thought worthy of record. One of themselves, Uc of St Cyr (c. 1200- 1240), interested himself in " the deeds and words of goodly men and women," and in the collection of lives he seems to claim to be, in several instances, the biographer. At the beginning of the i4th century it became the practice to preface the MS. works of each poet by a life of him, and even where the text seems to be quite independent, it is noticeable that there is little variation in the biography. One late troubadour, Rambaud of Orange, left a commentary on his own poems, and Guiraut Riquier one on those of a fellow troubadour, Guiraut of Calanson (1280). All this proves the poetry of Provence to have passed early into the critical stage, and to have been treated very seriously by those who were proficient in it. This is further shown by the respect with which the Provencal poets are mentioned by Dante, Petrarch and the authors of the Novelle Critiche. The principal source of the lives of the troubadours is a col- lection, evidently written by various hands, which was made to- wards the middle of the Ijtn century. Of these we have said that Uc of Saint Cyr was certainly one of the authors. Another source of information is the Vies des plus celebres et anciens poetes pro- vencaux, published by Jehan de Notredame or Nostradamus, in 1575. This work professed to be founded on the MSS. of a learned monk, who was librarian of the monastery of St Honorat, in the island of L6rins, and died there in 1408. He was known by no other name than that of the Monk of the Golden Isles. This book, unfortunately, lies under more than a suspicion of forgery. Nostra- damus no doubt possessed valuable documents, but he did not hesitate to deal with them in a highly fantastic way. His Vies des pobtes has yet to be examined by careful and searching criticism. Even the genuine biographies, and they are numerous and above suspicion, are often embroidered with fantastic and whimsical statements which make a severe demand upon the credulity of a modern reader. The verse form most frequently employed by the troubadours was the sirventes, a term which is earliest met with in the second half of the i2th century. The early critics believed this word to be derived from servir, and to mean that the poem was made by a servant; but Paul Meyer has contested this derivation, and holds that a sirventes is a poem composed by a sirvent, that is to say a soudoyer or paid man-at-arms. The troubadours also employed the ballada, which was a song with a long refrain, not much like the formal ballade of the north of France; the pastourella; and the alba. This last took its name from the cir- cumstance that the word alba (dawn) was repeated in each TROUBADOUR 309 stanza. This was a morning-song, as the serena, a later inven- tion, was an evensong. The planh was a funeral elegy, com- posed by the troubadour for the obsequies of his protector, or for those of the lady of his devotion. Most interesting of all, perhaps, was the tenson, which was a lyrical dialogue between two persons, who discussed in it, as a rule, some point of amorous casuistry, but sometimes matters of a religious, metaphysical or satirical nature. The notion that the troubadours cultivated epic or dramatic poetry is now generally discarded; they were in their essence lyrical (see PROVENCAL LITERATURE). The biographies of the troubadours, which, in spite of their imperfection and conventionality of form, throw an unparalleled light upon medieval literary life, may perhaps be most conveni- ently treated in connexion with the courts at which each group of them flourished. It is in Poitou that we trace them first, where Guilhem, count of Poitiers, who reigned from 1087 to 1127, was both the earliest patron and the earliest poet of the school. This prince was the type of medieval gallantry, sudden and violent in arms, brilliant and impudent in wit, with women so seductive as to be esteemed irresistible. He led an army of 300,000 men in the crusade of 1101, being then thirty years of age; he returned in dismal disarray, supported in his defeat by the arts of love and song. His levity was the wonder and delight of his contemporaries; William of Malmesbury, who speaks much of him, tells us of Guilhem's project to found a religious house at Niort for the worship of Venus. Guilhem of Poitiers was handsome, bold and of easy access; Gottfried of Vendome says that he moved among other men as a god among mortals for the beauty of his body and the magnanimity of his soul. The surviving poems of the great count are simple in form ; he does not attempt the technical subtleties of later poets; but he laboured at the art, and he was anxious to be thought a professional, not an amateur writer. His songs are highly personal and betray the author's variety, sensuality, wit and skill as a versifier. The son of the earliest of the troubadours is known neither as a poet nor as a patron of poets, but the daughter of Guilhem IX. carried on her father's tradition. This was Eleanor of Guienne, at whose court Bernart of Ventadour rose to eminence. This poet was an exception to the rule that the troubadours belonged to the princely class. He seems to have been the son of a kitchen-scullion in the castle of Eble II., viscount of Venta- dour. Eble was himself a poet, valde gratiosus in cantilenis, but his compositions have wholly disappeared; he was early impressed, we know not how, by the talents of his serving- boy, and he trained him to be a poet. The wife of Eble, the viscountess Agnes of Montlucon, who was extremely beautiful, encouraged the suit of the youthful Bernart; indeed, they had secretly loved one another from their childhood. The poems which this passion inspired are among the most admirable lyrics which have come down to us from the middle ages. The husband at last discovered the intrigue between his wife and the poet, and exiled Bernart from Ventadour, although, as it would seem, without violence. The troubadour took shelter with Eleanor, of Guienne, who became in 1152 the queen-consort of Henry II. of England, himself a protector of poets. It has been supposed that Bernart accompanied the royal pair to London. He after- wards proceeded to the court of Raymond V. at Toulouse, where he is said to have remained until the death of that prince in 1194, when he withdrew to a cloister at Dalou in Poitou. He must at that time have been a very old man. The son of Henry II., Henry Curtmantle, was the patron of another eminent troubadour. Bertran de Born, viscount of Hautefort in Perigord, had become a vassal of England by the marriage of Eleanor. He is the member of his class about whom we possess the most exact historical information. Dante saw Bertran de Born in hell, carrying his severed head before him like a lantern, and compared him with Achitophel, who excited the sons of David against their father. This referred to the subtle intrigues by which the troubadour had worked on the jealousy existing between the three sons of the king of England. The death of Prince Henry (1183) produced from Bertran de Born two planks, which are among the most sincere and beautiful works in Provencal literature. The poet was immediately afterwards besieged in his castle of Hautefort by Richard Cceur de Lion, to whom he became reconciled and whom he accom- panied to Palestine. He grew devout in his old age, and died about 1205. As a soldier and a condottiere, as the friend and enemy of kings, and as an active factor in the European politics of his time, Bertran de Born occupies an exceptional position among the troubadours. There were poetesses in the highly refined society of Provence, and of these by far the most eminent was Beatrix, countess of Die, whose career was inextricably interwoven with that of another eminent and noble troubadour, Rambaut III., count of Orange, who held his court at Courthezon, a few miles south of Orange. Rambaut said that since Adam ate the apple no poet had been born who could compete in skill with himself, but his existing lyrics have neither the tenderness nor the ingenuity of those of his illustrious lady-love. The poems of Beatrix are remarkable for a simplicity of form rare among the poets of her age. One of the earliest troubadours, Cercamon, was at the court of Guilhem IX. of Poitiers, and was the master of perhaps the most original of all the school, namely the illus- trious Marcabrun (c. 1120-1195), fr°m whose pen some forty poems survive. He was a foundling, left on the door-step of a rich man in Gascony, and no one knew anything about his descent. Marcabrun was an innovator and a reformer; to him the severity of classical Provencal style is mainly due, and he was one of the first to make use of that complexity and obscurity of form which was known as the trobar clus. He was also original in his attitude to love; he posed as a violent misogynist — " I never loved and I was never loved " — and he expressed, in the accents of amorous poetry, an aversion to women. " Famine, pestilence and war do less evil upon earth than the love of woman " is one of his aphorisms. He was in the service of Richard Cceur de Lion, and after 1167 in that of Alfonso II. of Aragon. Marcabrun was the object of much dislike and attack, and it is said that he was murdered by Castellane of Guian, whom he had satirized. This, however, is improbable, and it is rather believed that Marcabrun survived to a great age. For one of his contemporaries he mitigated the severities of his satiric pen; he expresses great affection for " that sweet poet," Jaufre Rudel, prince of Blaye, whose heart turned, like the disk of a sunflower, towards the Lady of Tripoli. Little else than that famous adventure is known about the career of this ultra-romantic troubadour, except that he went as a crusader to the Holy Land, and that his surviving poems, which are few in number, have so mystical a tone that Jaufre Rudel has been suspected of being a religious writer who used the amorous language of his age for sanctified purposes, and whose " Princess Far-away " was really the Church of Christ. If so, the statement that he died in the arms of the Lady of Tripoli would merely mean that he passed away, perhaps at Antioch, in the odour of sanctity. Peire d' Alveona (Peter of Auvergne), like Marcabrun, was of mean birth, son of a tradesman in Clermont-Ferrand, but he was handsome and engaging, and being the first troubadour who had appeared in the mountain district, " he was greatly honoured and feted by the valiant barons and noble ladies of Auvergne." ..." He was very proud and despised the other troubadours." It is believed that Peire's poems were produced between 1158 and 1180. He flourished at the court of Sancho III., king of Castile, and afterwards at that of Ermengarde, viscountess of Narbonne. It is doubtless owing to the vehement and repeated praise which was given by Dante, in the Inferno and elsewhere, to Arnaut Daniel that this name remains the most famous among those of the troubadours. Yet not very much is known of the personal history of this poet.- He was a knight of Riberac, in Perigord, and he attached himself as a troubadour to the court of Richard Cosur de Lion. Dante had been made ac- quainted with the highly complicated and obscure verse of Arnaut Daniel by Guido Guinicelli, and thus to the historian of literature a most valuable link is provided between medieval and modern poetry. Dante calls Daniel the " smith," the 310 TROUBADOUR finished craftsman, of language, and it is evident that it was the brilliant art of the Provencal's elaborated verse which delighted the Italian. In the De vulgari eloquentia Dante returned to the praise of Arnaut Daniel, as the greatest of all those who have sung of love, and Petrarch was not less enthu- siastic. His invention of forms of verse (see SESTINA), in par- ticular, dazzled the great Italians. But the seventeen sirvenles which have survived scarcely sustain the traditional idea of the supremacy of Arnaut Daniel as a poet, while their lack of historical and personal allusions deprives them of general interest. Dante was curiously anxious to defend Arnaut Daniel as being a better artist than his immediate rival, Giraut de Bornelh, whose " rectitude " Dante admits, in the sense that Giraut was a singer of gnomic verses of a high morality, but prefers the poetry of Daniel; critical posterity, however, has reversed this verdict. Giraut came from the neighbourhood of Limoges, passed over into Spain about 1180, and became famous in the courts of Pedro II. of Aragon and other Spanish monarchs. He disappears about 1230. There is a curious anecdote of his having incurred the hatred or the cupidity of , the viscount of Limoges, who robbed him of his library and then burned his house to the ground. Giraut laments, in his poems, the brutality of the age and the lawlessness of princes. A troubadour of the same district of south-western France was Arnaut de Mareuil, to whom is attributed the introduction into Provencal poetry of the amatory epistle. He settled at the courts of Toulouse and Beziers, where he sang, in mystical terms, his passion for the countess Adalasia, in whose affections he had a dangerous rival in the person of Alfonso II., king of Aragon. Arnaut de Mareuil fled for his life to Montpellier, where he found a protector in Count William VIII., but he continued to address his siruentes to Adalasia. As that princess died in 1199, and as no planh to her memory is found among the works of Arnaut de Mareuil, it is conjectured that by that time he was already dead. Peire Vidal of Toulouse was the type of the reckless and scatterbrained troubadour. His biographer says that he was " the maddest man in all the world." His early life was a series of bewildering excursions through France and Spain, but he settled down at last at Marseilles, where he made a mortal enemy of Azalais, the wife of Viscount Barral de Baux, from whom he stole a kiss (1180). Vidal fled to Genoa, but he con- tinued to address the viscountess in his songs. At the entreaty of her husband, Azalais forgave the poet, and Peire Vidal returned to Marseilles. He committed a thousand follies; among others, being in love with a lady called Louve (she-wolf), the poet dressed himself as a wolf, and was hunted by a pack of hounds in front of the lady's castle. Starting on a crusade, he stopped at Cyprus, where a Greek girl was presented to him as being of the imperial family. He married her, assumed the title of emperor, and carried a throne about with him from camp to camp. According to a late poem, his eccentric adven- tures closed in Hungary about the year 1215. Folquet of Mar- seilles was a troubadour of Italian race, the son of a merchant of Genoa; Dante met Folquet in paradise, and gives an interest- ing notice of him. He was a rival with Peire Vidal for the favours of the beautiful Azalais; and he was one of the trouba- dours who gathered around the unfortunate Eudoxia, empress of Montpellier, until the close of her singular and romantic adventure (1187). He wrote a very touching planh on the death of the viscount Barral de Baux in 1192. Soon after this, disgusted with love, Folquet took holy orders, became the abbot of the rich Cistercian house of Torronet in Provence, and in 1205 became bishop of Toulouse. Here he threw in his lot with Simon de Montfort and disgraced himself by his fanatic rage against the Albigenses, of whom a contemporary says that he slew 500,000 persons, acting " more like Antichrist than like an envoy of Rome." Folquet died in 1231 in the abbey of Grandselve, in his diocese. It is in the sinientes of Folquet that critics have seen the earliest signs of that decadence which was so rapidly to destroy Provencal poetry. Gaucelm Faidit came from Uzerche, in the Limousin. He seems to have been a wandering minstrel of gay and reckless habits, and to have been accompanied by a light-o'-love, Guil- lelma Monja, who was the object of much satire and ridicule. In Gaucelm we probably see, if we can credit his story, the troubadour at his lowest social level. He made, however, Maria of Ventadour, who was probably a scion of the princely and neighbouring house of that name, the object of his songs, and he addresses her in strains of unusual pathos and delicacy. Gaucelm Faidit ultimately proceeded to Italy, to the court of the marquis Boniface of Montferrat, a prince who greatly encouraged the troubadours and who in 1201 undertook the conduct of a crusade. Gaucelm, who was still celebrating the perfections of Maria of Ventadour, accompanied him to the East. He wrote several canzones in the Holy Land and Syria, returned safely to Uzerche, and disappears about 1240. We possess sixty of his poems. Another troubadour, Raimbaut of Vaquieres, passed the greater part of his life at the same court of Montferrat; he devoted himself to the Lady Beatrix, sister of the marquis. It is believed that he died in the Holy Land in 1207. The most celebrated of the Italian troubadours was Sordello, born at Mantua, at the beginning of the i3th century, who owes his fame rather to the benevolence of later poets, from Dante to Robert Browning, than to the originality of his adventures or the excellence of his verse. We have now mentioned the troubadours who were most famous in their own time, and on the whole modern criticism has been in unison with contemporary opinion. There are, however, still one or two names to be recorded. The English historian of the troubadours, Dr Hueffer, gave great prominence to the writings of a poet who had previously been chiefly heard of in connexion with a romantic adventure, Guillem de Cabestanh (or Capestang). This was a knight of Roussillon, who made love to Seremonda, countess of Castel-Roussillon. The lady's husband, meeting the poet out hunting, slew him in a paroxysm of jealousy and, having cut out his heart, had it delicately cooked and served to his wife's dinner. When Seremonda had eaten her lover's heart, her husband told her what she had done, and she fainted away. Coming to her senses she said: " My Lord, you have served to me so excellent a dish that I will never eat of another," and she threw herself out of window and was killed. The importance of this story lies in the fact that the cruelty of the count of Castel-Roussillon was the cause of universal scandal in all good society. Feeling grew so strong that the surrounding nobles rose against the murderer, with Alfonso, king of Spain, at their head, hunted him down and killed him. The bodies of the lady and the troubadour were buried side by side, with great pomp, in the cathedra] of Per- pignan, and became the objects of pilgrimage. Doubt has, of course, been thrown on the veracity of this romantic story, but at all events it testifies to the fact that the troubadour enjoyed, or was expected to enjoy, all the privileges of toleration and exemption. A burlesque or satiric troubadour, who disregarded the laws of gallantry and wrote satires of great virulence against the ladies and their lovers, remains anony- mous, and is spoken of as the monk or prior of Montaudon. The classic period of the troubadours lasted until about 1210, and was contemporaneous with the magnificence of the nobles of the south of France. The wealth and cultivated tastes of the seigneurs, and the peace which had long surrounded them, led them into voluptuous extravagances and sometimes into a madness of expenditure. From this the troubadours reaped an immediate advantage, but when the inevitable reaction came they were the first to suffer. The great cause, however, of the decadence and ruin of the troubadours was the struggle between Rome and the heretics. This broke out into actual war in June 1209, when the northern barons, called to a crusade by Pope Innocent III., fell upon the Albigenses and pillaged Beziers and Carcassonne. Most of the protectors of the trouba- dours were, if not heretics, indulgent to the heretical party, and shared in their downfall. The poets, themselves, were not immediately injured, and no doubt their habits and their art kept them immune from the instant religious catastrophe, TROUBRIDGE— TROUSERS but the darkness began to gather round them as the ruin of Languedoc became more and more complete, culminating with the siege of Toulouse in 1218. The greatest name of this period, which was the beginning of the end, is that of Peire Cardenal, of Le Puy. He was protected by Jacme I., king of Aragon, having apparently fled from Narbonne and then from Toulouse in order to escape from the armies of Simon de Montfort. He was the inventor and the principal cultivator of the moral or ethical sirventes; and he was the author of singularly out- spoken satires against the clergy, continuing the tradition of Marcabrun. The biographer of Cardenal certifies that he lived to be nearly one hundred years of age. Another and a still more violent troubadour of this transitional time was Guillem Figueira, the son of a Toulouse tailor, an open heretic who attacked the papacy with extraordinary vigour, supported and protected by Raimon II. Figueira was answered, strophe by strophe, by a female troubadour, Gormonda of Montpellier. The ruin of the southern courts, most of which belonged to the conquered Albigensi party, continued to depress and to exas- perate the troubadours, whose system was further disintegrated by the establishment of the Inquisition and by the creation of the religious orders. The genial and cultured society of Provence and Languedoc sank rapidly into barbarism again, and there was no welcome anywhere for secular poets. The last of the French troubadours was Guiraut Riquier (c. 1230-1294), who was born at Narbonne, and addressed his earliest poems to Phillippa of Anduza, the viscountess of that city. She does not seem to have encouraged poetry, and Guiraut Riquier left Narbonne, first appealing to St Louis, without success. He then turned to Spain, and found protection at the court of Alfonso X. the Learned. This monarch, himself a great poet, welcomed the crowd of troubadours who were now flying from the troubles of southern France. It was the ambition of Alfonso to be himself a troubadour, but the Pro- vencal pieces which bear his name are now attributed to Riquier and to Nat de Mons; the king's genuine poems are those written in Galician. Riquier remained in the court of Castile until about 1279, when he returned to France and settled in Rodez with the count of that town, Henri II. This prince was almost the last seigneur in the south or centre of France who gathered a school of poets around him, and at Rodez the troubadours enjoyed for a few years their latest gleams of success and recog- nition. Riquier, in a sirventes of about 1285, gives pathetic expression to his sense of the gathering darkness, which makes it useless and almost unbecoming for a troubadour to practise his art, while of himself he mournfully confesses: " Song should express joy, but sorrow oppresses me, and I have come into the world too late." Guiraut Riquier passed away about 1294, and left no successor behind him. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F. Diez, Leben und Werke det Troubadours (Zwickau, 1829, 2nd ed. revised by K. Bartsch, Leipzig, l_882_); Die Poesie der Troubadours, 2nd ed., revised by K. Bartsch (Leipzig, 1883) ; C. Chabaneau, Lex Biographies des troubadours (Toulouse, 1885). [This forms tome x. of the Histoire generate de Languedoc.} F. Raynouard, Choix des poesies originates des troubadours (6 vols., Paris, 1816-1821); Manuel Mila y Fontenals, Los Trwadores en Espana (Barcelona, 1861, 2nd ed., revised, Barcelona, 1889); Paul Meyer, Les Dernier s troubadours de la Provence (Paris, 1871); Francis Hueffer, The Troubadours (London, 1878); A. Restori, Letteratura provenzale (Milan, 1891); C. Appel, Provenzalische chrestomathie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1903) ; Joseph Anglade, Les Trouba- dours (Paris, 1908). Various editions of the life and works of separate troubadours have been published — Guilhem IX. of Poitiers, by A. Jeanroy (Toulouse, 1905) ; Bertram de Born, by A. Thomas (Toulouse, 1888) ; Peire Vidal.by K. Bartsch (Berlin, 1857) ; Cercamon, by Dejeanne (Toulouse, 1905); Giraut de Bornelh, by A. Kolsen (Halle, 1907-1908) ; Peire of Auvergne, by Zetiker (Erlanger, 1900) ; Sordello, by Cesare de Lollis (Halle, 1896); Guiraut Riquier by Joseph Anglade (Paris, 1905); Arnaut Daniel, by U. A. Canallo (Halle, 1883). Editions of Bernard de Ventadour, by M. C. Appel, and of Marcabrun, by Dr Dejeanne, had been undertaken in 1908. (E. G.) TROUBRIDGE, SIR THOMAS, BART. (c. 1758-1807), English admiral, was educated at St Paul's School, London, and entered the navy in 1 7 73 . Having seen some service in the East Indies, he was taken prisoner by the French in 1794, but his captivity was only a short one and in February 1707 he commanded his ship, the " Culloden," at the battle of Cape St Vincent. In the follow- ing July he assisted Nelson in the unsuccessful attack on Santa Cruz, and in August 1798, when getting into position for the attack on the French fleet, the " Culloden " ran aground and was consequently unable to take any part in the battle of the Nile. He then served in the Mediterranean and was created a baronet in 1799; from 1801 to 1804 he was a lord of the admiralty, being made a rear-admiral just before his retirement. In 1805 Troubridge was given a command in the East and he went out in the " Blenheim." In January 1807 in this ship, an old and damaged one, he left Madras for the Cape of Good Hope, but off the coast of Madagascar the " Blenheim " foundered in a cyclone and the admiral perished. His only son, Sir Edward Thomas Troubridge, bart. (d. 1852), entered the navy in 1797 and was present at the battle of Copenhagen. From 1831 to 1847 he was member of parliament for Sandwich and from 1835 to 1841 he was a lord of the admiralty. His son, Sir Thomas St Vincent Hope Cochrane Troubridge, bart. (1815-1867), entered the army in 1834, and was severely wounded at the battle of Inkerman. TROUGHTON, EDWARD (1753-1835), English instrument maker, was born in the parish of Corney in Cumberland in October 1753. He joined his elder brother John in carrying on the business of making mathematical instruments in Fleet Street, London, and continued it alone after his brother's death, until in 1826 he took W. Simms as a partner. He died in London on the I2th of June 1835. Troughton was very successful in improving the mechanical part of most nautical, geodetic and astronomical instruments, but complete colour-blindness prevented him from attempting ex- periments in optics. The first modern transit circle was con- structed by him in 1806 for Stephen Groombridge; but Troughton was dissatisfied with this form of instrument, which a few years afterwards was brought to great perfection by G. von Reichenbach and J. G. Repsold, and designed the mural circle in its place. The first instrument of this kind erected at Greenwich in 1812, and ten or twelve others were subsequently constructed for other observatories; but they were ultimately superseded by Troughton's earlier design, the transit circle, by which the two co-ordinates of an object can be determined simultaneously. He also made transit instruments, equatorials, &c.; but his failure to construct an equatorial mounting of large dimensions, and the consequent lawsuit with Sir James South, embittered the last years of his life. TROUSERS, the name given to the article of dress worn by men, covering each leg separately and reaching from the waist to the foot. The word in its earlier forms is always found without the second r, e.g. trouses, trouzes, trooze, cf. the Lowland Scots word " trews," and is an adaptation of the French trousses, trunk-hose, breeches, the plural of trousse, a bundle, pack, truss, from trousser, to pack, bundle up, tuck, tie up, girth, of which the origin is doubtful. In English the word " trousers," when it first appears, was used of the leg-garments of the Irish, who wore their breeches or trunk-hose and stockings in one piece, a custom to which there are many allusions in 17th-century literature. Knee-breeches and top-boots for out-of-door wear or stockings for indoor use lasted till the beginning of the igth century as the regular costume for men. Pantaloons, loose trousers reaching to above the ankle, were worn in Venice by the poorer classes in the i7th century (for the origin of the name see PANTALOON). The characters of the Italian comedy made the style of garment familiar in France, but it was only seen in the fantastic costumes of the ballet. During the reign of Louis XVI. loose pantaloons became fashion- able for the morning deshabille of men. Their adoption by the supporters of the Revolution was the origin of the name of sans-culottes applied to the revolutionaries. Beau Brummel, in England, was probably the first to make the " pantaloon " popular. A striking feature of his dress were the tight-fitting black trousers reaching to the ankle, where they were buttoned. From this developed the true trousers, cut over the boot at the instep, at first open at the bottom and fastened by loops, later strapped tight under the boot. It is said that the duke of Wellington introduced this latter form after the Peninsular War. They were not recognized as correct for evening wear, 3I2 TROUT— TROUVERE and strong opposition was taken against them by the clergy and at the universities (see COSTUME). TROUT (Salmo trulta), a fish closely related to the salmon. Most modern ichthyologists agree in regarding the various North European forms of trout, whether migratory or not, as varieties or races of a highly variable and plastic species, to be distinguished from the salmon by a few more or less constant characters, the most readily ascertainable of which resides in the smaller scales on the back of the caudal region of the body, these being 14 to 16 (rarely 13) in an oblique series between the posterior border of the adipose fin and the lateral line, and in the greater length of the folded anal fin as compared to the depth of the caudal peduncle. The gill-rakers are also usually fewer, 16 to 18 on the anterior branchial arch. The young may be distinguished from salmon-parr by the greater length of the upper jaw, the maxillary bone, extending beyond the vertical of the centre of the eye, and in specimens 6 in. long often to below the posterior of the eye. The young are brown or olive above, silvery or golden below, with more or less numerous black and red spots in addition to the parr marks, and, contrary to what is observed in the salmon, black spots are usually present below the lateral line. Except for the gradual disappearance of the parr marks, this coloration is retained in the form known as the brook trout or brown trout (S. fario), which is non-migratory, and varies much in size according to the waters it inhabits, in some brooks not growing to more than 8 in., whilst in larger rivers and lakes it may attain a weight of 20 Ib or more. The coloration of the young is more strongly departed from in the races known as sea trout (S. trutta) and sewin (5. eriox or cambricus), anadromous forms resembling the salmon in habits, and assuming in the sea a silvery coat, with, however, as a rule, more black spots on the sides below the lateral line. The principal British races of trout are the following: the northern sea trout (S. trutta, sensu stricto), silvery, losing the teeth on the shaft of the vomer in the adult, and migratory like the salmon; the southern sea trout (S. eriox or cambricus), similar to the preceding, but with the hind margin of the gill- cover more or less produced, the lower bone (suboperculum) projecting beyond the end of the upper (operculum) ; the brown trout (S. fario), non-migratory, usually retaining the teeth on the shaft of the vomer, brown or olive with black and red spots, rarely more silvery, with numerous black spots; the Lochleven trout (S. levenensis), distinguished from the preceding by a more silvery coloration, frequent absence of red spots and a pink or red flesh; the estuary trout (S. gillivensis and S. orcadcnsis), large brown trout living in salt water without assuming the silvery coloration; the Gillaroo trout (S. stomachicus) , in which the membranes of the stomach are conspicuously thicker than in the other trout, more so in adult examples than in young ones. But all these forms are ill-defined and subject to such variations when transported from one locality to another as to render their recognition a matter of insuperable difficulty. The' instability of the characters on which 5. levenensis is based has been conclusively shown by the experiments conducted by Sir James Maitland at Howietoun. Large specimens of migra- tory trout are often designated as bull-trout, but no definition has ever been given by which this form could be established, even as a race. Other European varieties are the trout of the Lake of Geneva (5. lemanus), of the Lake of Garda (S. carpio), of Dalmatia (S. dentex), of Hungary (S. microlepis), of the Caspian Sea (S. caspius), &c. The size of trout varies much according to the waters in which they live, the anadromous forms nearly equalling the salmon in this respect, specimens of over 4 ft. and weighing up to 50 Ib being on record. The habitat of S. trutta extends over the whole of Europe, the Atlas of Morocco and Algeria, Transcaucasia, Asia Minor and northern Persia. By the agency of man the species has been thoroughly established in Tasmania and New Zealand, where it thrives in an extraordinary manner, and attains a very Urge size. I Closely allied species are found in North America, west of the Rocky Mountains,. the best known being the rainbow trout (S. irideus or shasta), which has been introduced into many parts of Europe as well as the eastern states of North America, New Zealand and South Africa. It is more hardy than the English trout, and accommodates itself in almost stagnant waters, and has thus proved a success in many ponds which were regarded as fit for coarse fish only; but in many places it has caused disappointment by going down to the sea, whence it is not known ever to return. It is a handsome trout, bluish or purplish above, silvery or golden below, more or less profusely spotted with black on the body and fins, and with an orange or red lateral band. Its range extends from Alaska to North Mexico. The rainbow trout merges into a larger form, S. gairdneri, which resembles the British sea trout. A remarkable European trout is ihe short-snouted trout, S. obtusirostris, a non-migratory species from Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Bosnia and Montenegro. It has a small mouth with a feeble dentition, resembling that of the grayling. A closely allied form, S. ohridanus, has recently been discovered in Macedonia. (G. A. B.) TROUVERE, the name given to the medieval poets of northern and central France, who wrote in the langue d'oil or langue d'.oui. The word is derived from the French verb trouver, to find or invent. The trouveres flourished abundantly in the 1 2th and i3th centuries. They were court-poets who devoted themselves almost exclusively to the composition and recitation of a particular kind of song, for which the highest society cf that day in France had an inordinate fondness. This poetry, the usual subject of which was some refinement of the passion of love, was dialectical rather than emotional. As Jeanroy has said, the best trouveres were those who " into the smallest number of lines could put the largest number of ideas, or at least of those commonplaces which envelop thought in its most impersonal and coldest form." The trouveres were not, as used to be supposed, lovers singing to their sweethearts, but they were the pedants and attorneys of a fantastic tribunal of sentiment. This was more monotonous in the hands of the trouveres than it had been in those of the troubadours, for the latter often employed their art for purposes of satire, religion, humour and politics, which were scarcely known to the poets of the northern language. The established idea that the poetry of the trouveres was entirely founded upon imitation of that of the troubadours, has been ably combated by Paul Meyer, who comes to the con- clusion that the poetry of the north of France was essentially no less original than that of the south, The passage of Raoul Glaber, in which he says that about the year 1000 southern men began to appear in France and in Burgundy, " as odd in their ways as in their dress, and having the appearance of jongleurs," is usually quoted, but although this is valuable contemporary evidence, it proves neither what these " jon- gleurs " brought from the south nor what the poets of the north could borrow from them. The first appearance of trouveres seems to be much later than this, and to date from 1137, when Eleonore of Aquitaine, who was herself the granddaughter of an illustrious troubadour, arrived in the court of France as the queen of Louis VII. It is recorded that she continued to speak her native language, which would be the Poitiers dialect of the langue d'oc. She was queen for fifteen years (1137-1152), and this, no doubt, was the period during Which the southern influence was strongest in the literature of northern France. There is not any question that the successive crusades tended to produce relations between the two sections of poetical literature. The great mass of the existing writings of the trouveres deals elaborately and artificially with the passion of love, as it had already been analysed in the langue d'oc. But those who are most inclined to favour the northern poets are obliged to con- fess that the latter rarely approach the grace and delicacy of the troubadours, while their verse shows less ingenuity and less variety. The earliest trouveres, like Cuene de Bethune and Huges de Berze, in writing their amatory lyrics, were TROUVILLE 3*3 certainly influenced by what troubadours had written, espe- cially when, like Bertrand de Born, these troubadours were men who wandered far and wide, under the glory of a great social prestige. We should know more exactly what the nature of the Provencal influence was if the songs of all the trouveres who flourished before the middle of the I2th century had not practically disappeared. When we become conscious of the existence of the trouveres, we find Cuenede Bethune in possession of the field, a poet of too much originality to be swept away as a mere imitator. At the same time, even Paul Meyer, who has been the great asserter of the independence of the poetry of northern France, is obliged to admit that if, at the end of the 1 2th century and throughout the I3th, several literary centres were formed where an amatory poetry, full of conventional grace, was held in high honour, it was because several princely courts in the south had set the example. In this sense it cannot be denied that the whole art of the trouveres was secondary and subsidiary to the art of the troubadours. The poetical forms adopted by the trouveres bore curious and obscure names, the signification of which is still in some cases dubious. As a rule each poem belonged to one of three classes, and was either a rotruenge, or a serventois, or an estrabot. The rotruenge was a song with a refrain; the serventois was, in spite of its name, quite unlike the sirventes of the troubadours and had a more ribald character; the estrabot was allied to the strambotto of the Italians, and was a strophaic form " composed of a front part which was symmetrical, and of a tail which could be varied at will " (Gaston Paris). But scholars are still un- certain as to the positive meaning of these expressions, and as to the theory of the verse-forms themselves. The court poetry of the trouveres particularly flourished under the protection of three royal ladies. Marie, the regent of Champagne, was the practical ruler of that country from 1181 to 1197, and she encouraged the minstrels in the highest degree. She invited Ricaut de Barbezieux to her court, rewarded the earliest songs of Gace Brule, and discussed the art of verse with Chretien of Troyes. Her sister, Aelis or Alice, welcomed the trouveres to Blois; she was the protector of Gautier d'Arras and of Le Chatelain de Couci. A sister of the husbands of these ladies, another Aelis, who became the second queen of Louis VII. in 1160, received Cuene de Bethune in Paris, and reproved him for the Picard accent with which he recited his poetry. At the end of the i2th century we see that the refinement and elegance of the court-poets was recognized in the north of France by those who were responsible for the education of princes. A trouvere, Gui de Ponthieu, was appointed tutor to William III. of Macon, and another, Philippe of Flanders, to Philippe Auguste. The vogue of the trouveres began during the third crusade; it rose to its greatest height during the fourth crusade and the attack upon the Albigenses. The first forty years of the i3th century was the period during which the courtly lyrical poetry was cultivated with most assiduity. At first it was a purely aristocratic pastime, and among the prin- cipal trouveres were princes such as Thibaut IV. of Navarre, Louis of Blois and John, king of Jerusalem. About 1230 the taste for court poetry spread to the wealthy bourgeoisie, espe- cially in Picardy, Artois and Flanders. Before its final decline, and after the courts of Paris and Blois had ceased to be its patrons, the poetry of the trouveres found its centre and enjoyed its latest successes at Arras. It was here that some of the most original and the most skilful of all the trouveres, such as Jacques Bretel and Adam de la Halle, exercised their art. Another and perhaps still later school flourished at Reims. About 1280, having existed for a century and a half, the poetical system suddenly decayed and disappeared; the very names of the court-poets were forgotten. During this time the song, chanson, had been treated as the most dignified and honourable form of literature, as Dante explains in his De vulgari eloquentia. But the song, as the trouveres under- stood it, was not an unstudied or emotional burst of verbal melody; it was, on the contrary, an effort of the intelligence, a piece of wilful and elaborate casuistry. The poet was invariably a lover, devoted to a married lady who was not his wife, and to whose caprices he was bound to submit blindly and patiently, in an endless and resigned humility. The progress of this conventional courtship was laid down according to certain strict rules of ceremonial; love became a science and a religion, and was practised by the laws of precise etiquette. The curious interest of the trouveres, for us, lies in the fact that during an age when the northern world was ignorant and brutal, sunken in a rude sensuality, the trouveres advanced a theory of morals which had its absurd and immoral side, but which demanded a devotion to refinement and a close attention to what is reserved, delicate and subtle in personal conduct. They were, moreover, when the worst has been admitted about their frigidity and triviality, refiners of the race, and they did much to lay the foundation of French wit and French intelli- gence. The trouveres have not enjoyed the advantage of the troubadours, whose feats and adventures attracted the notice of contemporary biographers. Little is known about their lives, and they pass across the field of literary history like a troop of phantoms. Close students of this body of somewhat monotonous poetry have fancied that they detected a personal note in some of the leaders of the movement. It is certainly obvious that Cuene (or Conon) de Bethune had a violence of expression which gives life to his chansons. The delicate grace of Thibaut of Champagne, the apparent sincerity of Le Chatelain de Couci, the descriptive charm of Moniot of Arras, the irony of Richard of Fournival, have been celebrated by critics who have perhaps discovered differences where none exist. It is more certain that Adam de la Halle, the hunchback of Arras, had a superb gift of versification. The rondel (published in E. de Coussemaker's edition, 1872) beginning " A Dieu courant amouretes, Car je m'en vois Souspirant en terre estrange ! " marks perhaps the highest point to which the delicate, frosty art of the trouveres attained. Music took a prominent place in all the performances of the trouveres, but in spite of the erudition of de Coussemaker, who devoted himself to the sub- ject, comparatively little is known of the melodies which they used. But enough has been discovered to justify the general statement of Tiersot that " we may conclude that the musical movement of the age of the trouveres was derived directly from the most ancient form of popular French melody." A pre- cious MS. in the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier contains the music of no fewer than 345 part-songs attributed to trouveres, and an examination of these enables a " pitiless arranger " to divine the air, the primitive, simple and popular melody. The principal authorities on the poetry and music of the trou- veres are : H. Binet, Le Style de la lyrique courtoise en France aux xiime et xiii"" siecles (Paris, 1891) ; Gaston Paris, Les Origines de la poesie lyrique en France au moyen age (Paris, 1892); A. Jeanroy, Les Ori- gines de la poesie lyrique en France au moyen Age (Paris, 1889); Julian Tiersot, Histoire de la chanson populaire en France; E. de Coussemaker, Art harmonique aux xiime et xiiim' sihles (Paris, 1865). The works of the principal trouveres have been edited: those of Le Chatelain de Coucy by F. Michel (1830); of Adam de la Halle by E. de Coussemaker (1872) ; of Conon de Bethune by Wallenskold (Helsingfors, 1891); of Thibaut IV., king of Navarre, by P. Tarb6 (1851). (E. G.) TROUVILLE, a seaside town of north-western France, in the department of Calvados, on the English Channel, 34 m. N.E. of Caen by rail. Pop. (19061, 5684. Trouville is situated on the slopes of well-wooded hills at the mouth of the Touques on its right bank opposite Deauville. Its fine stretches of sand and excellent bathing, a spacious casino and beautiful villas, are among the attractions which make it the most frequented French resort on the channel. Deauville is well known for its race- course and villas, exceeding those of Trouville in luxury, but except during the race fortnight in August (la grande quinzaine) it is quiet and comparatively deserted. The port shared with Deauville and formed by the Touques is entered by a channel between jetties with a depth at high tide of i8| ft. This leads on the one side to a tidal harbour, on the other to an outer and an inner basin. Timber, coals and cement are imported. The TROVER— TROY AND TROAD London & South Western Railway Company have a daily steamboat service from Havre to Trouville in connexion with their Southampton and Havre boats. Besides trawling and the provisioning of ships, in which Deauville is also engaged, Trouville carries on boat-building and has rope and briquette works. TROVER (0. Fr. trover, to find, mod. trouver), or " trover and conversion," the name of a form of action in English law no longer in use, corresponding to the modern action of conversion. It was brought for damages for the detention of a chattel, and differed from detinue in that the latter was brought for the return of the chattel itself. The name trover is due to the action having been based on the fictitious averment in the plaintiff's declaration that he had lost the goods and that the defendant had found them. The necessity for this fictitious averment was taken away by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852. An action of trover lay (as an action of conversion still lies) in every case where the defendant was in possession of a chattel of the plaintiff and refused to deliver it up on request, such re- fusal being prima facie evidence of conversion. The damages recoverable are usually the value of the chattel converted. In an action for detention of a chattel (the representative of the old action of detinue), the plaintiff may have judgment and exe- cution by writ of delivery for the chattel itself or for its value at his option. An action for conversion or detention must be brought within six years. The corresponding action in Scots law is the action of spuilzie. It must be brought within three years in order to entitle the pursuer to violent profits, otherwise it prescribes in forty years. TROWBRIDGE, a market town in the Westbury parliamen- tary division of Wiltshire, England, g~;\ m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,526. It is unevenly built on a slope at the foot of which flows the Biss or Mere, a tributary of the Avon. The parish church of St James is a fine Perpendicular building, with a lofty spire, and a beautiful open-work roof over the nave. It was rebuilt on the original plan in 1848. George Crabbe, the poet, was rector from 1813 to 1831. Trowbridge (Trubrig, Trobrigg, Trowbrigge) was probably mentioned in Domesday under the name of Straburg, a manor held by one Brictric together with Staverton and Trowle, now both included within its limits. The first reference to the "town" of Trowbridge occurs early in the i6th century; previous to that date mention is made of the manor and castle only. The latter, round which the town probably grew up, is said to have been built by the de Bohuns, who obtained possession of the manor by marriage with the daughter of Edward de Sarisbury. Later it passed to William de Longespee, son of Henry II., to the Lancasters, to the protector Somerset (by grant of Henry VIII.) and then to the Rutlands, and Trow- bridge is now a non-corporate town. In 1200 John granted a weekly market on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday; also a yearly fair on the 24th, 25th and 26th of July, on which days it continued to be held until at the end of the i8th century it was changed to the 5th, 6th and 7th of August. The manufacture of woollen cloths has long been the staple trade of Trowbridge. It was introduced before the i6th century, for Leland, writing in the reign of Henry VIII., says: " The town flourisheth by drapery." In 1731 the trade was of some note, and by 1813 had attained such proportions that the whole area of the castle site was sold for the erection of dyeworks, cloth manufactories and other industrial buildings. TROWEL (Med. Eng. truel, O. Fr. truellc, Low Lat. truella, a variant of trulla, diminutive of trua, stirring spoon, ladle, Gr. Topvvrj, from the root far, to turn round and round; cf. ropeuj, borer), a tool or implement, varying in shape according to the use to which it is put, but consisting of a blade of iron or steel fitted with a handle. The bricklayers' or plasterers' trowel, used for mixing, spreading and smoothing the mortar or plaster, has a flat, triangular, oval or rectangular blade; the gardeners' trowel, for digging plants, laying or mixing mould, &c., has a semi-cylindrical blade. Highly ornamental trowels made of, or decorated with, the precious metals are presented to royal, official or other personages who formally lay the foundation stones of buildings. TROY, JEAN FRANQOIS DE (1679-1752), French painter, was born at Paris in 1679. He received his first lessons from his father, himself a skilful portrait painter, who afterwards sent his son to Italy. There his amusements occupied him fully as much as his studies; but his ability was such that on his return he was at once made an official of the Academy, and obtained a large number of orders for the decoration of public and private buildings, executing at the same time a quantity of easel pictures of very unequal merit. Amongst the most considerable of his works are thirty-six compositions painted for the hotel of De Live (1729), and a series of the story of Esther, designed for the Gobelins whilst De Troy was director of the school of France at Rome (1738-1751) — a post which he resigned in a fit of irritation at court neglect. He did not expect to be taken at his word, and was about to return to France when he died on the 24th of January 1752. The life-size painting (Louvre) of the " First Chapter of the Order of the Holy Ghost held by Henry IV.," in the church of the Grands Augustins, is one cf his most complete performances, and his dramatic composition, the " Plague at Marseilles." is widely known through the excellent engraving of Thomassin. The Cochins, father and son, Fessard, Galimard, Bauvarlet, Herisset, and the painters Boucher and Parrocel, have engraved and etched the works of De Troy. TROY and TROAD. I. The Troad— The Troad (h Tpoxis), or the land of Troy, the north-western promontory of Asia Minor. The name " Troad " is never used by Homer — who calls the land, like the city, Tpoii? — but is already known to Herodotus. The Troad is bounded on the N. by the Hellespont and the westernmost part of the Propontis, on the W. by the Aegean Sea and on the S. by the Gulf of Adramyttium. The eastern limit was variously defined by ancient writers. In the widest acceptation, the Troad was identified with the whole of western and south-western Mysia, from the Aesepus, which flows into the Propontis, a little west of Cyzicus, to the Caicus, which flows into the Aegean south of Atarneus. But the true eastern boundary is undoubtedly the range of Ida, which, starting from near the south-east angle of the Adramyttian Gulf, sends its north-western spurs nearly to the coast of the Propontis, in the region west of the Aesepus and east of the Granicus. Taking Ida for the eastern limit, we have the definition which, as Strabo says, best corre- sponds with the actual usage of the name Troad. Ida is the key to the physical geography of the whole region; and it is the peculiar character which this mountain-system imparts to the land west of it that constitutes the real distinctness of the Troad from the rest of Mysia. Nature has here provided Asia Minor with an outwork against invaders from the north-west; and as the Troad was the scene of the struggle between Agamem- non and Priam, so it was in the Troad that Alexander won the battle which opened a path for his further advance. Natural Divisions. — The length of the Troad from north to south — taking a straight line from the north-west point, Cape Sigeum (Yeni Snehr), to the south-west point, Cape Lectum (Baba Kale) — is roughly 40 m. The breadth, from the middle point of the west coast to the main range of Ida, is not much greater. The whole central portion of this area is drained by the Menderes (anc. Scamander), which rises in Ida and is by far the most important river of the Troad. The basin of the Menderes is divided by hills into two distinct parts, a southern and a northern plain. The southern — anciently called the Samonian plain — is the great central plain of the Troad, and takes its modern name from Bairamich, the chief Turkish town, which is situated in the eastern part of it near Ida. From the north end of the plain the Menderes winds in large curves through deep gorges in metamorphic rocks, and issues into the northern plain, stretching to the Hellespont. This is the plain of Troy, which is 7 or 8 m. long, and 2 or 3 m. broad on the average. The hills on the south are quite low, and towards the east the acclivities are in places so gentle as to leave the limits of the plain indefinite. Next to the basin of the Menderes, with its two plains, the best marked feature in the river-system of the Troad is the valley of the Tuzla (anc. Satniois). The Tuzla rises in the western part of Mt Ida, south of the plain of Bairamich, from which its valley is divided by hills; and, after flowing for many miles almost parallel with the south coast of the Troad, from which, at TROY AND TROAD Assus, it is less than a mile distant, it enters the Aegean about 10 m. north of Cape Lectum. Three alluvial plains are comprised in its course. The easternmost of these, into which the river issues from rugged mountains of considerable height, is long and narrow. The next is the broad plain round Assus, which was a fertile source of supply to that city. The third is the plain at the em- bouchure of the river on the west coast. This was anciently called the Halesian ('AXiiuioc) plain, partly from the maritime salt-works at Tragasae, near the town of Hamaxitus, partly also from the hot salt-springs which exist at some distance from the sea, on the north side of the river, where large formations of rock-salt are also found. Maritime salt-works are still in operation at the mouth of the river, and its modern name (Tuzla = salt) preserves the ancient association. A striking feature of the southern Troad is the high and narrow plateau which runs parallel with the Adra- myttian Gulf from east to west, forming a southern barrier to the valley of the Tuzla. This plateau seems to have been formed by a volcanic upheaval which came late in the Tertiary period, and covered the limestone of the south coast with two successive flows of trachyte. The lofty crag of Assus is like a tower standing detached from this line of mountain-wall. The western coast is of a different character. North of the Tuzla extends an undulating plain, narrow at first, but gradually widening. Much of it is covered with the valonia oak (Quercus aegilops), one of the most valuable products of the Troad. Towards the middle of the west coast the adjacent ground becomes higher, with steep acclivities, which sometimes rise into peaks; and north of these, again, the seaboard subsides towards Cape Sigeum into rounded hills, mostly low. Natural^ Products. — The timber of the Troad is supplied chiefly by the pine forests on Mt Ida. But nearly all the plains and hills are more or less well wooded. Besides the valonia oak, the elm, willow, cypress and tamarisk shrub abound. Lotus, galingale and reeds are still plentiful, as in Homeric days, about the streams in the Trojan plain. The vine, too, is cultivated, the Turks making from it a kind of syrup and a preserve. In summer and autumn water-melons are among the abundant fruits. Cotton, wheat and Indian corn are also grown. The Troad is, indeed, a country highly favoured by nature — with its fertile plains and valleys, abundantly and continually irrigated from Ida, its numerous streams, its fine west seaboard, and the beauty of its scenery. Under Turkish rule, the natural advantages of the land suffice to mitigate the poverty of the sparse population, but have scarcely any positive result. Early History. — In the Homeric legend, with which the story of the Troad begins, the people called Troes are ruled by a king Priam, whose realm includes all that is bounded by " Lesbos, Phrygia, and the Hellespont " (//. xxiv. 544), i.e. the whole " Troad," with some extension of it, beyond Ida, on the north- west. According to Homer, the Achaeans under Agamemnon utterly and finally destroyed Troy, the capital of Priam, and overthrew his dynasty. But there is an Homeric prophecy that the rule o^er the Troes shall be continued by Aeneas and his descendants. From the " Homeric " hymn to Aphrodite, as well as from a passage in the 2oth book of the Iliad (75-353)— a passage probably later than the bulk of the book — it is certain that in the yth or 6th century B.C. a dynasty claiming descent from Aeneas reigned in the Troad, though the extent of their sway is unknown. The Homeric tale of Troy is a poetic creation, for which the poet is the sole witness. The geographical com- pactness of the Troad is itself an argument for the truth of the Homeric statement that it was once united under a strong king. How that kingdom was finally broken up is unknown. Thracian hordes, including the Treres, swept into Asia Minor from the north-west about the beginning of the 7th century B.C., and it is probable that, like the Gauls and Goths of later days, these fierce invaders made havoc in the Troad. The Ionian poet Callinus has recorded the terror which they caused farther south. Greek Settlements. — A new period in the history of the Troad begins with the foundation of the Greek settlements. The earliest and most important of these were Aeolic. Lesbos and Cyme in Aeolis seem to have been the chief points from which the Aeolic colonists worked their way into the Troad. Command- ing positions on the coast, such as Assus and Sigeum, would naturally be those first occupied; and some of them have been in the hands of Aeolians as early as the roth century B.C. It appears from Herodotus (v. 95) that about 620 B.C. Athenians occupied Sigeum, and were resisted by the Aeolic colonists from Mytilene in Lesbos, who had already established themselves in that neighbourhood. Struggles of this kind may help to account for the fact noticed by Strabo, that the earlier colonies had often migrated from one site in the Troad to another. Such changes of seat have been, he observes, frequent causes of confusion in the topography. The chief Greek towns in the Troad were Ilium in the north, Assus in the south and Alexandria Troas in the west. The site of the Greek Ilium is marked by the low mound of Hissarlik (" place of fortresses ") in the Trojan plain, about 3 m. from the Hellespont. Exactly at what date it was founded on the top of earlier remains is uncertain (perhaps the 7th century); but it was not a place of any importance till the Hellenistic age. When Xerxes visited the Trojan plain, he " went up to the Pergamon of Priam," and afterwards sacrificed to the Ilian Athena (Herod, vii. 42). Ilion is mentioned among the towns of the Troad which yielded to Dercyllidas (399 B.C.), and as captured by Charidemus (359 B.C.)- It possessed walls, but was a petty place, of little strength. In 334 B.C. Alexander, on landing in the Troad, visited Ilium. In their temple of Athena the Ilians showed him arms which had served in the Trojan War, including the shield of Achilles. Either then, or after the battle of Granicus, Alexander directed that the town should be enlarged, and should have the rank of " city," with political independence, and exemption from tribute. The battle of Ipsus (301 B.C.) added north-western Asia Minor to the dominions of Lysimachus, who executed the intentions of Alexander. He gave Ilium a wall 5 m. in circumference, incorporating with it some decayed towns of the neighbourhood, and built a handsome temple of Athena. In the 3rd century B.C. Ilium was the head of a federal league (K.OIVOV) of free Greek towns, which probably included the district from Lampsacus on the Hellespont to Gargara on the Adramyttian Gulf. Twice in that century Ilium was visited by Gauls. On the first occasion (278 B.C.) the Gauls, under Lutarius, sought to establish a stronghold at Ilium, but speedily abandoned it as being too weak. Forty years later (218 B.C.) Gauls were brought over by Attalus I. to help him in his war against Achaeus. After deserting his standard they proceeded to pillage the towns on the Hellespont, and finally besieged Ilium, from which, how- ever, they were driven off by the troops of Alexandria Troas. At the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. Ilium was in a state of decay. As Demetrius of Scepsis tells us, the houses " had not even roofs of tiles," but merely of thatch. Such a loss of pros- perity is sufficiently explained by the incursions of the Gauls and the insecure state of the Troad during the latter part of the 3rd century. The temple of the Ilian Athena, however, retained its prestige. In 192 B.C. Antiochus the Great visited it before sailing to the aid of the Aetolians. In 190 B.C., shortly before the battle of Magnesia, the Romans came into the Troad. At the moment when a Roman army was entering Asia, it was politic to recall the legend of Roman descent from Aeneas. Lucius Scipio and the Ilians were alike eager to do so. He offered sacrifice to the Ilian Athena; and after the peace with Antiochus (189 B.C.) the Romans annexed Rhoeteum and Gergis to Ilium, " not so much in reward of recent services, as in memory of the source from which their nation sprang." The later history of Ilium is little more than that of Roman benefits. A disaster befell the place in 85 B.C., when Fimbria took it, and left it in ruins; but Sulla presently caused it to be rebuilt. Augustus, while confirming its ancient privileges, gave it new territory. Caracalla (A.D. 211-217) visited Ilium, and, like Alexander, paid honours to the tomb of Achilles. In the 4th century, as some rhetorical " Letters " of that age show, the Ilians did a profitable trade in attracting tourists by their pseudo-Trojan memorials. After the 4th century the place is lost to view. But we find from Constantine Porphyrogenitus (911-959) that in his day it was one of the places in the Troad which gave names to bishoprics. Other Ancient Sites. — Many classical sites in the Troad have been identified with more or less certainty. (For ALEXANDRIA TROAS and Assus, see separate articles. Neandria seems to be rightly fixed by F. Calvert at Mount Chigri, a hill not far from Alexandria Troas, remarkable for the fine view of the whole Troad which it commands. Cebrene has been conjecturally placed in the eastern part of the plain of Bairamich. Palaeoscepsis was farther east 316 TROY AND TROAD on the slopes of Ida, while the new Scepsis was near the site of Bairamich itself. At the village of Kulakli, a little south of the mouth of the Tuzla, some Corinthian columns and other fragments mark the temple of Apollo Smintheus (excavated in 1866 by Pullan) and (approximately) the site of the Homeric Ghryse, Colonae was also on the west coast, opposite Tenedos. Scamandria occupied the 'site of Eneh, in the middle of the plain of Bairamich, and Cenchreae was probably some distance north of it. The shrine of Palamedes, mentioned by ancient writers as existing at a town called Polymedium, has been discovered by J. T. Clarke on a site hitherto unvisited by any modern traveller, between Assus and Cape Lectum. It proves to have been a sacred enclosure (temenos) on the acropolis of the town; the statue of Palamedes stood on a rock at the middle of its southern edge. Another interesting discovery has been made by Clarke, viz. the existence of very ancient town walls on Gargarus, the highest peak of Ida. (R. C. J.;D. G. H.) II. The Site of Troy. — Troy is represented now by the important ruins on and about the mound of Hissarlik which underlie those already referred to as surviving from the Hellenistic Ilion. Hissarlik is situated about 35 m. both from the Dardanelles and from Yeni Keui, which lies on the Aegean coast north of Besika Bay. The famous academic dispute concerning the pre- cise site, which began about A.D. 160 with Demetrius of Scepsis, may now be regarded as settled. After the full demonstration, made in 1893, that remains of a fortress exist on the mound of Hissarlik, contemporary with the great period of Mycenae, and larger than the earlier acropolis town first identified by Schliemann with Ilion, no reasonable person has continued to doubt that this last site is the local habitation of the Homeric story. The rival ruins on the Bali Dagh have been shown to be those of a small hill fort which, with another on an opposite crag, commanded the upper Menderes gorge. It is inconceivable that this fort should have been chosen by poets, generally familiar with the locality, as the scene of the great siege, while in the plain between it and the sea there had lain from time immemorial, and lay still in the Mycenaean age, a much more important settlement with massive fortified citadel. No site in the Troad can be brought into complete accordance with all the topographical data to be ingeniously derived from the text of Homer. The hot and cold springs that lay just without the gate of " Troy " (//. xxii. 147) are no more to be identified with Bunarbashi, which wells out more than a mile from the Bali Dagh ruins, than with the choked conduits, opened by Schliemann in 1882, to the south of Hissarlik. But the broader facts of geography are recognizable in the modern plain of the Menderes. The old bed of that river is the Scamander, and its little tributary, the Dumbrek Su, is the Simois. In their fork lies Hissarlik or Troy. In sight of it are, on the one side, the peak of Samothrace (xiii. 11-14); on the other, the mass of the Kaz Dagh Ida (viii. 52). Hissarlik lies in the plain (xx. 216) less than 4 m. both from the Hellespontine and the Aegean coasts, easily reached day by day by foes from the shore, and possible to be left and regained in a single night by a Trojan visiting the camp of the Greeks (vii. 381-421). In summarizing what has been found to exist on the mound of Hissarlik in the excavations undertaken there since 1870, it is not advisable to observe the order of the finding, since Schliemann's want of experience and method caused much confusion and error in the earlier revelations. No certainty as to the distinction of strata or their relative ages was possible till Wilhelm Dorpfeld obtained entire control in 1891, after the original explorer's death. There are in all nine strata of ancient settlement. 1. On the virgin soil of the hillock, forming the core of the mound, scanty remains appear of a small village of the late Aegean neolithic period, at the dawn of the Bronze Age, contemporary with the upper part of the Cnossian neolithic bed. This includes what were originally supposed by Schliemann to be two successive primitive settlements. Thin walls of rough stones, bonded with mud, are preserved mainly in the west centre of the mound. No ground plan of a house is recoverable, and there is no sign of an outer fortress wall. In this stratum were found implements in obsidian and other stones, clay whorls, a little worked ivory, and much dark monochrome pottery, either of a rough grey surface or (in the finer examples) treated with resin, highly hand-polished, and showing simple geometric decoration, which was incised and often filled in with a white substance. 2. Superposed on these remains, where they still exist, but comprehending a much larger area, lies a better constructed and preserved settlement. This has been twice rebuilt. It was enclosed by a massive fortress wall of rudely squared Cyclopean character, showing different restorations, and now destroyed, except on the south side of the mound. Double gates at the south-east and south-west are well-preserved. The most complete and most im- portant structures within the citadel lie towards the north. These are two rectangular blocks lying north-west to south-east, side by side, of which the southern and larger shows a megaron and vesti- bule of the type familiar in " 'Mycenaean " palaces, while the smaller seems a pendant to the larger, like the " women's quarters " at Tiryns and Phylakopi (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION). Other blocks, whose plans are difficult to bring into inter-relation in their present state of ruin, are scattered over the area, but mainly in the south-west. This is the fortress proclaimed by Schliemann in 1873 to be the Pergamos ot Troy. But we know that, while his identifi- cations of Homeric topographical details in these ruins were fanciful, a much larger fortress succeeded to this long before the period treated of in the Iliad. The settlement in the second stratum belongs, in fact, to a primitive stage of that local civilization which preceded the Mycenaean; and it is this latter which is recalled by the Homeric poems. The pottery of the second stratum at Hissarlik shows the first introduction of paint, and of the slip and somewhat fantastic forms parallel to those of the pre-Mycenaean style in the Cyclades. The beaked vases, known as schnabelkannen, are characteristic, and rude reproductions of human features are common in this ware, which seems all to be of native fabrication. Bronze had come into use for implements, weapons and utensils; and gold and silver make up a hoarded treasure found in the calcined ruins of the fortification wall near one of the gates. But the forms are primitive and singular, and the workmanship is very rude, the pendants of the great diadems being cut out of very thin plate gold. Disks, bracelets and pendants, snowing advanced spiraliform ornament, found mainly in 1878, and then ascribed to this same stratum, belong undoubtedly to a higher one, the sixth or " Mycenaean." Rough fiddle-shaped idols, whorls, a little worked ivory and some lead make up a find, of whose early period comparison of objects found elsewhere leaves no sort of doubt. This treasure is now deposited in Berlin. 3, 4, 5. This primitive " Troy " suffered cataclysmal ruin (traces of conflagration are everywhere present), and Hissarlik ceased for a time to have any considerable population. Three small village settlements, not much more than farms, were successively erected on the site, and have left their traces superposed one on another, but they yielded no finds of importance. 6. The mound, however, stood in too important a relation to the plain and the sea to remain desolate, and in due time it was covered again by a great fortress, while a city spread out below. The latter has not yet been explored. The remains of this period on the acropolis, however, have now been examined. A portion of them was first distinguished clearly by Dorpfeld in 1882, but owing to the confusion caused by Schliemann's drastic methods of trenching, the pottery and metal objects, really belonging to this stratum, had come to be confused with those of lower strata; and some grey monochrome ware, obviously of Anatolian make, was alone referred to the higher stratum. To this ware Schliemann gave the name " Lydian," and the stratum was epoken of in his Troja (1884) as the " Lydian city." In 1893, however, excavations were carried out on the south of the mound in the hitherto undisturbed ground outside the limits of the earlier fortress; and here appeared a second curtain wall of massive ashlar masonry showing architectural features which characterize the " Mycenaean " fortification walls at Mycenae itself, and at Phylakopi in Melos. With this wall was associated not only the grey ware, but a mass of painted potsherds of unmistakably " Mycenaean " character; and further search in the same stratum to west and east showed that such sherds always lay on its floor level. The inevitable inference is that here we have a city, contemporary with the mass of the remains at Mycenae, which imported " Mycenaean " ware to supplement its own ruder products. The area of its citadel is larger than the citadel of the second stratum ; its buildings, of which a large megaron on the south-west and several houses on the east remain, are of much finer construction than those which lie lower. This was the most important city yet built on the mound of Hissarlik. It belonged to the " Mycen- aean " a-ge, which precedes the composition of the Homeric poems, and is reflected by them. Therefore this is Homer's Troy. Its remains, however, having been obliterated on the crown of Hissarlik, almost escaped recognition. When some centuries later a third important city, the Hellenistic1 Ilion, was built, all the accumulation on the top of the mound was cut away and a terrace made. In this process the then uppermost strata of ruins wholly vanished, their stones being taken to build the new city. The Mycenaean town, however, which had been piled stage upon stage to the summit, descended on the south side a little down the face of the mound; and the remains of its fortifications and houses at that point, lying below the level cut down to by the Hellenistic terrace-makers, were covered by the depositing of rubbish from the crown and again built over. Thus we find them now on the southern slope of the mound only, but have no difficulty in estimat- ing their original extent. Many tombs and a large lower city of this era will doubtless be explored ere long. TROY AND TROAD 7. To " Mycenaean " Troy succeeded a small unfortified settle- ment, which maintained itself all through the Hellenic age till the Homeric enthusiasm of Alexander the Great called a city again into being on Hissarlik. 8. The Hellenistic Ilion, however, has left comparatively little trace, having been almost completely destroyed in 85 B.C. by Fimbria. Portions of fortifications erected by Lysimachus are visible both on the acropolis (west face chiefly) and round the lower city in the plain. A small Doric temple belongs to the foundation of this city, and a larger one, probably dedicated to Athena, seems to be of the Pergamene age. Of its metopes, representing Helios and a gigantomachia, important fragments have been recovered. Coins of this city are not rare, showing Athena on both faces, and some inscriptions have been recovered proving that Hellenistic Ilion was an important municipality. 9. Lastly about the Christian era, arose a Graeco-Roman city, to which belong the theatre on the south-east slope of the hill and the ornate gateway in the same quarter, as well as a large building on the south-west and extensive remains to north-east. This seems to have sunk into decay about the 5th century A.D. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. F. Lechevalier, Voyage de la Troade (1802); Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage pittoresque (1809); Dr Hunt and Professor Carlyle, in Walpole's Travels (1817); O. F. v. Richter, Wallfahrten jm Morgenlande (1822); W. M. Leake, Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor (1824); Prokesch v. Osten, Denkwurdigkeiten aus •dem Orient (1836) ; C. Fellows, Excursion in Asia Minor (1839) ; C. Texier, Asie Mineure (1843) ; R. P. Pullan, Principal Ruins of Asia Minor (1865); P. B. Webb, Topographic de la Troade (1844); H. F. Tozer, Highlands of Turkey (1869); R. Virchow, Landeskunde der Troas, in Trans. Berlin Acad. (1879); H. Schliemann, Troy (1875); Ilios (1880); Troja (1884); Reise der Troas (1881); W. Dorpfeld, Troja (1892) and Troja und Ilios (1902); C. Schuchhardt, Schliemann' s Excavations (Eng. trans., 1891); P. Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History (1892). (D. G. H.) III. The Legend of Troy. — According to Greek legend, the oldest town in the Troad was that founded by Teucer, who was a son of the river Scamander and the nymph Idaea. Tzetzes says that the Scamander in question was the Scamander in Crete, and that Teucer was told by an oracle to settle wherever the " earth-born ones " attacked him. So when he and his company were attacked in the Troad by mice, which gnawed their bow-strings and the handles of their shields, he settled on the spot, thinking that the oracle was fulfilled. He called the town Sminthium and built a temple to Apollo Smintheus, the Cretan word for a mouse being sminthius. In his reign Dardanus, son of Zeus and the nymph Electra, daughter of Atlas, in consequence of a deluge, drifted from the island of Samothrace on a raft or a skin bag to the coast of the Troad, where, having received a portion of land from Teucer and married his daughter Batea, he founded the city of Dardania or Dardanus on high ground at the foot of Mt Ida. On the death of Teucer, Dardanus succeeded to the kingdom and called the whole land Dardania after himself. He begat Erichthonius, who begat a son Tros by Astyoche, daughter of Simois. On succeeding to the throne, Tros called the country Troy and the people Trojans. By Callirrhoe, daughter of Scamander, he had three sons — Ilus, Assaracus and Ganymede. From Ilus and Assaracus sprang two separate lines of the royal house — the one being Ilus, Laomedon, Priam, Hector; the other Assaracus, Capys, Anchises, Aeneas. Ilus went to Phrygia, where, being victorious in wrestling, he received as a prize from the king of Phrygia a spotted cow, with an injunction to follow her and found a city wherever she lay down. The cow lay down on the hill of the Phrygian Ate; and here accordingly Ilus founded the city of Ilion. It is stated that Dardania, Troy and Ilion became one city. Desiring a sign at the foundation of Ilion, Ilus prayed to Zeus and as an answer he found lying before his tent the Palladium, a wooden statue of Pallas, three cubits high, with her feet joined, a spear in her right hand, and a distaff and spindle in her left. Ilus built a temple for the image and worshipped it. By Euiydice, daughter of Adrastus, he had a son Laomedon. Laomedon married Strymo, daughter of Scamander, or Placia, daughter of Atreus or of Leucippus. It was in his reign that Poseidon and Apollo, or Poseidon alone, built the walls of Troy. In his reign also Heracles besieged and took the city, slaying Laomedon and his children, except one daughter Hesione and one son Podarces. The life of Podarces was granted at the request of Hesione; but Heracles stipulated that Podarces must first be a slave and then be redeemed by Hesione; she gave her veil for him; hence his name of Priam (Gr. vplaaBai, to buy). Priam married first Arisbe and afterwards Hecuba, and had fifty sons and twelve daughters. Among the sons were Hector and Paris, and among the daughters Polyxena and Cassandra. To recover Helen, whom Paris carried off from Sparta, the Greeks under Agamemnon besieged Troy for ten years. At last they contrived a wooden horse, in whose hollow belly many of the Greek heroes hid themselves. Their army and fleet then withdrew to Tenedos, feigning to have raised the siege. The Trojans conveyed the wooden horse into Troy; in the night the Greeks stole out, opened the gates to their friends, and Troy was taken. See Homer, //. vii. 452 seq., xx. 215 seq., xxi. 446 seq ; Apollo- dorus ii. 6, 4, iii. 12; Diodorus iv. 75, v. 48; Tzetzes, Schol. on Lycophron, 29, 72, 1302; Conon, Narrat. 21; Dionysius Halicarn. Antiq. Rom. i. 68 seq. The Iliad deals with a period of fifty-one days in the tenth year of the war. For the wooden horse, see Homer, Od. iv. 271 seq.; Virgil, Aen. ii. 13 seq. The Medieval Legend. — The medieval romance of Troy, the Roman de Troie, exercised greater influence in its day and for centuries after its appearance than any other work of the same class. Just as the chansons de geste of the loth century were the direct ancestors of the prose romances which afterwards spread throughout Europe, so, even before Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius, there were quasi-histories, which reproduced in prose, with more or less exact- ness, the narratives of epic poetry. Long previous to the 'Hpuinfa of Flavius Philostratus (fl. 3rd century A.D.) the Trojan War had been the subject of many a prose fiction,"dignified with the title of history; but to remodel the whole story almost in the shape of annals, and to give a minute personal description of the persons and characters of the principal actors, were ideas which belonged to an artificial stage of literature. The work of Philostratus is cast in the form of a dialogue between a Phoenician traveller and a vine-grower at Eleus, and is a discourse on twenty-six heroes of the war. A ficti- tious journal (Ephemeris), professing to give the chief incidents of the siege, and said to have been written by Dictys of Crete, a follower of Idomeneus, is mentioned by Sui'das, and was largely used by John Malalas and other Byzantine chroniclers. This was abridged in Latin prose, probably in the 4th century, under the title of Dictys Cretensis de hello Troja.no libri VI. It is prefaced by an introductory letter from a certain L. Septimius to Q. Aradius Rufinus, in which it is stated that the diary of Dictys had been found in his tomb at Cnossus in Crete, written in the Greek language, but in Phoenician characters. The narrative begins with the rape of Helen, and in- cludes the adventures of the Greek princes on the return voyage. With Dictys is always associated Dares, a pseudo-historian of more recent date." Old Greek writers mention an account of the destruc- tion of the city earlier than the Homeric poems, and in the time of Aelian (2nd century A.D.) this Iliad of Dares, priest of Hephaestus at Troy, was believed to be still in existence. Nothing has since been heard of it; but an unknown Latin writer, living between 400 and 600, took advantage of the tradition to compile Daretis Phrygii de excidio Trojae historia, which begins with the voyage of the Argo. It is in prose and professes to be translated from an old Greek manu- script. Of the two works that of Dares is the later, and is inferior to Dictys. The matter-of-fact form of narration recalls the poem- of Quintus Smyrnaeus. In both compilations the gods and every- thing supernatural are suppressed; even the heroes are degraded. The permanent success, however, of the two works distinguishes them among apocryphal writings, and through them the Troy legend was diffused throughout western Europe. The Byzantine writers from the 7th to the I2th century exalted Dictys as a first-class authority, with whom Homer was only to be contrasted as an in- ventor of fables. Western people preferred Dares, because his history was shorter, and because, favouring the Trojans, he flattered the vanity of those who believed that people, to have been their ancestors. Many MSS. of both writers were contained in old libraries; and they were translated into nearly every language and turned into verse. In the case of both works, scholars are undecided whether a Greek original ever existed (but see DICTYS CRETENSIS). The Byzantine grammarian, Joannes Tzetzes (fl. I2th century), wrote a Greek hexa- meter poem on the subject (Iliaca). In 1272, a monk of Corbie translated " sans rime L'Estoire de Troiens et de Troie (de Dares) du Latin en Roumans mot a mot " because the Roman de Troie was too long. Geoffrey of Waterford put Dares into French prose; and the British Museum has three Welsh MS. translations of the same author — works, however, of a much later period. The name of Homer never ceased to be held in honour; but he is invariably placed in company with the Latin poets. Few of those who praised him had read him, except in the Latin redaction, in upo verses, by the so-called Pindarus Thebanus. It supplied the chief incidents of the Iliad with tolerable exactness and was a text- book in schools. For a thousand years the myth of descent from the dispersed heroes of the conquered Trojan race was a sacred literary tradition throughout western Europe. The first Franco-Latin chroniclers traced their history to the same origin as that of Rome, as told by the Latin poets of the Augustan era ; and in the middle of the 7th century Fredegarius Scholasticus (Rer. gall, script, ii. 461) relates how one party of the Trojans settled between the Rhine, the Danube and the sea. In a charter of Dagobert occurs the statement, " ex nobilis- simo et antique Trojanorum reliquiarum sanguine nati." This statement is repeated by chroniclers and panegyrical writers, who also considered the History of Troy by Dares to be the first of national books. Succeeding kings imitated their predecessors in giving official sanction to their legendary origin: Charles the Bald, in a charter, uses almost the same words as Dagobert, " ex praeclaro et antique trojanorum sanguine nati." In England a similar tradition had been early formulated, as appears from Nennius's Historia britonum and Geoffrey of Monmouth. The epic founder of Britain was Brutus, son, or in another tradition, great-grandson, of Aeneas, in any case of the royal house of Troy. The tradition, repeated in Wace's version of Geoffrey, by Matthew Paris and others, persisted to the time of Shakespeare. Brutus found Albion un- inhabited except by a few giants. He founded his capital on the TROY banks of the Thames, and called it New Troy. Otto Frisingensis (l2th century) and other German chroniclers repeat similar myths, and the apocryphal hypothesis is echoed in Scandinavian sagas. About 1050 a monk named Bernard wrote De excidio Trojae, and in the middle of the I2th century Simon Chevre d'Or, canon of the abbey of Saint-Victor, Paris, followed with another poem in leonine elegiacs on the fall of the city and the adventures of Aeneas, in which the Homeric and Virgilian records were blended. We now come to a work on the same subject, which in its own day and for centuries afterwards exercised an extraordinary influence throughout Europe. About the year 1184 Benoit de Sainte-More (q.v.) composed a poem of 30,000 lines entitled Roman de Troie. It forms a true Trojan cycle and embraces the entire heroic history of Hellas. The introduction relates the story of the Argonauts, and the last 2680 verses are devoted to the return of the Greek chiefs and the wanderings of Ulysses. With no fear of chronological discrepancy before his eyes, Benoit reproduces the manners of his own times, and builds up a complete museum of the I2th century — its arts, costumes, manufactures, architecture, arms, and even religious terms. Women are repeatedly introduced in unwarranted situations; they are spectators of all combats. The idea of personal beauty is different from that of the old Greeks; by Benoit good humour, as well as health and strength, is held to be one of its chief characteristics. The love-pictures are another addition of the modern writer. The author speaks enthusiastically of Homer, but he derived his information chiefly from the pseudo-annals of Dictys and Dares, more especially the latter, augmented by his own imagination and the spirit of the age. It is to Benoit alone that the honour of poetic invention is due, and in spite of its obligation for a groundwork to Dictys and Dares we may justly consider the Roman de Troie as an original work. From this source subsequent writers drew their notions of Troy, mostly without naming their authority and generally without even knowing his name. This is the masterpiece of the pseudo-classical cycle of romances: and in the Latin version of Guido delle Colonne it passed through every country of Europe. The De hello trojano of Joseph of Exeter, in six books, a genuine poem of no little merit, was written soon after Benoit 's work or about the years 1187-1188. At first ascribed to Dares Phrygius and Cornelius Nepos, it was not published as Joseph's until 1620 at •Frankfort. It was directly drawn from the pseudo-annalists, but the influence of Benoit was considerable. Of the same kind was the Troilus of Albert of Stade (1249), a version of Dares, in verse, characterized by the old severity and affected realism. But these Latin works can only be associated indirectly with Benoit, who had closer imitators in Germany at an early period. Herbort of Fritzlar reproduced the French text in his Lied von Troye (early I3th century), as did also Konrad von Wiirzburg (d. 1287) in his Buck von Troye of 40,000 verses, which he himself compared to the " boundless ocean." It was completed by an anonymous poet. To the like source may be traced a poem of 30,000 verses on the same subject by Wolfram von Eschenbach ; and Jacques van Maerlant reproduced Bench's narrative in Flemish. The Norse or Icelandic Trojumanna saga repeats the tale with some variations. In Italy Guido dellfi Colonne, a Sicilian, began in 1270 and finished in 1287 a prose Historia trojana, in which he reproduced the Roman de Troie of Benoit, and so closely as to copy the errors of the latter and to give the name of Peleus to Pelias, Jason's uncle. As the debt was entirely unacknowledged, Benoit at last came to be con- sidered the imitator of Guido. The original is generally abridged, and the vivacity and poetry of the Anglo-Norman trouvere disappear in a dry version. The immense popularity of Guido's work is shown by the large number of existing MSS. The French Bibliotheque Nationale possesses eighteen codices of Guido to thirteen of Benoit, while at the British Museum the proportion is ten to two. Guido's History was translated into German about 1392 by Hans Mair of Nordlingen. Two Italian translations were made: by Filippo Ceffi (1324) and by Matteo Beliebuoni (1333). In the I4th and the commencement of the I5th century four versions appeared in England and Scotland. The best known is the Troy Book, written between 1414 and 1420, of John Lydgate, who had both French and Latin texts before him. An earlier and anonymous rendering exists at Oxford (Bodleian MS. Laud Misc. 595). There is the Cesl Hystor- iale of the Destruction of Troy (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1869-1874), written in a northern dialect about 1390; a Scottish version (isth century) by a certain Barbour, not the poet, John Barbour; and The Seege of Troy, a. version of Dares (Harl. MS. 525 Brit. Mus.). The invention of printing gave fresh impetus to the spread of Guido's work. The first book printed in English was The Recuyell of the Hystoryes of Troye, a translation by Caxton from the French of Raoul Lefevre. The Recueil des histoires de Troyes was " compose par venerable homme Raoul le Feure prestre chappellain de mon tres redoupte seigneur monseigneur le due Phelippe de Bourgoingne en 1'an de grace 1464," but probably printed in 1474 by Caxton or Colard Mansion at Bruges. It is in three books, of which the first deals with the story of Jupiter and Saturn, the origin of the Trojans, the feats of Perseus, and the first achievements of Hercules; the second book is wholly taken up with the " prouesses du fort Hercu- lez " ; the third, " traictant de la generalle destruction de Troyes qui vint a 1'ocasion du rauissement de dame Helaine," is little else than a translation of that portion of Guido delle Colonne which relates to Priam and his sons. Two MSS. of the Recueil -in the Bibliotheque Nationale wrongly attribute the work to Guillaume Fillastre, a voluminous author, and predecessor of Lefevre as secre- tary to the duke. Another codex in the same library, Histoire ancienne de Thebes et de Troyes, is partly taken from Orosius. The Bibliotheque Nationale possesses an unpublished Histoire des Troyens et des Thebains jusqu'a 'la mart de Turnus, d'apres Orose, Chide et Raoul Lefebre (early i6th century), and the British Museum a Latin history of Troy dated 1403. There were also translations into Italian, Spanish, High German, Low Saxon, Dutch and Danish; Guido even appeared in a Flemish and a Bohemian dress. Thus far we have only considered works more or less closely imitated from the original. Boccaccio, passing by the earlier tales, took one original incident from Benoit, the love of Troilus and the treachery of Briseida, and composed Filostrato, a parable of his own relations with the Neapolitan princess who figures in his works as Fiammetta. This was borrowed by Chaucer for his Boke of Troilus and Cresside, and also by Shakespeare for his Troilus and Cressida (1609). One reason why the Round Table stories of the I2th and I3th centuries had a never-ceasing charm for readers of the two following centuries was that they were constantly being re-edited to suit the changing taste. The Roman de T,-oie experi- enced the same fate. By the I3th century it was translated into nrose and worked up in those enormous compilations, such as the Mer des histoires, &c., in which the middle ages studied antiquity. It reappeared in the religious dramas called Mysteries. Jacques Millet, who produced La Destruction de Troie la Grande between 1452 and 1454, merely added vulgar realism to the original. Writers of chap-books borrowed the story, which is again found on the stage in Antoine de Montchretien's tragedy of Hector (1603) — a last echo of the influence of Benoit. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The Troy legend is dealt with in the elaborate work of A. Joly, Benoit de Sainte-More et le Roman de Troie (1870- 1871) ; G. Korting, Der altfranz. Roman de Troie (1883) ; F. Settegast, Benoit de Ste-More (Breslau, 1876) ;G. C.Frommann.T/erfcorU1. Fritzlar u. Benoit de Ste-More (Stuttgart, 1837); R. Jackel, Dares Phrygius u. Benoit de Ste-More (Breslau, 1875); E. Juste, Sur I'origine des po'emes attrib. d Homere et sur les cycles epiques de I'antiq. et du Moyen-Age (Brussels, 1849); J. A. Fuchs, De varietate fabularum troicarum quaestiones_ (Cologne, 1830); H. Dunger, Die Sage vom trojan. Kriege (Leipzig, 1869); G. Korting, Dictys u. Dares (Halle, 1874); H. Dunger, Dictys Septimius (Dresden, 1878); L. Havet, " Sur la date du Dictys de Septimius," Rev. de philol. (1878); F. Meister, " Zur Ephem. belli Troiani yon Dictys," Philologus (1879); R. Earth, Guido de Columna (Leipzig, 1877); A. Mussafia, " Sulle versione Italiane della Storia Troiana," Sitz. d. k. Akad. Wien (1871), vol. Ixvii., and " Ueber d. span. Versionen " (ibid., 1871), vol. Ixix. ; A. Pey, Essai sur li romans d'Eneas (1856). See also J. J. Jusserand, De Josepho Exoniensi (1877); E. Gorra, Testi inediti di storia trojana (Turin, 1887); A. Graf, Roma nella memoria et mile imaginazioni del media evo (Turin, 1882); Le Roman de Troie, ed. L. Constans (Soc. d. anc. textes fr. Paris, 1904); H. L. Ward, Catalogue of Romances (1883), vol. i.; W. Greif, " Die mittel- alterlichen Bearbeitungen der Trojanersage," in E. Stengel's Aiisgaben und Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der romanischen Phil- ologie (Marburg, 1886); A. N. Wesselofsky, Mat. et recherches pour seruir a I'histoire du roman et de la nouiielle (Petersburg, 1889); R. Dernedde, Ueber die den altfranzosischen Dichtern bekannten epischen Stoffe aus dem Alterthum (1887). TROY, a city and the county-seat of Rensselaer county, New York, U.S.A., at the head of tidewater on the eastern bank of the Hudson river, opposite the mouth of the Mohawk, about 6 m. N. of Albany and about 148 m. N. of New York City. Pop. (1880), 56,747; (1890), 60,956; (1900), 60,651, of whom 14,384 were foreign-born (7348 being Irish, 1796 German and 1498 English) and 400 were negroes; (1910, census), 76,813. Troy is served by the Boston & Maine, the New York Central & Hudson River and the Delaware & Hudson railways, and by inter- urban electric lines connecting with Saratoga and Lake George on the north, Albany on the south and Schenectady and the cities of the populous Mohawk Valley on the west; it is at the head of river steamboat navigation on the Hudson, and has water communication by means of the Erie and Champlain canals with the Great Lakes and Canada. The site is a level oblong tract extending along the Hudson for 7 m. and reaching back a mile or so from the river to highlands which rise to a height of 400 ft., with Mt Ida (240 ft. above tidewater) forming a picturesque background. The older part of the city and the principal business and manufacturing district occupies the low lands; the newer part, chiefly residential, is built upon the heights. The northern part of the city was the village of Lansingburg (pop. 1900, 12,595) until 1901, when with parts of the towns of Brunswick and North Greenbush it was annexed to TROY— TROVES Troy. Opposite Troy on the west bank of the Hudson, and connected with it by bridges, are Cohoes, VVatervliet and Waterford. Industrially and commercially they virtually form a part of Troy. Troy is the seat of Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti- tute, founded in 1824 by Stephen van Rensselaer as a " school of theoretical and practical science," incorporated in 1826, and reorganized in 1849 as a general polytechnic institute. It is the oldest school of engineering in the country, and has always maintained a high rank of efficiency. The large gifts (about $1,000,000) to the school made by Mrs Russell Sage in 1907 enabled it to add courses in mechanical and electrical engineer- ing to its course in civil engineering. The institute had 55 instructors and 650 students in 1910. The Emma Willard School, founded as the Troy Female Seminary in 1821 by Mrs Emma Willard (I787-I87O),1 is one of the oldest schools for women in the United States. Other educational institutions include Troy Academy (1834), a non-sectarian preparatory school; La Salle Institute (conducted by the Brothers of the Christian Schools); St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic) and St Peter's Academy (Roman Catholic). Noteworthy buildings of a public and semi-public character include the post office, the public library, containing in 1910 43,500 volumes, the Troy Savings Bank building, the city hall, the Rensselaer county court house, a Y.M.C.A. building and St Paul's Episcopal, the Second Presbyterian and St Mary's (Roman Catholic) churches. An area of 175 acres is comprised in the city's parks, the largest of which are Prospect Park and Beman Park. In Oakwood cemetery, 400 acres, are the grave of General George H. Thomas, and a monolithic shaft to the memory of General John Ellis Wool (1784-1869), who served with distinction in the War of 1812 and in the Mexican War, and in the Civil War commanded for a time the Department of Virginia. In Washington Square there is a Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument, 93 ft. high. Altro Park, on an island a short distance down the river, is a pleasure resort in summer. Two rapid streams, Poesten Kill and Wynants Kill, flowing into the Hudson from the east, through deep ravines, furnish good water-power, which, with that furnished by the state dam across the Hudson here, is utilized for manufacturing purposes. In 1905 the value of Troy's factory product was $31,860,829. Of this $11,271,708 was the value of collars and cuffs (89-5% of the value of the total American product), an industry which gave employment to 49-3% of the wage-earners in Troy, and paid 42-1% of the wages. Closely allied with this industry \vas shirt-making, with an output valued at $4,263,610. Troy is the market for a fertile agricultural region, and the principal jobbing centre for a large district in north-eastern New York and eastern Massachusetts. The site of Troy was part of the Van Rensselaer manor grant of 1629. In 1659 it was bought from the Indians, with the consent of the patroon, by Jan Barentsen Wemp, and several families settled here. In 1707 it passed into the hands of Derick van der Heyden, who laid out a large farm. During this early period it was known variously as Ferryhook, Ashley's Ferry and Van der Hey den's Ferry. In 1777 General Philip Schuyler established his headquarters on Van Schaick's Island in the Mohawk and Hudson, then the principal rendezvous of the army which later met Burgoyne at Saratoga. After the close of the war there was an influx of settlers from Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire and Vermont; a town was laid out on the Van der Heyden farm, and in 1789 the name of Troy was selected in town meeting; and in 1791 the town of Troy was formed from part of Rensselaerwyck. The county-seat was established here in 1793, and Troy was incorporated as a village in 1794 and was chartered as a city in 1816. The first newspaper, The 1 Emma Hart was born in Berlin, Connecticut, became a teacher in 1803, and in 1809 married Dr John Willard of Middlebury. Vermont, where she opened a boarding school for girls in 1814. In 1819 she wrote A Plan for Improving Female Education, submitted to the governor of New York state; and in 1821 she removed to Troy. Her son took charge of the school in 1838. She prepared many textbooks and wrote Journal and Letters from France and Great Britain (1833). See the biography (1873) by John Lord. Farmer's Oracle, began publication in 1797. In 1812 a steamboat line was established between Troy and Albany. Troy benefited financially by the War of 1812, during which contracts for army beef were filled here. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 contributed greatly to Troy's commercial importance. During the Civil War army supplies, ammunition and cannon, and the armour-plate and parts of the machinery for the " Monitor " were made here. The first puddling works were opened in 1839, and Troy was long the centre of the New York iron and steel industry; in 1865 the second Bessemer steel works in the United States were opened here. Troy has three times been visited by severe conflagrations, that of June 1820 entailing a loss of about $1,000,000, that of August 1854 about the same, and that of May 1862, known as " the Great Fire," the destruction of over 500 buildings, and a property loss of some $3,000,000. See Arthur J. Weise, History of the City of Troy (Troy, 1876), and Troy's One Hundred Years (Troy, 1891). TROY, a city and the county-seat of Miami county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the west bank of the Great Miami river, about 65 m. W. of Columbus. Pop. (1890), 4494; (1900), 5881 (234 foreign- born); (1910), 6122. Troy is served by the Cleveland, Cin- cinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton railways, and by the Dayton & Troy and the Spring- field, Troy & Piqua electric inter-urban lines. The Miami and Erie Canal, formerly important for traffic, is now used only for power. The principal public buildings include the court house and the city hall, and there are a public library (housed in the city hall) and a children's home. Troy is situated in a good general farming region, of which tobacco is an important crop; and there are various manufactures. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks and electric-lighting plant. The first settlement was made in 1807, and Troy was first chartered as a city in 1890. TROVES, a town of France, capital of the department of Aube, 104 m. E.S.E. of Paris on the Eastern railway to Belfort. Pop. (1906), 51,228. The town is situated in the wide alluvial plain watered by the Seine, the main stream of which skirts it on the east. It is traversed by several small arms of the river, and the Canal de la Haute-Seine divides it into an upper town, on the left bank, and a lower town on the right bank. The streets are, for the most part, narrow and crooked. It is surrounded by a belt of boulevards, outside which lie suburbs. The churches of the town are numerous, and especially rich in stained glass of the Renaissance period, from the hands of Jean Soudain, Jean Macadre, Linard Gonthier and other artists. St Pierre, the cathedral, was begun in 1208, and it was not until 1640 that the north tower of the fagade was completed. With a height to the vaulting of only 98 ft. it is less lofty than other impor- tant Gothic cathedrals of France. It consists of an apse with seven apse chapels, a choir with double aisles, on the right of which are the treasury and sacristy, a transept without aisles, a nave with double aisles and side chapels and a vestibule. The west facade belongs to the i6th century with the exception of the upper portion of the north tower; the south tower has never been completed. Three portals, that in the centre surmounted by a fine flamboyant rose window, open into the vestibule. The stained glass of the interior dates mainly from the igth and i6th centuries. The treasury contains some fine enamel work and lace. The church of St Urban, begun in 1262 at the expense of Pope Urban IV., a native of the town, is a charming specimen of Gothic architecture, the lightness and delicacy of its construction rivalling that of churches built a century later. The glass windows, the profusion of which is the most remarkable feature of the church, date, for the most part, from the years 1265 to 1280. The church of La Madeleine, built at the beginning of the I3th century, and enlarged in the l6th, contains a rich rood-screen by Giovanni Gualdo (1508) and fine stained-glass windows of the l6th century. The church of St Jean, though hidden among old houses, is one of the most picturesque in Troyes. The choir is a fine example of Renaissance architecture and the church contains a high altar of the 1 7th century, stained glass of the l6th century and many other works of art. St Nicholas is a building of the l6th century with a beautiful vaulted gallery in the interior. The church of St Pantaleon of the l6th century and that of St Nizier, mainly of the same period, contain remarkable sculptures and paintings. St Remi (i4th, I5th and i6th centuries) and St Martin-es-Vignes (i6th and I7th centuries), the latter notable for its 17th-century windows, are also of interest. The old abbey of St Loup is occupied by a 320 TROYON museum contajning numerous collections. The H6tel Dieu of the l8th century is remarkable for the fine gilded iron railing of its courtyard. Most of the old houses of Troyes are of wood, but some of stone of the l6th century are remarkable for their beautiful and original architecture. Amongst the latter the hdtels de Vauluisant, de Mauroy and de Marisy are specially interesting. The prefecture occupies the buildings of the old abbey of Notre- Dame-aux-Nonnains ; the H6tel-de-ville dates from the I7th century; the savings bank, the theatre and the lycee are modern buildings. A marble monument to the Sons of Aube commemorates the war of 1870-^71. Troyes is the seat of a bishop and a court of assize. Its public institutions include a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of com- merce, a council of trade arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. A lycee, an ecclesiastical college, training colleges for male and female teachers, and a school of hosiery are its chief educational institutions. There are also several learned societies and a large library. The dominant industry in Troyes is the manufacture of cotton, woollen and silk hosiery, which is exported to Spain, Italy, the United States and South America; printing and dyeing of fabrics, tanning, distilling, and the manufac- ture of looms and iron goods are among the other industries. The market gardens and nurseries of the neighbourhood are well known. There is trade in the wines of Burgundy and Champagne, in industrial products, in snails and in the dressed pork prepared in the town. History. — At the beginning of the Roman period Troyes (Augustobona) was the principal settlement of the Tricassi, from whose name its own is derived. It owed its conversion to Christianity to Saints Savinian and Potentian, and in the first half of the 4th century its bishopric was created as a suffragan of Sens. St Loup, the most illustrious bishop of Troyes, occu- pied the episcopal seat from 426 to 479. He is said to have per- suaded Attila, chief of the Huns, to leave the town unpillaged, and is known to have exercised great influence in the Church of Gaul. The importance of the monastery of St Loup, which he founded, was overshadowed by that of the abbey of nuns known as Notre-Dame-aux-Nonnains, which possessed large schools and enjoyed great privileges in the town, in some points exercising authority even over the bishops themselves. In 892 and 898 Troyes suffered from the depredations of the Normans, who on the second occasion reduced the town to ruins. In the early middle ages the bishops were supreme in Troyes, but in the loth century this supremacy was transferred to the counts of Troyes (see below), who from the nth century were known as the counts of Champagne. Under their rule the city attained great pros- perity. Its fairs, which had already made it a prominent com- mercial centre, flourished under their patronage, while the canals constructed at their expense aided its industrial development. In the 1 2th century both the counts and the ecclesiastics joined in the movement for the enfranchisement of their serfs, but it was not till 1230 and 1242 that Thibaut IV. granted charters to the inhabitants. A disastrous fire occurred in 1188; more disastrous still was the union of Champagne with the domains of the king of France in 1304, since one of the first measures of Louis le Hutin was to forbid the Flemish merchants to attend the fairs, which from that time declined in importance. For a short time (1410-1425), during the Hundred Years' War, the town was the seat of the royal government, and in 1420 the signing of the Treaty of Troyes was followed by the marriage of Henry V. of England with Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., in the church of St Jean. In 1429 the town capitulated to Joan of Arc. The next hundred years was a period of prosperity, marred by the destruction of half the town by the fire of 1524. In the i6th century Protestantism made some progress in Troyes but never obtained a decided hold. In 1562, after a short occu- pation, the Calvinist troops were forced to retire, and on the news of the massacre of St Bartholomew fifty Protestants were put to death. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 was a severe blow to the commerce of Troyes, which was not revived by the re-establishment of the former fairs in 1697. The population fell from 40,000 to 24,000 between the beginning of the i6th century and that of the igth century. See T. Boutiot, Histoire de Troyes et de la Champagne mtridionale (4 vols., Troyes, 1870-1880); R. Koechlin and J. J. Marquet de Vasselot, La Sculpture a Troyes et dans la Champagne meridionale au setzteme slide (Paris, 1900). (R. TR.) COUNTS OF TROYES. The succession of the counts of Troyes from the 9th to the loth century can be established in the following manner. Aleran, mentioned in 837, died before the 25th of April 854. Odo (orEudes) I. appears as count on the 25th of April 854, and seems to have been stripped of his dignities in January 859. Raoul, or Rudolph, maternal uncle of King Charles the Bald, was count of Troyes in 863 and 864, and died on the 6th of January 866. Odo I. seems to have entered again into possession of the countship of Troyes after the death of Raoul, and died himself on the loth of August 871. Boso, afterwards king of Provence, received the countship in ward after the death of Odo I. A royal diploma was granted at his request, on the 2gth of March 877, to the abbey of Montier-la- Celle in Troyes. Odo II., son of Odo I., became count of Troyes on the 25th of October 877. Robert I., brother of Odo II., was count from 879. He married Gisla, sister of kings Louis III. and Carloman, and was killed by the Northmen in 886. Aleaume, nephew of Robert I., is mentioned in 893. Richard, son of the viscount of Sens Gamier, is styled count of Troyes in a royal diploma of the loth of December 926. He was living in 931. Herbert I., already count of Vermandois, succeeded •Richard, and died in 943. Robert II., one of the five sons of Herbert of Vermandois, is called count of Troyes in an act of the 6th of August 959, and died in August 968. Herbert II. the Old, younger brother of Robert II., succeeded him and died between 980 and 983. Herbert III. the Young, nephew and successor of Herbert II., died in 995. Stephen I., son and successor of Herbert III., was alive in 1019. His successor was his cousin, Odo II., count of Blois. From the nth century the counts of Troyes, whose domains increased remark- ably, are commonly designated by the name of counts of Champagne. See H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, Histoire des dues et des comtes de Champagne (1859), vol. i.; F. Lot, Les Derniers Caroiingiens, (1891), pp. 370-377; A. Longnon, Documents relatifs au comte de Champagne et de Brie (1904), ii. 9, note. (A. Lo.) TROYON, CONSTANT (1810-1865), French painter, was born on the z8th of August 1810 at Sevres, near Paris, where his father was connected with the famous manufactory of china. Troyon was an animal painter of the first rank, and was closely associated with the artists who painted around Barbizon. The technical qualities of his methods of painting are most masterly; his drawing is excellent, and his composi- tion always interesting. It was only comparatively late in life that Troyon found his metier, but when he realized his power of painting animals he produced a fairly large number of good pictures in a few years. Troyon entered the ateliers very young as a decorator, and until he was twenty he laboured assiduously at the minute details of porcelain ornamentation ; and this kind of work he mastered so thoroughly that it was many years before he overcame its limitations. By the time he reached twenty-one he was travelling the country as an artist, and painting landscapes so long as his finances lasted. Then when pressed for money he made friends with the first china manu- facturer he met and worked steadily at his old business of decorator until he had accumulated enough funds to permit him to start again on his wanderings. Troyon was a favourite with Roqueplan, an artist of dis- tinction eight years his senior, and he became one of his pupils after receiving certain tuition from a painter, now quite unknown, named Riocreux. Roqueplan introduced Troyon to Rousseau, Jules Dupre, and the other Barbizon painters, and in his pictures between 1840 and 1847 he seemed to endeavour to follow in their footsteps. But as a landscapist Troyon would never have been recognized as a thorough master, although his work of the period is marked with much sincerity and met with a certain success. It may be pointed out, however, that in one or two pure landscapes of the end of his life he achieved qualities of the highest artistic kind; but this was after lengthy experience as a cattle painter, by which his talents had become thoroughly developed. In 1846 Troyon went to the Netherlands, and at the Hague saw Paul Potter's famous " Young Bull." From the studies he made of this picture, of Cuyp's sunny landscapes, and TRUCE OF GOD 321 brandt's noble masterpieces he soon evolved a new method of painting, and it is only in works produced after this time that Troyon's true individuality is revealed. When he became conscious of his power as an animal painter he developed with rapidity and success, until his works became recognized as masterpieces in Great Britain and America, as well as in all countries of the Continent. Success, however, came too late, for Troyon never quite believed in it himself, and even when he could command the market of several countries he still grumbled loudly at the way the world treated him. Yet he was decorated with the Legion of Honour, and five times received medals at the Paris Salon, while Napoleon III. was one of his patrons; and it is certain he was at least as financially successful as his Barbizon colleagues. Troyon died, unmarried, at Paris on the zist of February 1865, after a term of clouded intellect. All his famous pictures are of date between 1850 and 1864, his earlier work being of comparatively little value. His mother, who survived him, instituted the Troyon prize for animal pictures at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. Troyon's work is fairly well known to the public through a number of large engravings from his pictures. In the Wallace Gallery in London are " Watering Cattle " and " Cattle in Stormy Weather "; in the Glasgow Corporation Gallery is a "Landscape with Cattle"; the Louvre contains his famous " Oxen at Work " and " Returning to the Farm "; while the Metropolitan Museum of Art and other galleries in America contain fine examples of his pictures. His " Vallee de la Toucque, Normandy," is one of his greatest pictures; and at Christie's sale-room in 1902 the single figure of a cow in a landscape of but moderate quality fetched £7350. Emile van Marcke (1827-1891) was his best-known pupil. See H. Dumesnil, Constant Troyon: Souvenirs intimes (Paris, 1888); A. Hustin, "Troyon," L' 'Art, pp. 77 and 85 (Paris, 1889); Albert Wolff, " Constant Troyon," La Capitate de I' art (Paris, 1886); D. C. Thomson, The Barbizon School of Painters (London, 1890); " Constant Troyon," The Art Journal (1893), p. 22. (D. C. T.) TRUCE OF GOD, an attempt of the Church in the middle ages to alleviate the evils of private warfare. Throughout the 9th and icth centuries, as the life-benefices of the later Carolingian kings were gradually transformed into hereditary fiefs, the insecurity of life and property increased, for there was no central power to curb the warring local magnates. The two measures which were adopted by the Church to remedy these conditions — the pax ecclesiae or Dei and the treuga or treva Dei^-a.re usually both referred to as the Truce of God, but they are distinct in character. The latter was a develop- ment of the former. The pax ecclesiae is first heard of in the year 990 at three synods held in different parts of southern and central France — at Charroux, Narbonne and Puy. It enlisted the immediate support of the regular clergy, particularly the vigorous congrega- tion of Cluny, and of William V. of Aquitaine, the most powerful lord of southern France, who urged its adoption at the Councils of Limoges (994) and Poitiers (999). The peace decrees of these various synods differed considerably in detail, but in general they were intended fully to protect non-combatants; they forbade, under pain of excommunication, every act of private warfare or violence against ecclesiastical buildings and their environs, and against certain persons, such as clerics, pilgrims, merchants, women and peasants, and against cattle and agricultural implements. With the opening of the nth century, the pax ecclesiae spread over northern France and Burgundy, and diocesan leagues began to be organized for its maintenance. The bishop, or count, on whose lands the peace was violated was vested with judicial power, and was directed, in case he was himself unable to execute sentence, to summon to his assistance the laymen and even the clerics of the diocese, all of whom were required to take a solemn oath to observe and enforce the peace. At the Council of Bourges (1038), the archbishop decreed that every Christian fifteen years and over should take such an oath and enter the diocesan militia. The idea that peace is a divine institution seems to XXVII. II have given rise to a new name for the peace, the pax Dei, or peace of God. The treuga or treva Dei, the prohibition of every act of private warfare during certain days, goes back at least to the Synod of Elne, held in the Pyrenees in 1027, which suspended all warfare from noon on Saturday till prime on Monday. Like the pax ecclesiae it found ardent champions in the regular clergy, especially in Odilo (962-1049), the fifth abbot of Cluny, and soon spread over all France. It penetrated Piedmont and Lombardy in 1041 and Normandy in 1042. By this time the truce extended from the Wednesday evening to the Monday morning in every week and also, in most places, lasted during the seasons of Lent and Advent, the three great vigils and feasts of the Blessed Virgin, and those of the twelve apostles and a few other saints. The treuga Dei was decreed for Flanders at the Synod of Therouanne (1063) and was instituted in southern Italy in 1089, probably through Norman influence. The bishop of Liege introduced it in Ger- many in 1082, and three years later a synod held at Mainz in the presence of the emperor Henry IV. extended it to the whole empire. It does not appear to have secured a firm footing in England, although its general provisions were in- corporated in the laws of the land (1130-1154). The popes took the direction of the matter into their own hands towards the end of the nth century as they realized the necessity of promoting peace among Christians in order to unite them successfully in the crusades against the Mahommedans; and the first decree of the Council of Clermont (1095), at which Urban II. preached the first crusade, proclaimed a weekly truce for all Christendom, adding a guarantee of safety to all who might take refuge at a wayside cross or at the plough. The Truce of God was reaffirmed by many councils, such as that held at Reims by Calixtus II. in 1119, and the Lateran councils of 1123, 1139 and 1179. When the treuga Dei reached its most extended form, scarcely one-fourth of the year remained for fighting, and even then the older canons relating to the pax ecclesiae remained in force. The means employed for its en- forcement remained practically the same: spiritual penalties, such as excommunication, special ecclesiastical tribunals, sworn leagues of peace, and assistance from the temporal power. The Council of Clermont prescribed that the oath of adherence to the truce be taken every three years by all men above the age of twelve, whether noble, burgess, villein or serf. The results of these peace efforts were perhaps sur- prisingly mediocre, but it must be borne in mind that not only was the military organization of the dioceses always very imperfect, but feudal society, so long as it retained political power, was inherently hostile to the principle and practice of private peace. The Truce of God was most powerful in the 1 2th century, but with the I3th its influence waned as the kings gradually gained control over the nobles and substituted the king's peace for that of the Church. A few bishops, notably Gerard of Cambrai (1013-1051), seem from the first to have opposed the peace laws of the Church as encroaching on royal authority, but the lay rulers usually co-operated with the ecclesiastical authorities in encouraging and maintaining the Truce of God. In fact, the emperor Henry II. and the French king Robert the Pious discussed the subject of universal peace under church auspices at Monzon in 1023. By the I2th century, however, the eccle- siastical measures had proved ineffectual in coping with private warfare, and secular rulers sought independently to diminish the number and atrocity of private wars within their own domains. The provisions of the Truce of God were often incorporated bodily in municipal and district statutes such as the laws of Barcelona (1067). The emperor Henry IV. approved (1085) the extension of the truce to the whole land, and in 1 103 royal laws entirely prohibiting private warfare in the empire replaced the Truce of God. In France royalty ac- quired little by little a preponderant influence over feudalism and used its increased prestige to substitute for the Truce of God the peace of the state. Louis VI., Louis VII. and Philip Augustus 322 TRUCK— TRUFFLE gradually obtained recognition not only from the petty lords of their own domain but from most of the magnates of the king- dom. Thanks to the moral support and material resources which it found in the ecclesiastical lords of central and northern France, and to the growing popular desire for the suppression of feuds, royalty was able to support its pretension to the general government of the kingdom. Confirming what was doubtless an older custom, Philip Augustus decreed the quarantaine-le-roi, which suspended every act of reprisal for at least forty days; and in 1257 Louis IX. absolutely forbade all private wars in the crown lands. By the beginning of the i4th century the royal authority had sufficient force to ensure the maintenance of the Landesfriede. In England, where the Truce of God does not seem to have acquired a firm footing, state law against private warfare obtained practically from the time of the Norman conquest. At least from Henry I. it became an axiom that the law of the' king's court stood above all other law and was the same for all. See L. Hubert!, Studien zur Rechtsgeschichte der Gottesfrieden und Landfrieden, Bd. i. Die Friedens-Ordnungen in Frankreich (Ansbach, 1892); A. Luchaire, " La Paix et la trgve de Dieu," in E. Lavisse's Histoirede France, II. 2, pp. 133-138 (Paris, 1901); E. Se'michon, La Paix et la Irene de Dieu (2nd ed. 1869); E. Mayer, Deutsche und franzosische Verfassungsgeschichte (1899), vol. i.; J. Fehr, Der Gottas- fricde und die katholische Kirche des Mittelallers (Augsburg, 1861); A. Kluckhohn, Geschichte des Gottesfriedens (Leipzig, 1857); K. J. von Hefele, Gonciliengeschichte, 2nd ed., vol. 4; Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. Treuga. The principal French documents on the subject are published in Huberti's book, and those of Germany, Italy and Aries are edited by L. Weiland in the Monumenta Germaniae his- torica, conslituliones i. 596 sqq. (C. H. HA.) TRUCK, (i) A name for barter, or commodities used in barter or trade. The word came into English from the French troq, mod. troc; troquer, to barter, is borrowed from Spanish trocar, for which several origins have been suggested, such as a Low Latin travicare, the supposed original of " traffic " (?.».), or some latinized form of Greek rpoTros, turn; it may, on the other hand, be connected with the Greek rpoxos, wheel. " Truck," in this sense, is chiefly used now in the sense of the payment of the wages of workmen in kind, or in any other way than the unconditional payment of money, a practice known as the " truck system." Colloquially, " truck " is used in the general sense of " dealing," in such expressions as " to have no truck with anyone." The " truck system " has taken various forms. Sometimes the workman has been paid with " portion of that which he has helped to produce," whether he had need of it or not, but the more usual form was to give the workman the whole or part of his wages in the shape of commodities suited to his needs. There was also a practice of paying in money, but with an express or tacit understanding that the workman should resort for such goods as he required to shops or stores kept by his employer. The truck system led in many cases to grave abuses and was made illegal by the Truck Acts, under which wages must be paid in current coin of the realm, without any stipulations as to the manner in which the same shall be expended. (See LABOUR LEGISLATION.) (2) From the Late Latin trochus, wheel, Greek rpoxfo, we get " truck " in the sense of a wheeled vehicle, such as the hand-barrows used for carrying luggage at a railway station; and the word is used generally for all that portion of railway rolling- stock which is intended for the carriage of goods (see RAILWAYS : Rolling-stock). The term is also used of a circular disk of wood at the top of a ship's mast, generally provided with sheaves for the signal halyards. TRUCKLE, a verb meaning to submit servilely or fawningly to another's bidding, to yield in a weak, feeble or contemptible way. The origin is the " truckle bed," a small bed on wheels which could be pushed under a large one. In early times servants or children slept in such beds, placed at the foot of their masters' and parents' bed, but the name first appears as a university word, and was derived direct from Latin trochlea, a wheel or pulley-block, Greek rpoxfo, wheel (rp'extiv, to run). TRUEBA, ANTONIO DE (1810-1889), Spanish novelist, was born on the 24th of December 1819 at Montellano (Biscay), where he was privately educated. In 1835 he was sent to learn business at Madrid; but commerce was not to his taste, and, after a long apprenticeship, he turned to journalism. In 1851 he hit the popular taste with El Cid Campeador and El Libra de los cantares; for the next eleven years he was absorbed by journalistic work, the best of his contributions being issued under the titles of Cuentos populares (1862), Cuentos de color de rosa (1864), and Cuentos campesinos (1865). The pleasant simplicity and idyllic sentimentalism of these collections delighted an uncritical public, and Trueba met the demand by supplying a series of stories conceived in the same ingenuous vein. In 1862 he was appointed archivist and chronicler of the Biscay provinces; he was deprived of the former post in 1870, but was reinstated after the restoration. He died at Bilbao on the icth of March 1889. TRUFFLE (from Med. Fr. trufle, a variant of truffe, generally taken to be for tafie, from Lat. tuber, an esculent root, a tuber, cf. Ital tartufo, truffle, from Lat. torae tuber; another Ital. form tartufola gave Ger. Tartojfel, dissimilated to Karto/el, potato), the name of several different species of subterranean fungi which are used as food. The species sold in English markets is Tuber aestivum; the commonest species of French markets is T. melanosporum, and of Italian the garlic-scented T. magna- tum. Of the three, the English species is the least desirable, and the French is possibly the best. The truffle used for Perigord pie (pate de foie gras) is T. melanosporum, regarded by some as a dark variety of our British species, T. brumale. When, however the stock of T. melanosporum happens to be deficient, some manufacturers use inferior species, such as the worthless or dangerous Choeromyces meandriformis. Even the rank and offensive Scleroderma vulgare (one of the puff- ball series of fungi) is sometimes used for stuffing turkeys, sausages, &c. Indeed, good truffles, and then only T. aestivum, are seldom seen in English markets. The taste of T. melanosporum can be detected in Perigord pie of good quality. True and false truffles can easily be distinguished under the microscope. Tuber aestivum, the English truffle, is roundish in shape, covered with coarse polygonal warts, black in colour outside and brownish and veined with white within; its average size is about that of a small apple. It grows from July till autumn or winter, and prefers beech, oak and birch woods on argillaceous or calcareous soil, and has sometimes been observed in pine woods. It grows gregari- ously, often in company with T. brumale and (in France and Italy) T. melanosporum, and sometimes appears in French markets with these two species as well as with T. mesentcricum. The odour of T. aestivum is very strong and penetrating; it is generally esteemed powerfully fragrant, and its taste is considered agreeable. The common French truffle, T. melanosporum, is a winter species. It is a valuable article of commerce and is exported from France in great quantities. The tubers are globose, bright brown or black in colour, and rough with polygonal warts; the mature flesh is blackish grey, marbled within with white veins. It is gathered in autumn and winter in beech and oak woods, and is frequently seen in Italian markets. The odour of T. melanosporum is very pleasant, especially when the tubers are young, then somewhat resembling that of the strawberry; with age the smell gets very potent, but is never considered really unpleasant. The common Italian truffle, T. magnatum, is pallid ochreous or brownish buff in colour, smooth or minutely papillose, irregularly globose, and lobed; the interior is a very pale brownish liver colour veined with white. It grows towards the end of autumn in plantations of willows, poplars and oaks, on clayey soil. Sometimes it occurs in open cultivated fields. The odour of the mature fungus is very potent, and is like strong garlic, onion or decaying cheese. T. brumale, referred to above, grows in Britain. It is a winter truffle, and is found chiefly under oaks and abele trees from October to December. It is black in colour, globose, more or less regular in shape, and is covered with sharp polygonal warts; the mature flesh is blackish grey marbled with white veins. The odour is very strong and lasts a long time; the taste is generally esteemed agreeable. Choeromyces meandri- formis, which occurs in Britain, is sometimes sold for T. magnatum, the colour of the flesh of both species being somewhat similar. Scleroderma vulgare, the " false truffle," is extremely common on the surface of the ground in woods, and is gathered by Italians and Frenchmen in Epping Forest for the inferior dining-rooms of London where continental dishes are served. It is a worthless, offensive, and possibly dangerous fungus. A true summer truffle, T. mesentericum, found in oak and birch woods on calcareous clay soil, is frequently eaten on the Continent. It is esteemed equal TRUJILLO— TRUMBALL 323 to T. aestivum, of which it is regarded as a variety and probably grows in Britain. Another edible species, T. macrosporum, also grows in Britain, in clayey places under young beeches and oaks, on the borders of streams and roads, and sometimes in fields ; more rarely it grows in plantations of willow and poplar. It has a strong scent of onions or garlic somewhat similar to T. aestivum, but it is less esteemed on account of its toughness and its small size. Terfezia leonis, a famous truffle of Italy, Algeria, Sardinia, &c., resembles externally a potato. It grows in March, April and May. Some persons eat it in a raw state, sliced and dipped in oil or egg. It is not scented, and its taste is generally considered insipid or soapy. Melanogaster variegatus, an ally of the puff-balls, and therefore (like Scleroderma) not a true truffle, is sometimes eaten in England and France. It has been, and possibly still is, occasionally sold in England under the name of red truffle." It is a small ochreous- brown species with a strong aromatic and pleasant odour of bitter almonds. When the plant is eaten raw the taste is sweet and sugary, but when cooked it is hardly agreeable. The odour belong- ing to many truffles is so potent that their places of growth can be readily detected by the odour exhaled from the ground. Squirrels, hogs and other animals commonly dig up truffles and devour them, and pigs and dogs have long been trained to point out the places where they grow. Pigs will always eat truffles, and dogs will do so occasionally; it is therefore usual to give the trained pig or dog a small piece of cheese or some little reward each time it is successful. Truffles are reproduced by spores, which serve the same pur- pose as seeds in flowering plants; in true truffles the spores are borne in transparent sacs (asci), from four to eight spores in each ascus. The asci are embedded in vast numbers in the flesh of the truffle. Spores of the Chief European Truffles. (Enlarged 500 diameters.) 1, Tuber aestivum. 5, T. magnatum. 2, T. brumale. 6, Choeromyces meandriformis. 3, T. melanosporum. 7, Scleroderma vulgare. 4, T. mesentericum. 8, Melanogaster variegatus. In false truffles the spores are free and are borne on minute spicules or supports. The spores of the chief European truffles, true and false, enlarged five hundred diameters, are shown in the accompanying illustration. Many references to truffles occur in classical authors. The truffle Elaphomyces variegatus was till quite recent times used, under the name of Hart's nut or Lycoperdon nut, on account of its supposed aphrodisiac qualities. TRUJILLO, or TEUXILLO, a seaport on the Atlantic coast of Honduras, in 15° 54' N. and 86° 5' W. Pop. (1905), about 4000. The harbour, an inlet of the Bay of Honduras, is sheltered on the north by the promontory of Cape Honduras; it is deep and spacious, but insecure in westerly winds. Maho- gany, dye-woods, sarsaparilla, cattle, hides and fruit are ex- ported; grain, flour, hardware and rum are imported. Trujillo was founded in iS24> and became one of the most prosperous ports of the new world, and the headquarters of a Spanish naval squadron. During the iyth century it was frequently and successfully raided by buccaneers, and thus lost much of its commerce. Still more has in modern times been diverted to Puerto Cortes and the Bay Islands. TRUJILLO, or TRUXILLO, a city of northern Peru, the see of a bishopric, and capital of the department of Libertad, about 315 m. N.N.W. of Lima and ij m. from the Pacific coast, in lat. 8° 7' S., long. 79° 9' W. Pop. (1906, estimate), about 6500. The city stands on the arid, sandy plain (Mansiche, or Chimu), which skirts the coast from Paita south to Santa, a few miles north of the Moche or Chimu river, and at the northern entrance to the celebrated Chimu Valley. North and east are the ruins of an old Indian city commonly known as the Grand Chimu, together with extensive aqueducts and reservoirs. The city is partly enclosed by an old adobe wall built in 1686, and its buildings are in great part also constructed of adobe. The public institutions include a university, two national colleges, one of which is for girls, an episcopal seminary, a hospital and a theatre. Trujillo was once an important commercial centre and the metropolis of northern Peru, but the short railways running inland from various ports have taken away its commercial importance. The port of Salaverry (with which Trujillo is connected by rail) is about 10 m. south-east, where the national government has constructed a long iron pier. Rail- ways also extend northward to Ascope and eastward to Laredo, Galindo and Menocucho, and a short line runs from Roma, on the Ascope extension, to the port of Huanchaco. The only important manufactures of Trujillo are cigars and cigarettes. Trujillo was founded in 1535, by Francisco Pizarro, who gave it the name of his native city in Spain. Its position on the road from Tumbez to Lima gave it considerable political and com- mercial importance, and some reflection of that colonial distinc- tion still remains. It suffered little in the War of Independence, but was occupied and plundered by the Chileans in 1882. Of the ancient aboriginal city, or group of towns, whose ruins and burial-places cover the plain on every side of Trujillo, comparatively little is definitely known. The extent of these ruins, which cover an area 12 to 15 m. long by 5 to 6m. wide, demonstrate that it was much the largest Indian city on the southern continent. The principal ruins are 4 m. north of Trujillo, but others lie more to the eastward and still others southward of the banks of the Moche. The great aqueduct, which brought water to the several large reservoirs of the city, was 14 m. long and in some places in crossing the Chimu Valley it had an elevation of 60 ft. The name of Grand Chimu is usually given to the ruined city, this being the title applied to the chief of the people, who were called the Chimu, or Yuncas. They were a race wholly distinct from the Incas, by whom they were finally conquered. They spoke a different language and had developed an altogether different civilization, and it is not unreasonable to presume that they were related to some earlier race of southern Mexico. Specimens of skilfully wrought ornaments of gold and silver, artistically made pottery, and finely woven fabrics of cotton and wool (alpaca), have been found in their huacas, or burial-places. Bronze was known to them, and from it tools and weapons were made. Their extensive irrigation works show that they were painstaking agriculturists, and that they were successful ones may be assumed from the size of the population maintained in so arid a region. Since the Spanish conquest their huacas have been opened and rifled, and many of the larger masses of ruins have been extensively mined in search of treasure, but enough still remains to impress upon the observer the magnitude of the city and the genius of the people who built it. Nothing is known of their history or of their political institutions, but these remains of their handiwork bear eloquent testimony that they had reached a degree of development in some respects higher even than that of the Incas. See E. G. Squier, Peru (New York, 1877) ; and Charles Wiener, Perou et Bolivie (Paris, 1882). TRUJILLO, a town of Spain, in the province of Caceres; on a hill 25 m. east of Caceres, and on the river Tozo, a sub- tributary of the Tagus. Pop. (1900), 12,512. The surround- ing country is rugged, but produces wheat, wine, oils 'and fruit, besides livestock of all sorts, and much phosphorite. There are valuable forests close to the town. In the oldest part of Trujillo are the remains of a castle said to be of Roman origin, but rebuilt by the Moors and restored in modern times. The Julia tower is also said to be Roman, like much of the fortifi- cations. The Roman name for the town was Turgalium. The principal parish church, Santa Maria, is a fine Gothic structure of the isth century. Trujillo was a town of impor- tance in the middle ages. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was born here about 1471, and built a palace, which still stands, in the main square of the town. TRUMBALL, SIR WILLIAM (1630-1716), English politician, was a grandson of William Trumball (d. 1635), who was for sixteen years English resident at Brussels and afterwards a clerk of the privy council. Educated at St John's College, Oxford, young Trumball became a fellow of All Souls and settled down as a practising lawyer in Oxford and in London. He was made chancellor of the diocese of Rochester and was sent to Tangier on public business in 1683, one of his companions TRUMBULL, J. H.— TRUMBULL, JONATHAN 324 on this errand being the diarist Pepys. In 1684 Trumball was knighted by Charles II. and in 1685 he was sent as envoy to France, where he worked hard on behalf of the English Protestants there who were threatened by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In 1685 he became a member of Parliament, in 1687 he went as ambassador to Constantinople, and in 1694 he was made a lord of the treasury. From May 1695 untu" December 1697 he was a secretary of state under William III. He died on the I4th of December 1716. His son, William Trumball (1708-1760), had an only daughter, who became the wife of the Hon. Martin Sandys. She was thus the ancestress of the later marquesses of Downshire. Many of Trumball's letters are in the British Museum and in the Record Office, London. Trumball was on friendly terms with Pierre Bayle and with Dryden, whom he advised to translate Virgil. He was also very intimate with Pope, whom he influenced in several ways, especially in urging him to make a translation of Homer. TRUMBULL, JAMES HAMMOND (1821-1897), American scholar, was born in Stonington, Connecticut, on the 2oth of December 1821. He studied at Yale, but ill-health prevented his graduation. He was state librarian in 1854-1855, assistant- secretary of state of Connecticut in 1847-1852 and in 1858- 1861, and secretary of state in 1861-1866; and was a prominent member of the Connecticut Historical Society, of which he was president in 1863-1889, the National Academy of Science, to which he was elected in 1872, and of other learned societies. He died in Hartford on the 5th of August 1897. He wrote Historical Notes on some Provisions of the Connecticut Statutes (1860-1861) and The True Blue Laws of Connecticut (1876), and edited The Colonial Records of Connecticut (3 vols., 1850- 1859). He is better known, however, as a student of the Indian dialects of New England. He edited Roger Williams's Key to the Language of America (1866), and wrote The Composition of Indian Geographical Names (1870), The Best Methods of Studying the Indian Languages (1871), Indian Names of Places in ... Connecticut with Interpretations (1881) and other works on similar subjects. TRUMBULL, JOHN (1750-1831), American poet, was born in what is now Watertown, Connecticut, where his father was a Congregational preacher, on the 24th of April 1750. At the age of seven he passed his entrance examinations at Yale, but did not enter until 1763; he graduated in 1767, studied law there, and in 1771-1773 was a tutor. In 1773 he was admitted to the bar, in 1773-1774 practised law in Boston, working in the law- office of John Adams, and after 1774 practised in New Haven. He was state attorney in 1789, a member of the Connecticut Assembly in 1792 and 1800, and a judge of the Superior Court in 1801-1819. The last six years of his life were spent in Detroit, Michigan, where he died on the loth of May 1831. While studying at Yale he had contributed in 1769-1770 ten essays, called " The Meddler," imitating The Spectator, to the Boston Chronicle, and in 1770 similar essays, signed " The Correspondent " to the Connecticut Journal and New Haven Post Boy. While a tutor he wrote his first satire in verse, The Progress of Dulness (1772-1773), an attack in three poems on educational methods of his time. His great poem, which ranks him with Philip Freneau and Francis Hopkinson as an American political satirist of the period of the War of Independence, was McFingal, of which the first canto, " The Town-Meeting," appeared in 1776 (dated 1775). This canto, about 1500 lines, contains some verses from " Gage's Proclamation," published in the Connecticut Courant for the 7th and the i4th of August 1775; it portrays a Scotch Loyalist, McFingal, and his Whig opponent, Honorius, evidently a portrait of John Adams. This first canto was divided into two, and with a third and a fourth canto was published in 1782. After the war Trumbull was a rigid Federalist, and with the " Hartford Wits " David Hum- phreys, Joel Barlow and Lemuel Hopkins, wrote the Anarchiad, a poem directed against the enemies of a firm central government. See the memoir in the Hartford edition of Trumbull's Poetical Works (2 vols., 1820) ; James Hammond Trumbull's The Origin of " McFingal " (Morrisania, New York, 1868) ; and the estimate in M. C. Tyler's Literary History of the American Revolution (New York 1897). TRUMBULL, JOHN (1756-1843), American artist, was born at Lebanon, Connecticut, on the 6th of June 1756, the son of Jonathan Trumbull (1710-1785), governor of Connecticut. He graduated at Harvard in 1773, served in the War of Inde- pendence, rendering a particular service at Boston by sketching plans of the British works, and was appointed second aide-de- camp to General Washington and in June 1776 deputy adjutant- general to General Gates, but resigned from the army in 1777. In 1780 he went to London to study under Benjamin West, but his work had hardly begun when the news of the arrest and execution of Major Andre, who was deputy adjutant-general in the English army, suggested the arrest of Trumbull as having been an officer of similar rank in the Continental army; he was imprisoned for seven months. In 1784 he was again in London working under West, in whose studio he painted his " Battle of Bunker Hill " and " Death of Montgomery," both of which are now in the Yale School of Fine Arts. In 1785 Trumbull went to Paris, where he made portrait sketches of French officers for " The Surrender of Cornwallis," and began, with the assistance of Jefferson, " The Signing of the Declaration of Independence," well-known from the engraving by Asher B. Durand. These paintings, with " The Surrender of Burgoyne," and " The Resignation of Washington," were bought by the United States government and placed in the Capitol at Wash- ington. Trumbull's " Sortie from Gibraltar " (1787), owned by the Boston Athenaeum, is now in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and a series of historical paintings, the " Trumbull Gallery," by far the largest single collection of his works (more than 50 pictures), has been in the possession of Yale College since 1831, when Trumbull received from the college an annuity of $1000. His portraits include full lengths of General Washington (1790) and George Clinton (1791), in the city-hall of New York — where there are also full lengths of Hamilton and of Jay; and portraits of John Adams (1797), Jonathan Trumbull, and Rufus King (1800); of Timothy Dwight and Stephen Van Rensselaer, both at Yale; of Alexander Hamilton (in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, and in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, both taken from Ceracchi's bust) ; a portrait of him- self painted in 1833; a full length of Washington, at Charleston, South Carolina; a full length of Washington in military costume (1792), now at Yale; and portraits of President and Mrs Washington (1794), in the National Museum at Washington. Trumbull's own portrait was painted by Stuart and by many others. In 1794 Trumbull acted as secretary to John Jay in London during the negotiation of the treaty with Great Britain, and in 1796 he was appointed by the commissioners sent by the two countries the fifth commissioner to carry out the seventh article of the treaty. He was president of the American Academy of Fine Arts in 1816-1825. He died in New York on the loth of November 1843. See his Autobiography (New York, 1841) ; J. F. Weir, John Trum- bull, A brief Sketch of His Life, to which is added a Catalogue of his Works (New York, 1901); and John Durand, "John Trumbull," American Art Review, vol. ii. pt. 2, pp. 181-191 (Boston, 1881). TRUMBULL, JONATHAN (1710-1785), American political leader, was born at Lebanon, Connecticut, on the 1 2th of October 1710. He graduated at Harvard in 1727, and began the study of theology, but in 1731 engaged in business with his father. He next studied law, was elected to the Assembly in 1773, and held public office almost continuously afterward. He served for seven years in the Assembly, being Speaker for three years, for seventeen years as county judge of Windham county, for twenty-two years (after 1740) as governor's assistant, for two years as deputy-governor (1767-1769), and for three years (1766-1769) as chief justice of the colony. In 1769 he was elected governor and continued in office until his voluntary retirement in 1784. During the War of Independence he was a valued counsellor of Washington. The story that the term " Brother Jonathan," a sobriquet for the United States, origi- nated in Washington's familiar form of addressing him seems to be without any foundation. After the war Trumbull was a strong Federalist. He died in Lebanon on the I7th of August 1785. TRUMBULL, L.— TRUMPET 325 His public papers have been printed in the Massachusetts Histori- cal Society's Collections, 5th series, vols. ix.-x. (Boston, 1885-1888), and yth series, vols. ii.-iii. (1902). See I.W. Stuart, Life of Jonathan Trumbull, sen. (Boston, 1859). His son JONATHAN (1740-1809) graduated at Harvard in 1759, served in the War of Independence as paymaster-general of the northern department in 1775-1778 and as a military secre- tary of Washington in 1778-1783, and was a member of the national House of Representatives in 1789-1795, serving as Speaker in 1791-1793, and of the United States Senate in 1795- 1796; he was lieutenant-governor of Connecticut in 1796-1798, and governor in 1798-1809. Another son, JOSEPH (1737-1778), was a member of the first Continental Congress (1774-1775), became commissary-general of stores of the Continental army in July 1775 and commissary -general of purchases in June 1777, resigned in August 1777, and from November 1777 to April 1778 was commissioner for the board of war. A grandson of the first Jonathan, JOSEPH (1782-1861), was a Whig represen- tative in Congress in 1834-1835 and in 1839-1843, and was governor of Connecticut in 1849-1850. TRUMBULL, LYMAN (1813-1896), American jurist and political leader, was born at Colchester, Connecticut, on the 1 2th of October 1813, and was a grandson of Benjamin Trumbull (1735-1820), a Congregational preacher and the author of a useful Complete History of Connecticut (2 vols., 1818). He taught in Georgia, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1837. Removing to Belleville, Illinois, in the same year, he was elected to the state House of Representatives as a Democrat in 1840, and in 1841-1843 was secretary of state of Illinois. In 1848-1853 he was a justice of the state Supreme Court, and in 1855-1873 was a member of the United States Senate. Elected as an Anti-Nebraska Democrat, he naturally joined the Re- publicans, and when this party secured control in the Senate he was made chairman of the important judiciary committee, from which he reported the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States abolishing slavery. Through- out the Civil War he was a trusted counsellor of the president. In the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson he was one of the seven Republicans who voted to acquit, and he after- wards returned to the Democratic party. After 1873 he practised law in Chicago, was the Democratic candidate for governor of Illinois in 1880, became a Populist in 1894, and defended the railway strikers in Chicago in the same year. He died in Chicago on the 25th of June 1896. TRUMP (i) (O. Fr. Irompe), originally the name of a musical instrument, of which " trumpet " is a diminutive; the term is now chiefly used in the sense of the sound of a trumpet, or a sound resembling it, such as is' made by an elephant. It has been usually accepted that the Romanic forms (cf . Span, and Port, trompa) represent a corruption of Latin tuba, tube. On the other hand a distinct imitative or echoic origin is sometimes assigned. (2) In the sense of a playing card belonging to the suit which beats all other cards of other suits for the period during which its rank lasts, " trump " is a corruption of " triumph." The name was first used of a game of cards, also known as " ruff," which was the parent of the modern game of whist. There are traces in English of an early confusion with a term meaning to deceive or trick, cf. " trumpery," properly deceit, imposture, hence idle talk, gossip, now chiefly used as an adjective, worthless, trivial. This is an adaptation of French iromper, to deceive, which, according to the generally received explanation, meant " to play on the trumpet," se tromper de quelqu'un being equivalent to play with a person, hence to cheat. TRUMPET (Fr. trompette, clairon; Ger. ,Trompete, Klarino, Trummet; Ital. fromba, trombetla, clarino), in music, a brass wind instrument with cup-shaped mouthpiece and a very character- istic tone. It consists of a brass or silver tube with a narrow cylindrical bore except for the bell joint, forming from f to J of the whole length, which is conical and terminates in a bell of moderate diameter. The tube of the trumpet is doubled round upon itself to form a long irregular rectangle with rounded corners. A tuning slide consisting of two U-shaped cylindrical tubes fitting into each other is interpolated between the bell joint and the long cylindrical joint to which the mouthpiece is attached. The mouthpiece consists of a hemispherical cup with a rim across which the lips stretch. The shape of the cup, and more especially of the bottom, in which is pierced a hole com- municating with the main bore, is of the greatest importance on account of its influence on the tone quality and on the production of the higher harmonics (see MOUTHPIECE). The shallower and smaller the cup the more easily are the higher harmonics pro- duced; the sharper the angle at the bottom of the cup the more brilliant and incisive is the timbre, given, of course, the correct style of blowing. The diameter of the cup varies according to the pitch and to the lip-power of the player who chooses one to suit him. See HORN for the laws governing the acoustic proper- ties of brass tubes and the production of sound by means of the lips stretched like a vibrating membrane across the mouthpiece., There are three principal kinds of trumpets: (i) the natural trumpet, mainly used in cavalry regiments, in which the length of the tube and pitch are varied by means of crooks; (2) the slide and double-slide trumpets, in which a chromatic compass is obtained, as in the trombone, by double tubes sliding upon one another without loss of air; (3) the valve trumpet, similar in its working to all other valve instruments. The FIG. I. — Military Trumpet in F (Besson). first and second of these alone give the true trumpet timbre; the tone of the valve trumpet approximates to that of the cornet, nevertheless, it is now almost universally used. In the trumpet the notes of the harmonic series from the 3rd tp the loth or i6th upper partials are produced by the varied tension of the lips and pressure of breath called overblowing. The funda- mental and the second harmonic are rarely obtainable, and are therefore left out of consideration; the next octave from the 4th to the 8th harmonics contains only the 3rd, 5th and minor 7th, and is therefore mainly suitable for fanfare figures based on the common chord. The diatonic octave is the highest and its upper notes are only reached by very good players on trumpets of medium pitch. Examination of the scoring for the trumpet before any satisfactory means of bridging over the gaps in the compass had been found, shows how little the composers, and especially Bach, allowed them- selves to be daunted by the limited resources at their disposal. A curious phenomenon has been observed 1 in connexion witn the harmonic series of the trumpet, when the instrument is played by means of a special clarino mouthpiece (a shallow one enabling the performer to reach the higher harmonics), in which the passage at the bottom of the cup inaugurated by the sharp angle (known as the grain in French) is prolonged in cylindrical instead of conical bore for a distance of about 10 cm. (4 in.) right into the main tube. This peculiar construction of the mouthpiece, which might be considered insignificant, so upsets the acoustic properties of the tube that extra notes can be interpolated between the legitimate note? of the harmonic series thus: — 678 The black notes represent the extra notes, which in the next octave transform the diatonic into a chromatic scale. This phenomenon may perhaps furnish an explanation of some peculiarities in the scoring of Bach and other composers of his day, and also in accounts of certain performances on the trumpet which have read 2 as fairy tales. It is probable that the clarino mouthpiece was one of the secrets of the gilds which has remained undiscovered till now. D. J. Blaikley writes3: " I had an oppor- tunity yesterday of trying the trumpet mouthpiece as described by Mahillon with the ' grain ' or ' throat,' as we would call it, ex- tended for about 10 cm. and terminating abruptly. With such a mouthpiece, used by itself without any trumpet, I could easily get notes from that is to say, that a continuous glide ranging over that compass can be made, the pitch at any moment being determined by the lip-pressure, rather than by the small air-column. When such a distorted mouthpiece is fitted to a 1 See V. Mahillon, La Trompette, son histoire, so, theorie, sa con- struction (Brussels and London, 1907, pp. 29-30). 2 See Fetis, Biographie universelle des musiciens, " Fantini." 3 Letter to the present writer, 6th of February 1909. 326 TRUMPET trumpet, we have a resonator whose proper tones are disturbed and all the notes sounded are capable of being much modified in pitch by the lips. For instance, we may regard the ' d ' as either No. 4 sharpened or No. 5 flattened, merely by lip-action, and other notes in the same way." The compass of the three kinds of trumpets in real sounds is as follows : — For the natural trumpet with crooks— e For the slide or double-slide trumpet with all chromatic semitones — This instrument is a non-transposing one, the music being sounded as written. For the valve trumpet — n The material of which the tube is made has nothing to do with the production of that brilliant quality of tone by which the trumpet is so easily distinguished from every other mouthpiece instrument; the difference is partly due to the distinct form given to the basin of the mouthpiece, as stated above, but principally to the proportions of the column of air determined by the bore. The difference in timbre between trumpet and trombone is accounted for by the wider bore and differently shaped mouthpiece of the latter instrument. Tonguing, both double and triple, is used with great effect on the trumpet: this device consists in the articulation with the tongue of the syllables te-ke or ti-ke repeated in rapid succession for groups of two or four notes and of te-ke-ti for triplets. We have no precise information as to the form which the lituus, one of the ancestors of the modern trumpet, assumed during the middle ages, and it is practically unrepresented in the miniatures and other antiquities, though there is a miniature in the Bible, presented in 850 to Charles the Bald, which places the lituus in the hands of one of the companions of King David. We are not, however, warranted in concluding from this that the Etruscan instrument was in use in the pth century. The lituus or cavalry trumpet of the Romans seems to have vanished with the faU of the Roman Empire, for although the name occasion- ally finds a place in Latin vocabularies, the instrument and name are both unrepresented in the development of musical instruments of western Europe: its successor, the cavalry trumpet of the isth and succeeding centuries, was evolved from the straight busine, an instrument traced, by means of its name no less than by the delicate proportions of its tube and the shape of the bell, to the Roman buccina (q.v.). The straight busines, if we may judge from the presentments made by various artists, were not ah1 made with bores of the same calibre, some having the wider bore of the trombone, others that of the trumpet. They abound in the illuminated MSS. of the nth to the i4th centuries. The uses to which they are put, as the instruments of angels, of heralds, of trumpeters on horseback and on foot, at court banquets and functions of state, form additional proof of their identity. Fra Angelico (d. 1455) painted angels with trumpets having either straight or zigzag tubes, the shortest being about 5 ft. long. The perfect representation of the details, the exactness of the proportions, the natural pose of the angel players, suggest that the artist painted the instrument from real models. The credit of having bent the tube of the trumpet in three parallel branches, thus creating its modern form, has usually been claimed for a Frenchman named Maurin (1498-1515). But the transformation was really made much earlier, probably in the Low Countries or north Italy; in any case it had already been accomplished in the bas-reliefs of Luca della Robbia intended to ornament the organ chamber of the cathedral of Florence where a trumpet having the tube bent back as just described is very distinctly figured. From the beginning of the i6th century we have numerous sources of information. Virdung2 cites three 1 In the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris, reproduced in facsimile by Count Auguste de Bastard (Paris, 1883). 8 Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel, 1511). kinds of mouthpiece instruments — the Felttrumet, the Clareta, and the Thurner Horn; unfortunately he does not mention their distinctive characters, and it is impossible to make them out by examination of his engravings. Probably the Felttrumet and the Clareta closely resembled each other; but the compass of the former, destined for military signals, hardly went beyond the eighth proper tone, while the latter, reserved for high parts, was like the clarino (see below). The Thurner Horn was probably a kind of clarino or clarion used by watchmen on the towers. The Trummet and the Jager Trommet are the only two mouthpiece instruments of the trumpet kind cited by Praetorius.3 The first was tuned in D at the chamber pitch or " Cammerton," but with the help of a shank it could be put in C, the equivalent of the " chorton " D, the two differing about a tone. Sometimes the Trummet was lowered to B and even Bb. The Jager Trommet, or " trompette de chasse," was composed of a tube bent several times in circles, like the posthorn, to make use of a comparison employed by Praetorius himself. His drawing does not make it clear whether the column of air was like that of the trumpet; there is therefore some doubt as to the true character of the instru- ment. The same author further cites a wooden trumpet (holzern Trommet} , which is no other than the Swiss Alpenhorn or the Nor- wegian luur. The shape of the trumpet, as seen in the bas-reliefs of Luca della Robbia, was retained for more than three hundred years: the first alterations destined to revolutionize the whole technique of the instrument were made about the middle of the 1 8th century. Notwithstanding the imperfections of the trumpet during this long period, the performers upon it acquired an astonishing dexterity. The usual scale of the typical trumpet, that in D, is "*&£= 678 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Praetorius exceeds the limits of this compass in the higher range, for he says a good trumpeter could produce the subjoined notes. This opinion is shared by Bach, who, in a trumpet solo which ends the cantata " Der Himmel lacht," wrote up to the twentieth harmonic. So considerable a com- pass could twit be reached by one 17 18 19 20 21 instrumentalist: the trumpet part had therefore to be divided, and each division was designated by a special name.4 The part that was called principal went from the fifth to the tenth of these tones. The higher region, which had received the name of " clarino," was again divided into two parts: the first began at the eighth proper tone and mounted up towards the extreme high limit of the com- pass, according to the skill of the executant; the second, beginning at the sixth proper tone, rarely went beyond the twelfth. Each of these parts was confided to a special trumpeter, who executed it by using a larger or a smaller mouthpiece. Some of the members of the harmonic series also received special names; the fundamental or first proper note was called Flatter grab, the second Grobstimme, the third Faulstimme, the fourth Mittelstimme. Playing the clarino differed essentially from playing the military trumpet, which corresponded in compass to that called principal. Compelled to employ very small mouthpieces to facilitate the emission of very high sounds, clarino players could not fail to alter the timbre of the instrument, and instead of getting the brilliant and energetic quality of tone of the mean register they were only able to produce more or less sonorous notes without power and splendour. Apart from this inconvenience, the clarino presented numerous deviations from just intonation. Hence the players of that time failed to obviate the bad effects inevitably resulting from the natural imperfection of the harmonic scale of the trumpet in that extreme part of its compass; in the execution, for instance, of the works of Bach, where the trumpet should give sometimes the instrumentalist could only command the eleventh proper tone, which is neither the one nor the other of these. Further, the thirteenth proper tone, for which is written, is really too flat, and but little can be done to remedy this defect, since it entirely depends upon the laws of resonance affecting columns of air. . — f ,and sometimes 3 Organographia (Wolfenbuttel, 1619). 4 Musicus aiiro&i&oKTos oder der sick selbst informirende Musicus (Eisel, Erfurt, 1738). TRUMPET 327 Since the abandonment of the clarino (about the middle of the I8th century) our orchestras have been enriched with trumpets that permit the execution of the old clarino parts, not only with perfect justness of intonation, but with a quality of tone that is not deficient in character when compared with the mean register of the old principal instrument. The introduction of the clarinet or the so-called little clarino, although it is a wood wind instrument played with a reed, is one of the causes which led to the abandon- ment of the older instrument and may explain the preference given by the composers of that epoch to the mean register of the trumpet. The clarino having disappeared before Mozart's day, he had to change the trumpet parts of Handel and Bach to allow of their execution by the performers of his own time. It was now that crooks began to be frequently used. Trumpets were made in F instead of in D, furnished with a series of shanks of increasing length for the tonalities of E, Et>, D, Db, C, B, B\>, and sometimes even A. The first attempts to extend the limited resources of the instru- ment in its new employment arose out of Hampel's Inventions- Horn, in which, instead of fixing the shanks between the mouth- piece and the upper extremity, they were adapted to the body of the instrument itself by a double slide, upon the two_branches of which tubes were inserted bent in the form of a circle and gradually lengthened as required. This system was applied to the trumpet by Michael Woegel (born at Rastatt in 1748), whose " invention trumpet " had a great success, notwithstanding the unavoidable imperfection of a too great disparity in quality of tone between the open and closed sounds. It is a curious fact that the sackbut or early trombone was merely a trumpet with a slide, or a draw trumpet, and that it was known as such in England, Scotland, Spain, Holland and Italy. Yet as soon as the powerful family of tenor and bass trombones had been created, the slide trumpet seems to have lost its identity and to have become merged in the alto trombone from which it differed mainly in the form of the bent tube. The slide trumpet appears to have been re-invented in the i8th century according to Johann Ernst Altenburg, or as some FIG. 2. — Modern Slide Trumpet F to C (Besson). writers put it, " the slide was adapted to it from the trombone." It was mentioned in 1700 by Kuhnau.1 Any one wishing to be convinced of this re-incarnation may compare the modern slide- trumpet with the original slide-trumpet or alto sackbut in the Grimiani Breviary? a MS. of the isth century, and with E. van der Straeten's reproduction * of an old engraving by Galle and Stradan from the Encomium Musices in which the forms are identical except that in the modern slide-trumpet the bell reaches the level of the U-shaped bottom of the slide. (From the Encomium Musices.) FIG. 3. — Slide Trumpet i6th century. The slide trumpet is still used in England in a somewhat modified form. The slide is a short one allowing of four positions. In 1889 a trumpet was constructed by Mr W. Wyatt with a double slide which gave the trumpet a complete chromatic compass. This instrument, which has the true brilliant trumpet tone, requires delicate manipulation, for the shifts are necessarily very short. About 1760 Kolbel, a Bohemian musician,4 applied a key to the bugle, and soon afterwards the trumpet received a similar addition. By opening this key, which is placed near the bell, the instrument was raised a diatonic semitone, and by correcting errors of intona- tion by the tension of the lips in the mouthpiece the following diatonic succession was obtained. This invention was a f improved in 1801 by [ \ Weidinger,6 t r u m- peter to the imperial court at Vienna, who increased the number of keys and thus made 1 Der musikalische Quacksalber, p. 83. 2 Brit. Mus. Facsimile, 61, pi. 9. 3 La Musique aux Pays-Bas, vi. 252. * Versuch einer Anleitung zur heroisch-musikalischen Trompeter- und Pauker-Kunst, p. 12 (Halle, 1795). 6 See Allg. musikal. Ztg. (November 1802), p. 158; (January 1803) p. 245; and E. Hanslicks, Gesch. des Concertwesens in Wien (1869), p. 119. the trumpet chromatic throughout its scale.6 The instrument shown in fig. 4 is in G; the keys are five in number, and as they open one after another or in combination it is possible to connect the second proper tone with the third by chromatic steps, and thus produce the following succession : — 3: 4. -i The number of keys was applied to fill up the gaps between the extreme sounds of the interval of a fifth; and a like result was arrived at more easily for the intervals of the fourth, the major third, &c., furnished by the proper tones of 3, 4, 5, &c. But, though the keyed trumpet was a notable improvement on the invention trumpet, the sounds obtained by means of the lateral openings of the tube did not possess the qualities which distinguish sounds caused by the resonance of the air-column vibrating in its entirety. But in 1815 Stolzel made a genuine chromatic trumpet by the invention of the Ventile or piston.7 The natural-trumpet is now no longer employed except in cavalry regiments.8 It is usually in Eb. The bass trumpet in Et>, which is an octave lower, is sometimes, but rarely, used. Trumpets with pistons are generally constructed in F, with crooks S_LE ^d.!t >^GermanyA trumpets in ^the FlG 4._Keyed Trumpet. high Bb with a crook in A are very often used in the orchestra. They are easier for cornet a piston players than the trumpet in F. A quick change trumpet in Bt> with combined tuning and transposing slides, for changing into the key of A, known as the " Proteano " trumpet, Ttamcosina Slide TuninoSlidt FIG. 5.— Proteano Trumpet in Bb and A (Besson). has been patented by Messrs Besson & Co. The transposing slide always remains at the correct length, and change of the tuning slide does not necessitate readjustment of the former. This com- bination slide is fitted to the ordinary valve trumpet as well as to the trumpet with " enharmonic " valves. Mahillon constructed for the concerts of the Conservatoire at Brussels trumpets in the high D, an octave above the old trumpet in the same key. They permit the execution of the high trumpet parts of Handel and J. S. Bach. The bass trumpet with pistons used for Wagner's tetralogy is in Eb, in unison with the ordinary trumpet with crooks of D and C; but, when constructed so as to allow of the production of the second proper tone as written by this master, this instrument belongs rather to the trombones than to the trumpets. (V. M.; K. S.) TRUMPET, SPEAKING AND HEARING. The speaking trum- pet, though some instrument of the kind appears to have been in earlier use, is connected in its modern form with the name of Athanasius Kircher and that of Sir Samuel Morland, who in 1670 proposed to the Royal Society of London the question of 6 Robert Eitner made a curious confusion between the keyed and valve trumpets (Klappen-und Ventil-Trompete). In an article entitled Wer hat die Ventil-Trompete erfunden? (Monatshefte fur Musikwissenschaft, p. 41, Berlin, 1881) he deprives Stolzel of the credit of the invention of the valve in favour of Weidinger, ridicul- ing the notion that the keyed and the valve trumpets were not one and the same thing. Following up the idea in his Tonkiinstler Lexikon, he leaves out Stolzel's name and ascribes to Weidinger the invention of the valve, with a reference to his article. 7 For this ingenious mechanism, see VALVE ; also Gottfried Weber, Uber Ventilhorn und Trompete mil 3 Ventilen, Caecilia xvii. 73-104 (Mainz, 1835); and Allg. musikal. Ztg. xxiii. 411 (Leipzig, 1821); also A. Ung, " Verbesserung der Trompete und ahnlicher Instrumente," ibid. (1815), xviii. 633. 8 For accounts of the early use of the trumpet as a signalling and cavalry instrument in the British army, see Sir Roger Williams, A Brief Discourse of War,p. 9, &c. (London, 1590); Grose, Military Antiquities, ii. 41 ; Sir S. D. Scott, The British Army, ii. 380^-400 (London, 1868) ; and H. G. Farmer, Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band (London, 1904). TRUMPETER— TRURO, IST BARON the best form for a speaking trumpet. Lambert, in the Berlin Memoirs for 1763, seems to have been the first to give a theory of the action of this instrument, based on an altogether imaginary analogy with the behaviour of light. In this theory, which is still commonly put forward, it is assumed that sound, like light, can be propagated in rays. This, however, is possible only when the aperture through which the wave-disturbance passes into free air is large compared with the wave-length. If the fusiform mouth of the speaking trumpet were half a mile or so in radius, Lambert's theory might give an approximation to the truth. But with trumpets whose aperture is only a foot in diameter at the most the problem is one of diffraction. In the hearing trumpet, the disturbance is propagated along the converging tube much in the same way as the tide-wave is propa- gated up the estuary of a tidal river. In speaking and hearing trumpets alike all reverberation of the instrument should be avoided by making it thick and of the least elastic materials, and by covering it externally with cloth. (See SOUND.) TRUMPETER, or TRUMPET-BIRD, the literal rendering in 1747, by the anonymous English translator of De la Condamine's travels in South America (p. 87), of that writer's " Oiseau trompette " (Mem. de I'Acad. des Sciences, 1745, p. 473), a bird, which he says was called " Trompetero " by the Spaniards of Maynas on the upper Amazons, from the peculiar sound it utters. He added that it was the " Agami " of the inhabitants of Para and Cayenne,1 wherein he was not wholly accurate, since those (After Mitchell.) White-winged Trumpeter (Psophia leucoptera). birds are specifically distinct, though, as they are generically united, the statement may pass. But he was also wrong, as had been P. Barrere (France equinoxiale, p. 132) in 1741, in identifying the " Agami " with the " Macucagua " of Marcgrav, for that is a Tinamou (q.v.); and both still more wrongly accounted for the origin of the peculiar sound just mentioned, whereby Barrere was soon after led (Ornith. Spec. Novum, pp. 62, 63) to apply to the bird the generic and vulgar names of Psophia and " Petteuse," the former of which, being unfortu- nately adopted by Linnaeus, has ever since been used, though in 1766 and 1767 Pallas (Miscellanea, p. 67, and Spicilegia, iv. 6), and in 1768 Vosmaer (Descr. du Trompette Amtricain, p. 5), showed that the notion it conveys is erroneous. Among English writers the name " Trumpeter " was carried on by Latham and others so as to be generally accepted, though an author may occasionally be found willing to resort to the native " Agami," which is that almost always used by the French. P. L. Sclater and O. Salvin in their Nomenclator (p. 141) admit 6 species of Trumpet-Birds: (l) the original Psophia crepitans of Guiana; (2) P. napensis of eastern Ecuador (which is very likely 1 Not to be confounded with the " Heron Agami " of Buffon (Oiseaux, ii. 382), which is the Ardea agami of other writers. the original "Oiseau trompette" of De la Condamine); (3) P. ochroptera from the right bank of the Rio Negro ; (4) P. leucoptera from the right bank of the upper Amazons; (5) P. viridis from the right bank of the Madeira: and (6) P. obscura from the right bank of the lower Amazons near Para. And they have remarked in the Zoological Proceedings (1867, p. 592) on the curious fact that the range of the several species appears to be separated by rivers, a statement confirmed by A. R. Wallace (Geogr. Distr. Animals, ii. 358) ; and in connexion therewith it may be observed that these birds have short wings and seldom fly, but run, though with a peculiar gait, very quickly. A seventh species P. cantatrix, from Bolivia, has since been indicated by W. Blasius (Journ. f. Ornith., 1884, pp. 203-210), who has given a monographic summary of the whole group very worthy of attention. The chief distinctions between the species lie in colour and size, and it will be here enough to describe briefly the best known of them, P. crepitans. This is about the size of a large barndoor fowl; but its neck and legs are longer, so that it is a taller bird. The head and neck are clothed with short velvety feathers; the whole plumage is black, except that on the lower front of the neck the feathers are tipped with golden green, changing according to the light into violet, and that a patch of dull rusty brown extends across the middle of the back and wing-coverts, passing into ash-colour lower down, where they hang over and conceal the tail. The legs are bright pea-green. The habits of this bird are very wonderful, and it is much to be wished that fuller accounts of them had appeared. The curious sound it utters, noticed by the earliest observers, has been already mentioned, and by them also was its singularly social disposition towards man described; but the information supplied to Buffon (Oiseaux, iv. 496-501) by Manoncour and De la Borde, which has been repeated in many works, is still the best we have of the curious way in which it becomes semi-domesticated by the Indians and colonists and shows strong affection for its owners as well as for their living property — poultry or sheep — though in this re- claimed condition it seems never to breed.2 Indeed nothing can be positively asserted as to its mode of nidification ; but its eggs, according to C. E. Bartlett, are of a creamy white, rather round, and about the size of bantams'. C. Waterton in his Wanderings (Second Journey, chap, iii.) speaks of falling in with flocks of 200 or 300 " Waracabas," as he called them, in Demerara, but added nothing to our knowledge of the species; while the contributions of Trail (Mem. Wern. Society, v. 523-532) and as Dr Hancock (Mag. Nat. History, 2nd series, vol. ii. pp. 490-492) as regards its habits only touch upon them in captivity. To the trumpeters must undoubtedly be accorded the rank of a distinct family, Psophiidae; but like so many other South-American birds they seem to be the less specialized descendants of an ancient generalized group — perhaps the common ancestors of the Rallidae and Gruidae. The structure of the trachea, though different from that described in any Crane (q.v.), suggests an early form of the structure which in some of the Gruidae is so marvellously developed, for in Psophia the windpipe runs down the breast and belly im- mediately under the skin to within about an inch of the anus, whence it returns in a similar way to the front of the sternum, and then enters the thorax. Analogous instances of this forma- tion occur in several other groups of birds not at all allied to the Psophiidae. (A. N.) TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed), properly the main stem of a tree from which the branches spring, espe- cially the stem when stripped of the branches; hence, in a transferred sense, the main part of a human or animal body without the head, arms or legs. It is from this last sense that the term " trunk-hose " is derived. These were part of the typical male costume of the i6th century, consisting of a pair of large puffed and slashed over-hose, reaching from the waist to the middle of the thigh, the legs clad in the long hose being thrust through them; the upper part of the body was covered by the jerkin or jacket reaching to the thigh (see COSTUME). The word " trunk " as applied to the elongated proboscis of the elephant is due to a mistaken confusion of French trompe, trump, with " trunk " meaning the hollow stem of a tree. A somewhat obscure meaning of French tronc, i.e. an alms-box, has given rise to the general use of " trunk " for a form of travellers' luggage. TRURO, THOMAS WILDE, IST BARON (1782-1855), lord chancellor of England, was born in London on the 7th of July 1 In connexion herewith may be mentioned the singular story told by Montagu (Orn. Diet., Suppl. Art. " Grosbeak, White-winged "), on the authority of the then Lord Stanley, afterwards president of the Zoological Society, of one of these birds, which, having apparently escaped from confinement, formed the habit of attending a poultry- yard. On the occasion of a pack of hounds running through the yard, the trumpeter joined and kept up with them for nearly three miles! TRURO— TRUST COMPANY 329 1782, being the second son of Thomas Wilde, an attorney. He was educated at St Paul's School and was admitted an attorney in 1805. He subsequently entered the Inner Temple and was called to the bar in 1817, having practised for two years before as a special pleader. Retained for the defence of Queen Caroline in 1820 he distinguished himself by his cross- examination and laid the foundation of an extensive common law practice. He first entered parliament in the Whig interest as member for Newark (1831-1832 and 1835-1841), afterwards representing Worcester (1841-1846). He was appointed solicitor- general in 1839, and became attorney-general in succession to Sir John (afterwards Baron) Campbell in 1841. In 1846 he was appointed chief justice of the common pleas, an office he held until 1850, when he became lord chancellor, and was created Baron Truro of Bowes, Middlesex. He held this latter office until the fall of the ministry in 1852. He died in London on the nth of November 1855. His son Charles (1816-1891) succeeded as 2nd baron, but on the death of his nephew the 3rd baron in 1899 the title became extinct. Lord Truro was the uncle of JAMES PLAISTED WILDE, BARON PENZANCE (1816-1899), wno was appointed a baron of the court of exchequer in 1860, and was .judge of the court of probate and divorce from 1863 to 1872. In 1875 he was appointed dean of the court of arches, retiring in 1899. He was created a peer in 1869, but died without issue, and the title became extinct. TRURO, the chief town of Colchester county, Nova Scotia, on the Salmon river, near the head of Cobequid Bay, 61 m. from Halifax by rail. Pop. (1901), 5993. It is an important junction on the Intercolonial and Midland railways, and the thriving centre of a lumbering and agricultural district. There are numerous local industries, such as engine and boiler works, carriage factory and milk-condensing factory. It also contains the county buildings and the provincial normal school. The Victoria (or Joseph Howe) Park in the vicinity is of great natural beauty. TRURO, an episcopal city and municipal borough in the Truro parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, n m. N. of Falmouth, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 11,562. It lies in a shallow valley at the junction of the small rivers Kenwyn and Allen in Truro river, a branch creek of the great estuary of the Fal. It is built chiefly of granite, with broad streets, through the chief of which there flows a stream of water. The episcopal see was founded in 1876, covering the former archdeaconry of Cornwall in the diocese of Exeter; the area including the whole of the county of Cornwall, with a small portion of Devonshire. The cathedral church of St Mary was begun in 1880 from the designs of John Loughborough Pearson, and is among the most important modern ecclesiastical buildings in England. The architect adopted the Early English style, making great use of the dog-tooth ornament. The form of the church is cruciform, but it is made irregular by the incorporation, on the south side of the choir, of the south aisle of the parish church, this portion retaining, by Act of Parlia- ment of 1887, all its legal parochial rights. The design of the cathedral includes a lofty central and two western towers with spires, and a rich west front and south porch; with a cloister court and octagonal chapter-house on the north. Among other noteworthy modern institutions may be mentioned the theo- logical library presented by Bishop Phillpotts in 1856, housed in a Gothic building (1871). The grammar school possesses exhibitions to Exeter College, Oxford. Truro has considerable trade in connexion with the tin mines of the neighbourhood. There are tin-smelting works, potteries, and manufactures of boots, biscuits, jam and clothing. Small vessels can lie at the quays, though the harbour is dry at low water; but large vessels can approach within three miles of the city. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1127 acres. At the time of the Domesday Survey Truro (Trueret, Treurok, Treueru) was a comparatively small manor held by Jovin of Count Robert of Mortain. Its municipal charter dates from Richard Lucy the chief justiciar who held the demesne lands and under whom the free burgesses had apparently a grant of sake and soke, toll and team and infangenethef. Regi- nald earl of Cornwall, by an undated charter, added to these privileges exemption from the jurisdiction of the hundred and county courts and from toll throughout the county. Henry II. confirmed the grant of his uncle the said Reginald. In 1304 Truro was constituted a coinage town for tin. In 1378 the sheriff reported that the town was so impoverished by pesti- lence, hostile invasions and intolerable payments made to the king's progenitors that it was almost uninhabited and wholly wasted. A similar complaint was preferred in 1401 in consequence of which the fifteenth and tenth amounting to £12 was for the three years ensuing reduced to 503. The charter of incorporation granted in 1589 provided for a mayor, recorder and steward and a council of twenty capital burgesses and four aldermen. Under it the mayor and burgesses were to enjoy the liberties of infangenethef, utfangenethef, sake, soke, toll, team, thefbote, backberindthef and ordelf; also freedom from toll passage, pontage, murage, fletage, picage, anchorage, stallage, lastage and tollage of Horngeld throughout England except in London ; they were, moreover, to be entitled in respect of their markets to pontage, keyage, &c. The assize of bread and ale and wine and view of frankpledge were also granted and a court of piepowder was to regulate certain specified fairs. In 1835 the number of aldermen was increased to six. From 1295 to 1885 Truro enjoyed separate parliamentary representation, returning two members. The charter of 1589 provided that the burgesses should have power by means of the common council to elect them. Such was the procedure from 1589 to 1832 when the burgesses recovered the privilege. Under the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 the representa- tion of Truro was merged in the county. No fairs or markets are mentioned prior to 1589 when two markets, on Saturdays and Wednesdays, were provided, also three fairs. Both markets and two of the three fairs are held. See Victoria County History: Cornwall; Canon Donaldson, Bishopric of Truro (1902). TRUSS (from O. Fr. trusser, trosser, terser, trousser, to pack, bind, gird up, Low Lat. tortiare, formed from tortus, twisted, torquere, to twist; cf. " torch " and " trousers," also trousseau, a bride's outfit, literally a small pack or bundle), a pack or bundle, applied specifically to a quantity of hay or straw tied together in a bundle. A truss of straw contains 36 Ib, of old hay 56 Ib, of new hay 60 Ib. A load contains 36 trusses. The term is also used generally of a supporting frame or structure, especially in the construction of a roof or a bridge. It is thus used as the name of a surgical appliance, a belt with an elastic spring keeping in place a pad used as a support in cases of hernia (q.v.). TRUST COMPANY, the name given to a form of fiduciary corporation, originally adopted in the United States under state laws to accomplish financial objects not specially provided for under the national banking system. The function which gives a trust company its name is to execute trusts for indi- viduals, estates and corporations. In the United States, however, these functions have been extended to include many of those of commercial banks receiving deposits payable on demand and subject to check. The relations between trust com- panies and their depositors are based, however, upon different principles from those between the bank and its client (see BANKS AND BANKING). The larger trust companies prefer deposit accounts which, even when subject to check, are not actively drawn upon. The fact that they pay interest on such deposits absolves them from the obligation to extend accommodation by way of loans, except upon collateral security. Hence out of the difference in their relations with depositors grows a differ- ence in the character of their investments, which are usually in loans on stock exchange securities and not on commercial paper discounted. In New York they are prohibited from directly discounting commercial paper, but not from buying it. The rate of interest paid on demand deposits is usually 330 TRUST AND TRUSTEES 2% for small accounts, and 3% for large accounts; for time deposits it is sometimes more. In the administration of estates icr private individuals, the trust company has taken the place to a large extent of individual attorneys. The trust company has the advantage of corporate responsibility, which involves continuous life, and of proper offices, fire-proof safes, and special employees in each department devoting their time and attention exclusively to their special functions. Investments for estates are limited by law, like savings bank invest- ments, to certain classes of securities, and a trust company has little temptation to violate such laws. It is customary, moreover, for investments of trust funds to be made by authority of the board of directors, thus protecting the estate against the uncertainties of individual judgment. The trust company has found a special field in America as agent of railway and industrial corporations in the issue, transfer and exchange of securities. For these purposes it has an organized system, tested by experience, more perfect in its operation and less expensive than each corporation could organize for itself separately. As trustee for the bondholders under a railway mortgage, for instance, it becomes the duty of the trust company, in case of default in pay- ment of interest on the bonds, to take steps to foreclose the mortgage and protect the bondholders. Trust companies have sometimes been named as receivers of failed banks. The big industrial combinations in America have contributed to the business of the trust companies as registrars or transfer agents for capital stock, agents for the issue of bonds and payment of interest thereon, agents for underwriting and distributing new securities, and depositories of securities and cash under plans of reorganization or while held in escrow. In the case of the reorganization of the tobacco companies, in the autumn of 1904, securities aggregating about $600,000,000 passed through the hands of the trust company charged with the work ; and while this was the largest single opera- tion of its kind, it is typical of many similar operations resulting from the activity in the creation of new companies in America which bring business to trust companies. The attractions offered by the trust company to the non-commer- cial depositor by the payment of interest on his deposit built up the deposit balances of trust companies rapidly after 1896. Their competition in this respect with national banks soon led to an effort to compel trust companies to keep cash reserves against their deposits. This demand was resisted for a while, but in 1903 a rule was made by the New York Clearing House requiring trust companies to keep certain reserves. The alternative was to withdraw from the Clearing House, and this all but a few did. The New York legislature, however, at the session of 1906, passed an act requiring trust companies in New York city to establish within fixed dates reserves of 15% of their deposits, of which only 5% was required to be currency, 5 % might be on deposit in another banking institu- tion, and 5 % might be kept in certain classes of bonds. The experience of the panic of 1907 developed several weaknesses in the position of the trust companies, and in New York led a special commission appointed by Governor Hughes to recommend much stronger reserves. The fact that the trust companies relied upon the national banks to meet the heavy demands upon them for cur- rency doubled the strain imposed on the national banks of New York city, and the isolation of the trust companies through their withdrawal from the Clearing House in 1903 made it difficult to bring about co-operation in support of those which were subjected to severe runs. Between the 22nd of August and the igth of Decem- ber 1907 the deposits of the trust companies of New York declined by the sum of more than $275,000,000 while deposits in national banks increased about $50,000,000. The number, resources and activities of trust companies have shown a rapid development. In New York the general law under which companies can be formed without a special act dates only from 1887, out several companies ante-date this law. The following figures1 from reports made to the comptroller of the currency speak for themselves: — Trust Companies of the United States. 30th June. Number. Capital. Individual Deposits. $ $ 1891 171 79,292,889 355.330.o8o 1897 251 106,968,253 566,922,205 1900 290 126,930,845 ,028,232,407 1901 334 137.361,704 ,271,081,174 1902 417 179-732,581 ,525,887,493 1903 531 232,807,735 ,589,398,796 1904 585 237,745.488 ,600,322,325 i9°5 683 243.133,622 ,980,856,737 1906 742 268,384,337 2,008,937,790 1907 794 276,146,081 2,061,623,035 1 The table, it may be observed, represents only the number of companies reporting and not the number actually in existence. Kirkbride and Sterrett, for example, give the number of trust companies in the United States on the 1st of January 1905 as 1427, or more than twice the number given here for 1905. On this point the comptroller of the Treasury in 1905 said: " In order to obtain this information [from institutions other than national banks] the comptroller is necessarily dependent upon the courtesy of officers of different states, and upon individual banks in states the laws of which states do not provide for compilation of data of this character . . . Each year one or more states formerly without adequate provision for obtaining and compiling reports of banks incorporated under their laws, have through legislative enactment, placed such banks under the supervision of an official whose duty it is to receive and tabulate the reports so required, which information is placed at the disposal of the comptroller. Every year this office is thereby enabled to publish official, and hence more reliable statistics. ..." Approximately half of the deposits in United States trust companies are in the" state of New York, the number of such companies in New York about the joth of June 1907, being 88, with a capital of $67,850,000, and deposits of $1,020,678,220. The next highest states in amount of deposits were Pennsylvania, with 328 companies, with capital of $103,953,067 and deposits of $381,397,305; and Massachusetts, with 46 companies, with capital of $16,677,000 and deposits of $179,278,436. See Kirkbride and Sterrett, The Modern Trust Company (New York, 1905). (C. A. C.) TRUST and TRUSTEES, in the law of equity. In Roman and English law alike that legal relation between two or more persons implied in the word trust was of comparatively late growth. The trust of English law is probably based upon a combination of the Roman conceptions of usus and fideicom- missum. To usus is perhaps due the name as well as the idea of that right over property, co-ordinate with the right of the nominal owner, possessed by the person having the use. To fideicommissum appears to be due the name as well as the idea of that confidence reposed in another which is the essence of the modern trust. Usus was in Roman law a personal servitude, or right of one person over the land of another, confined to his personal wants and without the right to the produce and profits which ususfructus carried. It has little in common with the use of English law but the name and the conception of a dual ownership. The fideicommissum is more important (see ROMAN LAW). By the legislation of Justinian the law of legala was practically assimilated to that of fideicommissa. The only thing that distinguished the one from the other was the mode in which the gift was made: if by words of direct bequest it was a legatum, if by precatory words, a fideicom- missum. It may be noticed, as an illustration of the course afterwards taken by the law in England, that fideicommissa in favour of the Church were so far favoured over others that if paid over by mistake they could not be recovered. In addition to usus and fideicommissum, the Roman division of ownership into quiritary and bonitary (to use words invented at a later time) may perhaps to some extent have suggested the English division into legal -and equitable estate. The two kinds of ownership were amalgamated by Justinian. The gradual manner in which the beneficiary became subject to the burdens attaching to the property of which he enjoyed the benefit was a feature common to both the Roman and the English system. Use in Early English Law. — The use or trust2 is said to have been the invention of ecclesiastics well acquainted with Roman law, the object being to escape the provisions of the laws against Mortmain by obtaining the conveyance of an estate to a friend on the understanding that they should retain the use, i.e. the actual profit and enjoyment of the estate. Uses were soon extended to other purposes. They were found valuable for the defeat of creditors, the avoiding of attainder and the charging of portions. A use had also the advantage of being free from the incidents of feudal tenure : it could be alienated inter vivos by secret conveyance, and could be devised by will. In many cases the feoffee * to uses, as he was called, or the person seised to the use of another, seems to have been specially 2 Use seems to be an older word than trust. Its first occurrence in statute law is in 7 Ric. II. c. 12, in the form oeps. In Littleton " confidence " is the word employed. The Statute of Uses seems to regard use, trust and confidence as synonymous. According to Bacon, it was its permanency that distinguished the use from the trust. 3 Feoffment, though the usual, was not the only mode of convey- ance to uses. The preamble of the Statute of Uses mentions fines and recoveries, and other assurances. TRUST AND TRUSTEES chosen on account of his rank and station, which would enable him to defy the common law and protect the estate of his cestui que use, or the person entitled to the beneficial enjoyment. The act of I Ric. II. c. 9 was directed against the choice of such persons. This alienation of land in use was looked upon with great disfavour by the common law courts, in whose eyes the cestui que use was only a tenant at will. Possibly the ground of their refusal to recognize uses was that the assizes of the king's court could only be granted to persons who stood in a feudal relation to the king. The denial of the right followed the denial of the remedy. The use was on the other hand supported by the court of chancery, and execution of the confidence reposed in the feoffee to uses was enforced by the court in virtue of the general jurisdiction which as a court of con- science it claimed to exercise over breach of faith. Jurisdiction was no doubt the more readily assumed by ecclesiastical judges in favour of a system by which the Church was generally the gainer. A double ownership of land thus gradually arose, the nominal and ostensible ownership — the only one acknowledged in the courts of common law — and the beneficial ownership protected by the court of chan- cery. The reign of Henry V. to a great extent corresponds with that of Augustus at Rome, as the point of time at which legal recognition was given to what had previously been binding only in honour. The means of bringing the feoffee to uses before the court was the writ of subpoena, said to have been invented by John de Waltham, bishop of Salisbury and master of the rolls in the reign of Richard II. By means of this writ the feoffee to uses could be compelled to answer on oath the claim on his cestui que use. The doctrine of the court of chancery as to the execution of a use varied according as there was transmutation of possession or not. In the former case it was unnecessary to prove consideration; in the latter, generally a case of bargain and sale, the court would not enforce the use unless it was executed in law — that is, unless there was a valuable considera- tion, even of the smallest amount. Where no consideration could be proved or implied, the use resulted to the feoffor. This theory led to the insertion in deeds (especially in the lease of the lease and release period of conveyancing) of a nominal consideration, generally five shillings. Lands either in possession, reversion or remainder could be granted in use. Most persons could be feoffees to uses. The king and corporations aggregate were, however, exceptions, and were entitled to hold the lands discharged of the use. On the accession of Richard III., who from bis position of authority had been a favourite feoffee, it was necessary to pass a special act (i Ric. III. c. 5), vesting the lands of which he had been feoffee either in his co-feoffees or, in the absence of co-feoffees, in the cestui que use. The practical convenience of uses was so obvious that it is said that by the reign of Henry VII. most of the land in the king- dom was held in use. The freedom of uses from liability to forfeiture for treason must have led to their general adoption during the Wars of the Roses.1 The secrecy with which a use could be transferred, contrary as it was to the publicity required for livery of Seisin (q.v.) at common law, led to the interference of the legislature on several occasions between the reign of Richard II. and Henry VIII., the general tendency of the legislation being to make the cestui que use more and more subject to the burdens incident to the owner- ship of land. One of the most important statutes was the Statute of Mortmain (15 Ric. II. .c. 5), forbidding evasion of the Statute De Religiosis of Edward I. by means of feoff ments to uses. Other acts enabled the cestui que use to transfer the use without the concurrence of the feoffee to uses (l Ric. III. c. l), made a writ of formedon maintainable against him (i Hen. VII. c. l), rendered his heir liable to wardship and relief (4 Hen. VII. c. 17), and his lands liable to execution (19 Hen. VII. c. 15). At length in 1535 the famous Statute of Uses (27 Hen. VIII. c. 10) was passed.2 The preamble of the statute enumerates the mischiefs which it was considered that the universal prevalence of uses had occasioned, among others that by fraudulent feoffments, fines, recoveries and other like assurances to uses, confidences and trusts lords lost their feudal aids, men their tenancies by the curtesy, women their dower, manifest perjuries in trials were committed, the king lost the profits of the lands of persons attaintad or enfeoffed to the use of aliens, and the king and lords their rights of year, day and waste, and of escheats of felons' lands. To remedy this state of things it was enacted, inter alia, that, where any person was seised of any here- ditaments to the use, confidence or trust of any other person by any means, the person having such use, confidence or trust should be seised, deemed and adjudged in lawful seisin, estate and posses- sion of such hereditaments. Full legal remedies were given to the cestui que use by the statute. He was enabled to distrain for a rent-charge, to have action, entry, condition, &c. The effect of this enactment was to make the cestui que use the owner at law as well as in equity (as had been done once before under the excep- tional circumstances which led to I Ric. III. c. 5), provided that 1 The use, as in later times the trust, was, however, forfeited to the Crown on attainder of the feoffee or trustee for treason. 2 It was adopted in Ireland exactly a century later by 10 Car. I. c. i (Ir.). The law of uses and trusts in Ireland is practically the same as that in England, the main differences being in procedure rather than in substantive law. the use was one which before the statute would have been enforced by the court of chancery. For some time after the passing of the statute an equitable as distinct from a legal estate did not exist. But the somewhat narrow construction of the statute by the common law courts in Tyrrel's case3 (1557) enabled estates cognisable only in equity to be again created. In that case it was held that a use upon a use could not be executed; therefore in a feoffment to A and his heirs to the use of B and his heirs to the use of C and his heirs only the first use was executed by the statute. The use of B being executed in him, that of C was not acknowledged by the common law judges; but equity regarded C as beneficially entitled, and his interest as an equitable estate held for him in trust, corresponding to that which B would have had before the statute. The position taken by the Court of Chancery in trusts may be compared with that taken in Mortgage (q.v.). The Judicature Act 1873, while not going as far as the Statute of Uses and com- bining the_ legal and equitable estates, makes equitable rights cognisable in all courts. From the decision in Tyrrel's case dates the whole modern law of uses and trusts. In modern legal language use is restricted to the creation of legal estate under the Statute of Uses, trust is confined to the equitable estate of the cestui que trust or beneficiary. Uses since 1535. — The Statute of Uses is still the basis of con- veyancing. A grant in a deed is still, after the alterations in the law made by the Conveyancing Act 1 88 1, made " to and to the use of A." The statute does not, however, apply indiscriminately to all cases, as only certain uses are executed by it. It does not apply to leaseholds or copyholds, or to cases where the grantee to uses is anything more than a mere passive instrument, e.g. where there is any direction to him to sell the property. The seisin, too, to be executed by the statute, must be in another than him who has the use, for where A is seised to the use of A it is a common law grant. The difference is important as far as regards the doctrine of Possession (q.v.). Constructive possession is given by a deed operating under the statute even before entry, but not by a common law grant, until actual receipt of rent by the grantee. The operation of the Statute of Uses was supplemented by the Statute of Inrol- ments and that of Wills (see WILL). The Statute of Inrolments (27 Hen. VIII. c. 16) enacted that no bargain and sale should pass a freehold unless by deed indented and enrolled within six months after its date in one of the courts at Westminster or with the custos rotulorum of the county. As the statute referred only to freeholds, a bargain and sale of a leasehold interest passed without enrolment. Conveyancers took advantage of this omission^ (whether intentional or not) in the act, and the practical effect of it was to introduce a mode of secret alienation of real property, the lease and release, which was the general form of conveyance up to 1845. _(See CON- VEYANCING.) Thus the publicity of transfer, which it was the special object of the Statute of Uses to effect, was almost at once defeated. In addition to the grant to uses there were other modes of conveyance under the statute which are now obsolete in practice, viz., the covenant to stand seised and the bargain and sale. Under the statute, as before it, the use has been found a valuable means of limiting a remainder to the person creating the use and of making an estate take effect in derogation of a former estate by means of a shifting or springing use. At common law a freehold could not be made to commence in fuluro; but this end might be attained by a shifting use, such as a grant (common in marriage settlements) to A to the use of B in fee simple until a marriage, and after the celebration of the marriage to other uses. An example of a springing use would be a grant to A to such uses_ as B should appoint and in default of and until appointment to C in fee simple. The difficulty of deciding where the seisin was during the suspension of the use led to the invention of the old theory of scintilla juris, or continued possibility of seisin in the grantee to uses. This theory was abolished by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 38, which enacted that all uses should take effect by force of the estate and seisin originally vested in the person seised to the uses. The most frequent instances of a springing use are powers of appointment, usual in wills and settlements. There has been much legislation on the subject of powers, the main effect of which has been to give greater facilities for their execution, release or abandonment, to aid their defective execution, and to abolish the old doctrine of illusory appointments. Trusts. — A trust in English law is defined in Lewin's Law of Trusts, adopting Coke's definition of a use, as " a confidence reposed in some other, not issuing out of the land, but as a thing collateral, annexed in privity to the estate of the land, and to the person touching the land, for which cestui que trust has no remedy but by subpoena in Chancery." The term trust or trust estate is also used to denote the beneficial interest of the cestui que trust. The term truster is not used, as it is in Scotland, to denote the creator of the trust. A trust has some features in common with contract (q.v.); but the great difference between them is that a contract can only be enforced by a party or one in the position of a party to it, while a trust can be, and generally Dyer's Reports, 1553. 332 TRUST AND TRUSTEES is, enforced by one not a party to its creation. It has more resemblance to fideicommissum. But the latter could only be created by a testamentary instrument, whilst a trust can be created either by will or inter vivos; nor was there any trace in Roman law of that permanent legal relation which is suggested by the position of trustee and cestui que trust. The heir, too, in Roman law was entitled, from A.D. 70 to the reign of Justinian, to one-fourth of a hereditas fideicommissaria as against the beneficiary, while the very essence of the trust is its gratuitous character. Trusts may be divided in more than one way, according to the ground taken as the basis of division. One division, and perhaps the oldest, as it rests on the authority of Bacon, is into simple and special, the first being where the trust is simply vested in a trustee and the nature of the trust left to construction of law, the second where there is an act to be per- formed by the trustee. Another division is into lawful and unlawful, and corresponds to Bacon's division into intents or confidences and frauds, covins, or collusions. A third division is into public and private. A division often adopted in modern textbooks and recognized by parliament in the Trustee Act 1850, is into express, implied and constructive. An express trust is determined by the person creating it. It may be either executed or executory, the former where the limitations of the equitable interest are complete and final, the latter where such limitations are intended to serve merely as minutes for perfecting the settle- ment at some future period, as in the case of marriage articles drawn up as a basis of a marriage settlement to be in conformity with them. An implied trust is founded upon the intention of the person creating it; examples of it are a resulting trust, a precatory trust, and the trust held by the vendor on behalf of the purchaser of an estate after contract and before conveyance. \ In this case the vendor is sometimes called a trustee sub modo and the purchaser a cestui que trust sub modo. A constructive trust is judicially created from a consideration of a person's conduct in order to satisfy the demands of justice, without reference to intention. The distinction between an implied and a constructive trust is not always very consistently main- tained. Thus the position of a vendor towards a purchaser after contract is sometimes called a constructive trust. The present law governing trusts rests upon the doctrines of equity as altered by legislation. The law was consolidated by the Trustee Act 1893 and some subsequent amending statutes. Its great importance has led to its becoming one of the most highly developed departments of equity. Who may be a Trustee or Cestui que Trust. — The modern trust is considerably more extensive in its operation than the ancient use. Thus the Crown and corporations aggregate can be trustees, and personalty can be held in trust. Provision is made by the Municipal Corporations Act 1882, for the administration of charitable and special trusts by municipal corporations. There are certain persons who for obvious reasons, even if not legally disqualified, ought not to be appointed trustees. Such are infants, lunatics, persons domiciled abroad, felons, bankrupts and cestuis que truslent. The appointment of any such person, or the falling of any existing trustee into such a position, is generally ground for application to the court for appointment of a new trustee in his place. Any one may be a cestui que trust except a corporation aggregate, which cannot be a cestui que trust of real estate without a licence from the Crown. For the Public Trustee, see below. Creation and Extinction of the Trust. — A trust may be created either by act of a party or by operation of lav/. Where a trust is created by act of a party, the creation at common law need not be in writing. The Statute of Frauds altered the common law by enacting that all declarations or creations of trusts or confidences of any lands, tenements or hereditaments shall be manifested and proved by some writing, signed by the party who is by law enabled to declare such trust, or by his last will in writing, or else they shall be utterly void and of none effect. Trusts arising or resulting by implication or construction of law are excepted, and it has been held that the statute applies only to real estate and chattels real, so that a trust of personal chattels may still be declared by parol. The declaration of a trust by the Crown must be by letters patent. Trusts created by will must conform to the requirements of the Will Act (see WILL). Except in the case of charitable trusts, the cestui que trust must be a definite person. A trust, for instance, merely for keeping up family tombs is void. Alteration of the trust estate by appointment of a new trustee could up to 1860 only be made where the instrument creating the trust gave a power to so appoint, or by order of the court of chancery. But now by s. 10 of the Trustee Act 1893 (superseding Lord St Leonards's Act of 1860 and the Conveyancing Act 1881), the surviving or continuing trustee or trustees, or the personal representative of the last surviving or continuing trustee, may nominate in writing a new trustee or new trustees. On such appointment the number of trustees may be increased. Existing trustees may by deed consent to the discharge of a trustee wishing to retire. Trust property may be vested in new or continuing trustees by a simple declaration to that effect. Also a separate set of trustees may be appointed for any part of the property held on distinct trusts. Trusts created by operation of law are those which are the effect of the application of rules of equity. They include resulting and constructive trusts. A result- ing trust is a species of implied trust, and consists of so much of the equitable interest as is undisposed of by the instrument creating the trust, which is said to result to thecreatorand his representatives. An example is the purchase of an estate in the name of the purchaser and others, or of others only. Here the beneficial interest is the purchaser's. An example of a constructive trust is a renewal of a lease by a trustee in his own name, where the trustee is held to be constructively a trustee for those interested in the beneficial term. Besides being duly created, it is necessary for the validity of the trust that it should be a lawful one. An unlawful trust is one which contravenes the policy of the law in any respect. Examples of such trusts are trusts for a corporation without licence, for a perpetuity, and for purposes subversive of morality, such as trusts for illegitimate children to be hereafter born. Superstitious uses also fall under this head. There are also certain trusts which are avoided by statute under particular circumstances, such as settle- ments in fraud of creditors (see BANKRUPTCY). The«law cannot be evaded by attempting to constitute a secret trust for an unlawful purpose. If an estate be devised by words prima facie carrying the beneficial interest, with an understanding that the devisee will hold the estate in trust for such a purpose, he may be compelled to answer as to the secret trust, and on acknowledgment or proof of it there will be a resulting trust to the heir-at-law. In the case of an advowson suspected to be held for the benefit of a Roman Catholic patron, there is a special enactment to the same effect (see QUARE IMPEDIT). The rules' of equity in charitable trusts are less strict than those adopted in private trusts. Charitable trusts must be lawful, e.g. they must not contravene the Statutes of Mortmain; but a wider latitude of construction is allowed in order to carry out the intentions of the founder, and they will not be allowed to fail for want or uncertainty of objects to be benefited. The court, applying the doctrine of cy pres (q.v.), will, on failure of the original ground of the charity, apply the funds as nearly as possible in the same manner. On this principle gifts originally made for purely charitable purposes have been extended to educational purposes. Further, trustees of a charity may act by a majority, but ordinary trustees cannot by the act of a majority (unless specially empowered so to do) bind a dissenting minority or the trust property. A trust estate is subject as far as possible to the rules of law applic- able to a legal estate of a corresponding nature, in pursuance of the maxim, -" Equity follows the law." Thus trust property is assets for payment of debts, may be taken in execution, passes to creditors in bankruptcy, and is subject -to dower and curtesy, to the rules against perpetuities, and to the Statutes of Limitation. This assimilation of the legal and equitable estates has been produced partly by judicial decisions, partly by legislation. A trust is extin- guished, as it is created, either by act of a party or by operation of law. An example of the former mode of extinction is a release by deed, the general means of discharge of a trustee when the pur- poses of the trust have been accomplished. Extinction by operation of law takes place when there is a failure of the objects of the trust : e.g. if the cestui que trust die intestate without heirs or next of kin, the property, by the Intestates Estates Act 1884, escheats in the same manner as if it were a legal estate in corporeal hereditaments. Equitable interests in real estate abroad are as a rule subject to the lex loci rei sitae, and an English court has no jurisdiction to enforce a trust or settle a scheme foV the administration of a charity in a foreign country. An English court has, however, jurisdiction to administer the trusts of a will as to the whole real and personal estate of a testator, even though only a very small part of the estate, and that wholly personal, is in England. This was decided by the House of Lords in a well-known case in 1883 (Ewing v. Orr-Ewine, L.R. 9, A.C. 34). Rights and Duties of the Trustee. — The principal general properties of the office of trustee are these: (i) A trustee having once accepted the trust cannot afterwards renounce. (2) He Cannot delegate it, but an inconvenience which formerly attached to dealings with trustees and trust property, in consequence partly of this rule, and partly of the liability of persons dealing with trustees to see that money paid to them was properly applied, was largely obviated by s. 17 of the Trustee Act 1893 (replacing s. 2 of the Trustee Act 1888), which in effect provides that a trustee may appoint a solicitor to be his agent to receive and give a discharge for any money or valuable consideration or property receivable by the trustee under the trust, by permitting the solicitor to have the custody of and to produce a deed having in the body thereof or endorsed thereon a TRUST AND TRUSTEES 333 receipt for the consideration money or other consideration, the deed being executed or the endorsed receipt being signed by the trustee; and a trustee is not chargeable with breach of trust by reason only of his having made or concurred in making any such appointment; and the producing of any such deed by the solicitor is a sufficient authority to the person liable to pay for his paying to the solicitor without the solicitor producing any separate or other direction or authority in that behalf from the trustee. (3) In the case of co- trustees the office must be exercised by all the trustees jointly. (4) On the death of one trustee there is survivorship: that is, the trust will pass to the survivors or survivor. (5) One trustee shall not be liable for the acts of his co-trustee. (6) A trustee shall derive no personal benefit from the trusteeship. The office cannot be renounced or delegated, because it is one of personal confidence. It can, however, be resigned, and legislation has given a retiring trustee large powers of appointing a successor. The liability of one trustee for the acts or defaults of another often raises very difficult questions. A difference is made between trustees and executors. An executor is liable for joining in a receipt pro forma, as it is not necessary for him to do so, one executor having authority to act without his co-executor; a trustee can show that he only joined for conformity, and that "another received the money. The rule of equity by which a beneficiary who consented to a breach of trust was liable to indemnify the trustees to the extent of his interest has taken definite statutory shape in s. 45 of the Trustee Act 1893 (replacing s. 6 of the Trustee Act 1888), which enacts that when a trustee commits a breach of trust at the instigation or request, or with the consent in writing of a beneficiary, the High Court may, if it thinks fit, and notwithstanding that the beneficiary is a married woman entitled for her separate use and restrained from anticipation, make such order as to the court seems just for impounding all or any part of the interest of the beneficiary in the trust estate by way of indemnity to the trustee. The rule that a trustee is not to benefit by his office is subject to some exceptions. He may do so if the instrument creating him trustee specially allows him remuneration, as is usually the case where a solicitor is appointed. The main duties of trustees are to place the trust property in a proper state of security, to keep it (if personalty) in safe custody, and to properly invest and distribute it. A trustee must be careful not to place himself in a position where his interest might clash with his duty. As a rule hecannot safely purchase from his cestui que trust while the fiduciary relation exists between them. Investments by trustees demand special notice. The Trustee Act 1893 has consolidated the law on this point, and provides, as it were, a code or charter of investment authorizing trustees, unless expressly forbidden by the instrument (if any) creating the trust, to invest trust funds m various modes, of which the more important are as follows: In any of the parlia- mentary stocks or public funds or government securities of the United Kingdom; on real or heritable securities in Great Britain or Ireland; in stock of the Bank of England or the Bank of Ireland; in India 35% stock and India 3% stock; in any securities, the interest of which is for the time being guaranteed by parliament; in consolidated stock created by the London County Council; in the debenture or rent-charge or guaranteed or preference stock of any railway company in Great Britain or Ireland incorporated by special act of parliament, and having during each of the ten years last past before the date of investment paid a dividend at the rate of not less than 3% on its ordinary stock; in the debenture stock of any railway company in India, the interest on which is paid or guaranteed by the secretary of state in council of India; in the " B " annuities of the Eastern Bengal, the East Indian and the Sind, Pun- jab and Delhi railways; and also in deferred annuities — comprised in the register of holders of annuity Class D, and annuities comprised in the register of annuitants Class C of the East Indian Railway Company; in the stock of any railway company in India upon which a fixed or minimum dividend in sterling is paid or guaranteed by the secretary of state in council of India, or upon the capital of which the interest is so guaranteed; in the debenture or guaranteed or preference stock of any company in Great Britain or Ireland estab- lished for the supply of water for profit, and incorporated by special act of parliament or by royal charter, and having during each of the ten years last past before the date of investment paid a dividend of not less than 5% per annum on its ordinary stock; in nominal or inscribed stock issued, or to be issued, by the corporation of any municipal borough having, according to the returns of the last census prior to the date of investment, a population exceeding 50,000; or by any county council under the authority of any act of parliament or provisional order; in any of the stocks, funds or securities for the time being authorized for the investment of cash under the control or subject to the order of the High Court. Trustees may from time to time vary any such investments for others of an authorized nature. The statutory power to invest on real securities does not, of course, authorize the purchase of realty; but by s. 5 of the Trustee Act 1893 a power to invest in real securities (in the absence of express provision to the contrary) authorizes investment on mortgage of leasehold property held for an unexpired term of not less than 200 years and not subject to a greater rent than one shilling a year, or to any right of redemption or condition of re-entry except for non-payment of rent. The position of trustees in respect of what was frequently an undue personal responsibility for the administration of their trust has been much improved by s. 8 of the Trustee Act 1888 (not repealed by the Trustee Act 1893) and s. 3 of the Judicial Trustees Act 1896. Sub-section (l) of the former enactment (with some omissions) runs as follows: " In any action or other proceeding against a trustee or any person claiming through him, except where the claim is founded upon any fraud or fraudulent breach of trust to which the trustee was party or privy, or is to recover trust property, or the proceeds thereof still retained by the trustee, or previously received by the trustee and converted to his use, the following provisions shall apply: (a) All rights and privileges conferred by any statute of limitations shall be enjoyed in the like manner and to the like extent as if the trustee or person claiming through him had not been a trustee or person claiming through him. (6) If the action or other proceeding is brought to recover money or other pro- perty, and is one to which no existing statute of limitations applies, the trustee or person claiming through him shall be entitled to the benefit of, and be at liberty to plead the lapse of time as a bar to such action or other proceeding in the like manner and to the like extent as if the claim had been against him in an action of debt for money had and received." The statutory period of limitation which trustees are thus permitted to plead is the six years fixed as the period of limitation for actions of debt by the Limitation Act 1623. It has been decided on the above section that in the case of a breach of trust consisting of an improper investment of the trust funds, time begins to run in favour of the trustee from the date of the investment. Sub-section (3) of the Judicial Trustees Act 1896 provides that " if it appears to the court that a trustee, whether appointed under that act or not, is or may be personally liable for any breach of trust, whether the transaction alleged to be a breach of trust occurred before or after the passing of that act, but has acted honestly and reasonably, and ought fairly to be excused for the breach of trust and for omitting to obtain the directions of the court in the matter in which he committed such breach, then the court may relieve the trustee either wholly or partly from personal liability for the same." Owing to the generally reduced rate of interest obtainable for money invested on trust securities, the court has in several instances, and even as against defaulting trustees, charged them with interest at 3% per annum (instead of 4%, which was formerly the recognized rate) upon sums found due from them to the trust estate. Under the old law trustees could not safely advance on mortgage more than two-thirds of the actual value of agricultural land or one-half of the value of houses. This " two-thirds rule " is now made statutory by s. 8 of the Trustee Act 1893, which enacts that " A trustee lending money on the security of any property on which he can lawfully lend shall not be chargeable with breach of trust by reason only of the proportion borne by the amount of the loan to the value of the property at the time when the loan was made, provided that it appears to the court that in making the loan the trustee was acting upon a report as to the value of the property made by a person whom he reasonably believed to be an able practical surveyor or valuer instructed and employed independently of any owner of the property, whether such surveyor or valuer carried on business in the locality where the property is situate or elsewhere, and that the amount of the loan does not exceed two equal third parts of the value of the property as stated in the report, and that the loan was made under the advice of the surveyor or valuer ex- pressed in the report." The same section protects trustees for not investigating the lessor's title when lending on the leasehold security, and for taking a shorter title than they might be otherwise entitled to on the purchase or mortgage of any property, if they act with prudence and caution. By s. 9 (replacing s. 5 of the Trustee Act 1888) trustees who commit a breach of trust by lending more than the proper amount on any property are excused from making good any more than the excess of the actual loan over the sum which they might have properly lent in the first instance. Rights and Duties of the Cestui que Trust. — These may be to a great extent deduced from what has been already said as to the correlative duties and rights of tfie trustee. The cestui que trust has a general right to the due management of the trust property, to proper accounts and to enjoyment of the profits. He can as a rule only act with the concurrence of the trustee, unless he seeks a remedy against the trustee himself. Judicial Trustees. — The Judicial Trustees Act 1896, inaugurated a semi-official system of trusteeship which was new in England, but had been known in Scotland for upwards of 150 years. The general scope of the act is indicated by s. I (l), which runs as follows: " Where application is made to the court by or on behalf of the person creating or intending to create a trust, or by or on behalf of a trustee or beneficiary, the court may, in its discretion, appoint a person (in this act called a judicial trustee) to be a trustee of that trust, either jointly with any other person or as sole trustee, and if sufficient cause is shown, in place of all or any existing trustees." The act and the rules made under it (the Judicial Trustees Rules 1897) provide that judicial trustees shall be under the control and supervision of the court as officers thereof, and may be paid for their services out of the trust property. The trust accounts are to be 334 TRUSTS audited annually, and a report thereon made to the court, which has power to order inquiries into transactions connected with the administration of the trust. A judicial trustee may be required to give security, and in any case has to keep the trust account with a bank approved by the court, and deposit title-deeds and other documents of title in such custody as the court directs. Communica- tions between judicial trustees and the court with reference to their duties are permitted to be made with little or no formality, and strict proof of facts may be waived in proper cases. The act may, in short, be described as an attempt to provide for an official check upon the administration of trusts, while avoiding the formality and expense incident to the procedure in an administration action. Public Trustee. — A step further was taken by the Public Trustee Act 1906, which established the office of public trustee. By the act he is a corporation sole, with perpetual succession and an official seal and may sue and be sued under his official title. He may, if he thinks fit, act in the administration of estates of small value; as custodian trustee, or as an ordinary trustee ; he may be appointed a judicial trustee, or administrator of a convict's property. The law of trusts generally is applicable to him and he can act either alone or jointly with other persons. He has an absolute discretion as to whether he will accept or not any trust, but cannot decline acceptance on the ground only of the small value of the trust pro- perty. He cannot accept any trust which involves the management or carrying on of a business, except in certain cases authorized under rules appended to the act. He cannot accept a trust under a deed of arrangement for the benefit of creditors, nor of an insolvent estate, nor one exclusively for religious or charitable purposes. His powers and duties are dealt with by the act under three headings: (l) In the administration of small estates. — On the application of any person entitled to apply to the court (i.e. the High Court, and as respects trusts within its jurisdiction, the county court) for an order for administration of any estate, the gross value of which is proved to the satisfaction of the public trustee to be less than £1000, he may administer the estate, and must do so if the persons beneficially entitled are persons of > small means, unless he sees good reason for refusing. By declaration in writing signed and sealed by him the trust property other than stock vests in him, and the right to transfer or call for the transfer of any stock forming part of the estate, pro- vided that he does not exercise the right of himself transferring stock without the leave of the court; this general provision also does not apply to copyhold, in respect of which he has the same powers to convey them as if he had been appointed under s. 33 of the Trustee Act 1893. Power is given to the court to order, for reasons of economy, that an estate being administered by the court be adminis- tered by the public trustee. (2) As custodian trustee. — The public trustee, if he consents to act, may be appointed custodian trustee on an application to the court, or by the testator, settlor or other creator of any trust or by a person having power to appoint new trustees. When he is so appointed the trust property is transferred to him as if he were the sole trustee, but the management of the trust property and any discretionary power remain vested in the other trustees. His relations with the managing trustees are further defined by the act. (3) As an ordinary trustee. — The public trustee may be appointed trustee, executor, &c., of any will or settlement or instrument of any date either under his official title or other sufficient designation. In a will a sentence to the following effect would be sufficient. " I appoint the Public Trustee executor and trustee of this my will." Where the public trustee has been ap- pointed a trustee of any trust, a co-trustee may retire from the trust under s. II of the Public Trustee Act 1893 notwithstanding that there are not more than two trustees, and without such consents as are required by that section. The consolidated fund of the United Kingdom is liable to make good all sums required to discharge any liability which the public trustee, if he were a private trustee, would be personally Kable to discharge, except where neither the public trustee nor his officers has contributed to it, and which neither he nor any of his officers could by reasonable diligence have averted. A person aggrieved by any act or omission or decision of the public trustee in relation to any trust may apply to the court, and the court may make such order in the matter as it sees fit. The act contains provisions for the investigation and audit of trust accounts, which may take place on the application of any trustee or beneficiary; if the parties do not agree upon a solicitor and public accountant for the purpose, they are appointed by the public trustee, who has entire discretion over the source from which the expenses are to be defrayed. The fees payable under the act are fixed by the Public Trustee (Fees) Order; they are of two kinds: fees on capital and fees on income. The object of the department is not to make a profit, but merely to pay expenses. Full information as to the machinery and procedure of the office and the requirements necessary to obtain the services of the public trustee are obtainable on applica- tion to the Public Trustee Office, Clement's Inn, London. Scotland. — The history of the law differs considerably from that of England, though perhaps the position of the Scottish trustee is now not very different from that of the trustee in England. The Statute of Uses did not apply to Scotland, since neither that nor any similar legislation was necessary in a system in which law and equity were administered by the same tribunals. Trusts seem to have existed from time immemorial, and have been frequently regulated by statute. The policy of the English Statute of Frauds was no doubt intentionally imitated in the Act 1696, c. 25, enacting that no action of declarator of trust should be sustained as to any deed of trust made for thereafter, except upon a declaration or back- bond of trust lawfully subscribed by the person alleged to be trustee and against whom or his heirs or assignees the declarator should be intended, or unless the same were referred to the oath of the party simpliciter. The act does not apply to all cases, but only to those in which by the act of parties documents of title are in the name of a trustee, but the beneficial interest in another. The person creating the trust is called the truster, a term unknown in England. On the other hand the term cestui que trust is unknown in Scotland. The office of trustee is prima facie gratuitous, as in England, it being considered to fall under the contract of mandate. Some of the main differences between English and Scottish law are these. There is no presumption in Scotland of a resulting trust in favour of a purchaser. A trust which lapses by the failure of a beneficiary goes to the Crown as ultimus heres. The office of trustee is not a joint office, therefore there is no right of survivorship, and on the death of a trustee the survivors are incompetent to act, unless a certain number be declared or presumed to be a quorum, or the office be conferred on trustees and the accedors and survivors of them. Sometimes the concurrence of one trustee is rendered absolutely necessary by his being named sine qua non. The Court of Session may appoint new trustees, but generally appoints a judicial factor. There has been a considerable amount of legislation, chiefly in the direction of extending the powers of trustees and of the court in trust matters. The powers of investment given to trustees are much the same as those allowed in England. United States. — In New York and many other States uses and trusts have been abolished (with certain exceptions), and every estate, subject to those exceptions, is deemed a legal right cognis- able in courts of law. Some of these exceptions are implied trusts and express trusts to sell land for the benefit of creditors, to sell, mortgage or lease lands for the benefit of legatees, or for the purpose of satisfying any charge thereon, to receive the rents and profits of lands and apply them to the use of any person during the life of such person or any shorter term, or to receive such rents and profits, and accumulate the same within the limits allowed by the law. Some states allow the creation of trusts (other than those arising by implication or operation of law) only by means of will or deed. Where the trust is of real estate, the deed must generally be registered. Forms of deeds of trust are given in the Statutes of Virginia and other states. The English doctrine of cy pres is being adopted in many states. A public trustee as a corporation sole exists in some states. A trustee under American law is generally entitled to compensation for his services. Spendthrift trusts, i.e. those under which the enjoyment of income bequeathed by will in such a way as to prevent creditors of the beneficiary from reaching.it before it gets into his hands, are generally supported (Nichols v. Eaton, 91 United States Reports, 713). A " voting trust " is a concerted transfer of their shares in a corporation by a majority of the share- holders to trustees to hold and vote on them for a specified period for the purpose of securing the adoption or continuance of a certain line of corporate action. Any shareholder may recede from such an arrangement and reclaim his stock. AUTHORITIES. — The principal authority is Lewin'sLotu of Trusts; other treatises are those of Godefroi and Underhill. For American Law see Perry On Trusts. The principal authority on charitable trusts is Tudor. For the history may be consulted Bacon, Law Tracts; Reading, On the Statute of Uses; Gilbert, On Uses; Sanders, On Uses and Trusts; Spence, Equitable Jurisdiction, i. 435; Digby, Hist, of the Law of Real Property, chs. vi., vii. TRUSTS, in Economics. The word " trusts," as used here, includes all those aggregations of capital engaged in productive industry that, by virtue of their industrial strength, have or are supposed to have some monopolistic power. Legal mono- polies, as such, and natural monopolies are excluded, although it is frequently true that the trusts are aided by and sometimes control natural monopolies. Trusts are here considered to be identical with the so-called " capitalistic monopolies." As " trusts " started in America, the subject will be considered here first from the point of view of American experience. While it is probably true that trusts are a product of evolu- tion, it is desirable to analyse and explain that conception in some detail if we are to understand their industrial significance. Competition, especially among industries managed on a great scale, often makes modern business unprofitable. Commercial men have been thus compelled in some way to modify former methods of doing business. So long as most industries were run on a small scale, the differences in the ability and the facilities of the various competitors were so great that only those at the lower end of the scale of excellence were forced out of the busi- ness— this to the general advantage of industrial society. The TRUSTS 335 great mass of producers remained vigorously competing with one another, some making larger, others smaller profits, but all except a few at the lower margin making at least a living. Under modern business conditions competitors are often, rela- tively speaking, few in number, of substantially equal ability, and controlling substantially equal facilities for managing the business economically. Consequently, in such circumstances, modern competition differs greatly from that form which was familiar to the earlier economists. Among competitors of such great resources, the struggle may last long after the business has become unprofitable to all before any will fail. Among competitors so nearly equal in strength, the entire industry may be very seriously injured by competition before enough are forced out to affect materially the severity of the competition. The dictum of Stephenson, that " where combination is possible, competition is impossible," has a much wider appli- cation now than in the early days of railways. The modern facilities for the transportation of goods, for the rapid trans- mission of intelligence by fast mail, and especially for the in- stantaneous exchange of information by the telegraph and telephone, have made it possible to manage easily a large busi- ness, however widely separated its different plants or estab- lishments may be. In the middle of the igth century or there- abouts, on account of the lack of these facilities, management of such institutions would often have been impossible. Many of the advantages of combinations are entirely dependent upon these modern facilities, and on that account these facilities may be said to be an occasion, if not a cause, of the trusts. If the product of an industry is of such a nature that its quality is substantially uniform and can be readily tested by Two Kinds purchasers, especially if the goods are such that of Trust they are ordinarily sold in large quantities, the industries, competition between rival establishments must almost of necessity be a competition in price. Sugar refining, oil refining, the distilling of spirits, the manufacture of salt, are such industries. The standard quality is readily tested, and the manufacturer who can offer the standard product at the lowest price effects a sale. Industries manufacturing comparatively inexpensive articles for the retail trade, put them up in packages which become well known to customers; and those industries whose goods are sold under brands or trade-marks, or in some other form so that they are familiar to buyers, afford an example of competition of an entirely different kind. When the reputation of a certain brand of goods of this nature becomes established, consumers make no further efforts to -test its quality, and the retail price often becomes a customary price. If a manufacturer of such goods finds his trade injured by a rival, his most effective means of competition will often be, not a lowering of the price, but an increase of the outlay on advertising. Soap, baking-powder, photographic cameras for general use, and of late years certain brands of coffee, patent medicine, and other drugs of similar nature, are examples of this class. Those industries in which the competition becomes a matter of cutting of prices can by combination remove rivals from the field, and then put prices up to a remunerative rate. Competitors in industries of the second class by combination can save many of the costs of selling, and thus without any increase in the price of the product may save enough of the cost to make the business profitable. Some of the advantages of combination over competition which have led to the organization of trusts may be enumerated : — I. The cost of selling may be greatly lessened. As has been intimated, competition in the case of industries of the second class Savings named above leads to very expensive advertising in from Com- order to effect sales. An examination of the pages of blnailon. anY °f the American magazines, with a thought as to the amount charged for the use of these advertising pages (from one hundred to as high as even four hundred dollars, or from £20 to £80, per page for a single insertion in some of the magazines with the largest circulation) will convince one of the cost of such competitive advertising. The expense involved in making attrac- tive show-windows in stores or shops, and in calling the attention of the public to popular wares by posters scattered about the country and by legends painted on rocks, on buildings along the lines of railways, &c., are other common examples. 2. The salaries of commercial travellers, together with their hotel and travelling expenses, are of a similar nature. This com- petitive advertising in many cases does not increase to any note- worthy extent the consumption of the products in question, but merely attracts customers from one manufacturer to another. Combination among establishments that do this costly advertising saves a large part of the expense without lessening materially the quantity of goods sold. 3. If different manufacturing establishments, scattered through- out the country, are brought under one management, it will be possible for orders for goods to be received at one central office, and then to be distributed to the federated establishments, so that goods can be despatched to customers in each case from the nearest establishment. In this way freight expenses may be very greatly lessened, cross freights over the same territory being substantially eliminated. A single establishment supplying all of its customers would often be compelled to deliver much longer distances at greatly increased expense. 4. The entire profit of an establishment frequently depends upon the skill of the manager. When many different establishments are organized into one, it is possible to select the most skilful manager of all and to put him in charge of the combination, thus securing in many cases, if the trust includes practically all of the establish- ments in the entire industry, the ablest manager in the country for them all. It is of course true that as an establishment increases in size, or as a combination increases the number of its branches, especially if they are widely scattered, it becomes impossible for the manager to give his personal supervision to the details of manage- ment of each institution. An executive officer of the highest skill, however, will so select his subordinates, so direct their work, and so infuse into them his own spirit, that, under careful inspection, comparatively little will be lost from his inability to be present personally in each separate establishment. In the larger combina- tions frequent reports, often daily, are made from each concern, giving in detail the quantity of the output, the quality of the goods, the exact cost of the different processes of manufacture; so that it is possible to compare continually each of them with all of the others; to detect the special weakness of each, and in this way to remedy any slight defects in any one establishment, and to bring all nearly up to the highest level of productive capacity. 5. Each business manager is likely to have some special excellence in his methods of management. One will be particularly skilful in the technique of manufacturing; another in the organization of the business; a third in selling goods, and so on. By combining many establishments into one, it is possible so to distribute this managerial skill that each superintendent will be given the depart- ment for which he is peculiarly fitted, and the whole establishment will thus get the benefit, not merely of the best executive ability at the head, but also of the best managing skill at the head of each separate department. In many cases it is probable that as much is saved in this way as in any other. 6. Besides this distribution of skill of the managers.it is sometimes equally beneficial to distribute the various products of the combina- tion among the different plants. For example, in the manufacture of hoop and bar iron the products are turned out in great varieties of size, probably from seventy-five to a hundred. Wholesale dealers in sending their orders to the mills are likely to call for from ten to fifty different kinds. If these orders go to an establishment which has but one large mill, it may be necessary, in order to execute the order, to change the rolls in the mill several times, causing thus a waste of power, of time and of energy. If several establishments are combined, each can be equipped for certain sizes. When, in these circumstances, a large order is received, to each establishment will be sent that part of the order which it is especially equipped to fulfil, and thus, without any changes of rolls or stoppage of machinery, the separate sizes can be made. The same principle holds of course in nearly all lines of work, in some to a greater degree than in others; but in the manufacture of hoop and bar iron a saving from this source amounting to from a dollar to a dollar and a half, or from 43. to 6s., per ton is sometimes made. 7. The advantage of unifying in one establishment the manu- facture of products somewhat allied in nature appears also in selling goods. If customers can buy all of the various kinds of related goods in one establishment, much of their time and energy will be saved. Some of the larger combinations, therefore, in order to make this saving for their customers and thus to be sure of retaining their orders, add to their plant facilities for making products which a smaller establishment could hardly manufacture. For example, the Distilling Company of America, which controls probably 90% of the entire product of corn spirits, found it to its advantage to add to its plant several rye distilleries, and to purchase a number of the leading brands of whiskies for consumption as beverages, in order that they might supply the needs along different lines of practically all dealers in spirits and whiskies, in this way saving for themselves -many customers who otherwise might have been lost. 8. The mere size of an establishment and its ability to supply at any time on short notice any order, however large, gives it also an advantage in retaining custom. A concern that controls only TRUSTS from 5 to 10% of the entire output of a country in any special line of goods might at times find it impossible to supply goods promptly. Large customers who might thus be embarrassed are more ready to deal regularly with an establishment controlling 75 to 90% ol the output, if they can in this way be sure of having their orders attended to promptly. It is stated that the American Sugar Refin- ing Company on this account has been able to secure, with consider- able regularity, one-sixteenth of a cent a pound more on its refined sugars than the independent refiners, the latter being frequently compelled to cut their prices to that extent in order to make sales. 9. Owing to the fact that the introduction of goods into new markets, especially into foreign markets, is a matter of time, ex- penditure of energy, and of money, the large establishment with treat capital has in this particular also a decided advantage. The tandard Oil Company, and American Tobacco Company, and other similar establishments, have thus been able to open up new markets in Europe, in Japan, China and other portions of the Far East more readily by far than individual producers along those lines could have done. This stimulus to the foreign trade acts also beneficially to the domestic trade, inasmuch as the exportation of part of the product tends to keep prices somewhat higher at home, and as the added demand for the raw material influences its price, thus creates a demand for labour along many lines. 10. The combination also frequently saves for its stockholders considerable sums from its wiser dealing with credits, and this in a way also that is beneficial to the entire business community. When competition is very severe among different establishments, the managers, in order to increase their sales, will not inirequently grant credit somewhat unwisely. The combination controlling a large part of the market is not so tempted, and moreover has the power to bring needed pressure to bear upon delinquent debtors more readily, so that losses from bad debts are much less frequent. Besides the special savings that serve as reasons for the forma- tion of combinations, certain special favours at times lead to their formation. 1. The protective tariff is most frequently cited as such a favour. By the protection which a protective duty gives against foreign competition, it doubtless often furnishes the occasion ' for the formation of trusts. If a large amount of capital lvo"rs *° is tempted into the industry through the profits pro- mised by the tariff, and therefore competition among the various establishments becomes fierce, it is much easier for them to form a combination with the certainty of good profits, provided the domestic competition can be overcome, if they are certain that foreign competition also is to be excluded. On the other hand, it would hardly be right to speak of the tariff as in this case the direct cause. In other industries not protected by the tariff the same fiwce competition leads to the formation of combinations. The tariff is simply an encouraging condition. The removal of the tariff would not destroy the combination unless it destroyed the industry at the same time; but, on the other hand, the removal of a protective tariff might very easily prevent the abuses of exorbitant prices which might be exacted by a combination pro- tected by the tariff. 2. It is doubtless true that combinations have a good many times been encouraged by special discriminating rates of freight granted by the railways or other transportation agencies. There is, of course, a certain economic advantage to the railways in having goods despatched in large quantities by consigners who are able to supply their own cars, loading and unloading facilities, &c. Rail- ways on that account often prefer to deal with large firms, and, other things being equal, are willing to give them some special rates. These concerns also are likely to have rather better credit than the smaller ones, so that dealing with them ensures prompt pay and cheaper collection of accounts. The competition among the different railways also for the freights which an important customer can furnish leads to cutting of the rates in their favour. These special rates, however, whether justified from the business point of view or not, are beyond any question from the social point of view, often a very grave injury. A manufacturer who receives these_ special favours can build up a business substantially monopol- istic in its extent, whereas his rival of equal or even of greater ability, and equally skilful as a manufacturer, would be ruined if he did not receive like rates. The injustice of such discriminations and their evil effects on the community have been recognized by legislatures and courts in America, and they are practically universally for- bidden. It remains beyond question true that they are, notwith- standing, very frequently granted. In recent years in the United States there can be little question that the formation of the great combinations has been much Promotion encouraged by the opportunities, which promoters ' were able to seize, of making for themselves large profits. The movement towards combination was so fully recognized and the advantages in many cases so palpable, that a well-informed and skilful promoter was often able to persuade a large proportion of the manufacturers in some special industry to combine. In preparing the plan for such combination, the promoter has in many cases seen to it that he himself first bought the properties which he could very shortly turn over to the combination at high rates of profit; or else he has been able to persuade the new corporation to issue large amounts of stock, of which considerable proportions were given to him in return for his services. It has been true in many cases that these securities have been speculative in nature, but nevertheless the promoter has often reaped in this way large rewards. The possi- bility of this profit has doubtless stimulated his activity in urging the combinations. Associated with the promoter in the organization of these com- binations have usually been bankers or other financiers who stood ready, for an amount of stock or other promised profit sufficiently large to compensate them for their risk, Uader- to furnish to the combinations cash sufficient to start wrlter- the business and to provide other needed capital. Usually the form of underwriting employed has been this: A promoter engaged in the formation of a combination and needing a certain fixea sum in cash, would make an arrangement with a bank to sell to it at a price agreed upon such portions of a named amount of stock as were not disposed of to other customers before a certain fixed date. For example, the bank might agree to furnish one million dollars in cash (£200,000) in return for say four millions of stock (£800,000), or to purchase itself at a fixed price all the remainder of the $4,000,000 stock unsold at the date agreed upon, the bank itself to become the sales agent. In those circumstances the bank would naturally use its best endeavours to sell the four millions of stock to other customers at the price agreed upon, say twenty-five dollars, or £5, per share. So far as it failed of disposing of the entire amount, it would take the remainder itself. For taking these risks, naturally the bank has almost invariably asked a very high commission, and not infrequently it has been asserted that the managers of the banks have been given a special bonus for themselves privately, in addition to the rates of profits granted the bank. These large amounts of stock that are paid to the promoter and the financier for the purpose of bringing about the organization of a large trust, lead, of course, to what is called over--.. _ capitalization. What the proper basis of capitalization ' , j for a manufacturing industry should be, is a matter that :Japl cannot perhaps easily be determined by a definite prin- **" ciple which shall be applicable in every case. The laws that have been most strict on the subject attempt to limit the capitalization to the " actual cash value " of the business, by that being understood at times simply the cost of the plant itself with the running cash capital needed. On the other hand, most business men think that it is a wiser plan, and on the whole equally just, to capitalize a business on the basis of its earning capacity, regardless of what the plant may have cost. When, as has been frequently the case of late years, in addition to this cash value of the plant and the cash itself which may have been paid in, large sums of stock are issued also for properties which may be in themselves highly over-valued, and for the services of the promoter, the financier and others, we can see that the capitalization must be far above what may ordinarily be considered a paying basis. On the other hand, if the element of ntonopoly enters into the business to any noteworthy extent, the prices of the product may be kept so high that fair dividends may be paid even on this high capitalization. That the tendency towards increasing the capital has been very strong there can be no question, and a penalty is apt to be paid for this somewhat reckless financiering. As soon as a slight depression in business comes, so that it is perfectly evident not merely that dividends cannot be paid on the common stock, but that in all probability both the deferred stock and the bonds, if any have been issued, will also have to go without interest, it may be necessary to reorganize many of these combina- tions and to start them anew on a much lower capitalization. When the person organizing the combination is himself an active business man, and has the intention of himself directing the affairs of the combination, another The element besides that of personal profit very fre- industrial quently enters into the problem. Most strong Maaas»r- men like to take responsibility and to be dominant in affairs. When, owing to the advantages of combination that have been enumerated above, the prospect of a virtual monopoly seems certain, provided due skill in management is exercised, it is natural that the manager should wish to bring about the combination in order that he may himself have the satisfaction of being in substantially absolute control of the entire industry in a country, or possibly even in the world. The ambition thus to dominate in a great industry is akin to that of a statesman, and there can be little question that his pride of power and the desire to control the destinies of others has been a more or less conscious element in the formation TRUSTS 337 of many of the most successful and most skilfully managed combinations. 1. The form of combination which has ordinarily been first adopted has been some kind of agreement with reference The Forms to maintaining prices, or to paying wages, or to ofCom- dividing the territory for the distribution of the bination. product, or similar questions. Experience has shown that, generally speaking, such agreements are not likely to be kept in good faith for a long period. 2. In order to make the combination more permanent in its nature, the form of the trust, technically so called, was adopted. Under this form of combination, the stockholders of the various constituent companies of the trust place their stock in the hands of a small board of trustees, giving to these trustees an irrevo- cable power of attorney to vote the stock as they see fit, or in accordance with specific instructions given at the beginning. The title to the stock itself remains in the original holder, with the right to sell or pledge or dispose of it as he sees fit, but without the power of recalling his right to vote. In return for this stock thus deposited with the trustees, the trustees have ordi- narily issued trust certificates, which are in themselves negoti- able and take the place of the stock. Inasmuch as the holding of the voting power of the majority of the stock of each of the different constituent companies gave to the trustees absolute power of election of directors, and consequently the power of guiding harmoniously the affairs of all of the plant entering into the combination regardless of the will of the stockholders, the United States courts held that the corporations entering into such an agreement had gone beyond their powers, and that such a trust was illegal. Owing chiefly to these hostile decisions of the courts, this form of trust was abandoned, and new forms, which still, however, leave the power of unified direction in the hands of a few men, were adopted. 3. After the trusts were declared illegal, it was usual, when a combination was formed, to organize a new corporation which bought all of the properties of the constituent members of the trust. These constituent companies then dissolved, and the one great corporation owning all of the properties remained. 4. The form that now seems to be much in favour approaches in its general nature more closely to that of the original trust. Under this form a corporation is organized for the special purpose of buying and owning all, or a controlling share, of the stocks of each one of the constituent companies. The separate companies are then managed technically independently, the dividends of the separate corporations are all paid to the parent corporation as the stockholder owning all of the stocks, and these dividends are the source of profits of the new corporation. The officers in this parent corporation, of course, vote the stocks of the separate companies, and thus absolutely control. From the savings which it is possible for the combinations to make, it would seem possible for them to pay higher rates of wages to those remaining in their employment and Wages tnan it was possible for the constituent companies to do. In certain instances, especially when the combination has first been made, wages have been increased. On the whole, however, it is probable that as yet the wage- earners have succeeded in getting an increase of wages in cir- cumstances substantially similar to those under which their wages would be increased by single corporations. An increase of wages comes only through pressure on their part. Under a prosperous condition of industry it is possible, without materially lowering profits, to increase the wages. Certain classes of employes, especially superintendents and commercial travellers, are less needed by the combinations, and consequently the total sum of wages paid to these classes by the combination is less than that formerly paid by the constituent companies. On the other hand, the number of employes of these classes being less than before, the average wage has, in certain cases at least, been increased. Owing to the fact that competitive selling is in certain cases largely done away with, it has in some, perhaps in many, cases been possible for fewer travelling salesmen, of less skill and with lower wages, to do the Prices. work than before the combination, so that not merely has the total expense been lessened, but also the average salary paid to those retained in the business. In case of disputes arising between the combination and the operatives, the position of the combination is stronger than that of an individual corporation. It is possible to close one or two works where troubles have arisen, and to transfer orders to the other works without any material injury to the business, provided the closing of the one or two establishments is not for too long a period. Such instances have occurred. On the other hand, labour organizations are also rapidly increasing in strength, and their leaders are of the opinion that within a comparatively short time they will be so thoroughly organized in all of the chief industries that a strike can be instituted and supported not merely in one or two establishments, but throughout the entire industry. Whenever this condition of affairs shall have been reached, the employes will be substantially on an equality with their employers in such cases of conflict, so that the advantage now resting with the combination will be largely removed. In certain industries this condition seems already to have been reached. From the sources of savings that were enumerated before, it is evident that it would be possible for a combination either to increase the prices paid for raw materials, or to lower the prices of its finished products. Experience, how- ever, seems to show beyond question that whenever the combina- tions are powerful enough to secure a monopolistic control it has usually been the policy to increase the prices above those which obtained during the period of competition preceding the forma- tion of the combination. Inasmuch, however, as an attempt to increase prices to any great extent, so as to secure very high profits, would certainly result in tempting new capital into the field, it has been the general experience that prices have either been increased only comparatively little after the combination was formed, or else that competition entering the field has com- paratively soon forced a lowering of prices to substantially the former competitive rates. It should be noted, however, that inasmuch as combinations have very frequently been formed only after a period of competition so fierce that practically all the competitors were running at a loss, it is hardly just to speak of a combination placing its prices above " competitive rates " unless one defines what is meant exactly by that expression. Whenever they have put their prices above the competitive rates existing just before the combination, it may mean that they have put their prices back to rates that will allow medium profits instead of losses, and not above rates that would be normal in the case of small competitors. It will have been noted from what has been said that the excellences of the combination consist largely in the savings that have already been enumerated. The evils are: (i) The losses to investors through the acts of the . promoters and financiers at the time of the organiza- tion of the combinations, and through the speculation in the stocks which is at times carried on by the directors of the com- binations themselves. (2) The losses to the wage-earners from the power that sometimes exists of forcing wages rather lower than it would be possible for a single corporation or manufacturer to do, and also from the discharge of certain classes of employes whose services are no longer needed, such as commercial travellers. It should be remarked of the latter case, however, that the injury is a personal one to those men that are discharged, but that it results in a saving to the community, and, therefore, presumably to the wage-earning class as a whole in the long run. (3) A further injury at times to the consumer arises, as has been suggested, from the increase in price. Other evils come through the power that is sometimes exercised by combina- tions in the corruption of legislatures; in the control over industries of such a nature that it tends to destroy the spirit of individual activity and independence on the part of many persons who would otherwise enter business independently; and evils also come through the increased force of any improper or dishonourable business practices, since this added force for evil TRUSTS is given to any combination by virtue of its greater influence in the community. It is not intended to convey the impression that managers of combinations are less moral than other business men, but merely that whenever they are dishonourable in their practices the influence reaches more widely. The chief remedies for these evils enumerated would seem to be more rigid laws with reference to the methods of incorpora- tion and to the responsibility of directors to stockholders and to the public. This can perhaps best be brought about through greater publicity in both of these directions, probably under the inspection of government officials. The other line of remedies would seem to be the removal of special favours granted to these combinations either by the government or by railways or other bodies so situated that they can distribute favours to the larger combinations. The movement towards consolidation of industries in the United States began to be noticeable soon after the Civil War The (1861-65), but it had not reached noteworthy Movement proportions, excepting in connection with the rail- Towards ways, until within the last twenty years of the consoiida- Igtjj century. During the later years many con- solidations were made, the largest number during the years 1898-1900. From what has been said earlier, it is evident that certain classes of industries, especially those that require the investment of fixed capital to large amounts, are especially adapted for combination. Very little tendency towards consolidation is found in the farming industry, and, relatively speaking, little in industries that require the investment of but small capital. It is perhaps, however, not too much to say that in nearly all lines of industry which from their nature are adapted for consolidation combinations more or less firm have been made during the last few years. It is probable that as time passes we shall have many of these combinations reorganized, and that in many lines of industry there will be further consolidation of present combinations. Experience has shown that when combinations are made in industries that from their nature do not seem well suited for consolidation, failure follows. In many individual instances corporation lawyers, who have had much practice in forming combinations, advise their clients in lines of business especially fitted for competition not to enter a combination, but to remain independent, assuring them that an individual is able to compete in such lines of industry with any combination, however large. Such advice, of course, would not be given were the industry one which was well adapted for consolidation. Great Britain. — The tendency towards consolidation has been for several years very noticeable in Great Britain, although the form has been rather that of a pool or ring than that a trust or °f a single large corporation. In the coal and milling industries there have been agree- ments; and, particularly in London and other distributing centres, these selling combinations have been able at times to control the market. This has also been true with reference to certain kinds of provisions, such as the bacon imported from Denmark. Of late years there has been a marked tendency towards the formation of large corporations that buy up a very large pro- portion of competing manufacturing plant, and in this way secure at least a temporary monopoly of the market. The Salt Union was formed along these lines, but this has not proved successful, owing probably to the fact that new sources of supply were dis- covered. The dyeing industries in Bradford and in Yorkshire have been consolidated, so that in certain respects they have an absolute monopoly of the business, and in most directions of over 90% of it. The calico printers, the fine cotton spinners, the thread manufacturers, the bleachers, and others connected with the cotton manufacturing industries in Great Britain, have nearly all been brought together into large corporations which control from 90% upwards of the entire business. Similar combinations in cement, wall-paper, soap, tobacco and other trades have been formed. Most of these large corporations have been in existence for such a short time that one cannot yet judge accurately regarding their permanent success. Many of them seem to have been over-capitalized and their dividends have not always met shareholders' anticipations. There has been no active popular movement against consolidation in Eng- land, and the government has passed no laws opposed to it. Parliament, however, has passed stringent amendments to the Companies Acts, changes enforcing publicity regarding the organization of all limited liability companies and their methods of management. The amended law is expected to prevent most of the abuses of the combinations. Germany. — Germany seems to be peculiarly the home of combinations so far as Europe is concerned. In 1897 Liefmann, writing regarding combinations in Germany, was able to mention combinations which were international in their scope in forty- one different branches of industry. Of combinations that were confined to Germany alone he mentioned 345, although many of them were in the same line of industry; for example, he found 80 combinations in different branches of the iron industry, 82 in the chemical industries, 38 in the textiles, and so on. Of that number he thought that definite information could be secured, but he was of the opinion that very many more of less impor- tance existed, and had excluded from his reckoning all of those that were purely local, as for example those among the breweries in the different cities, as well as those among firms engaged merely in trade. The form of combination in Germany is ordinarily that merely of contracts among independent establishments (Cartels, Kartells) regulating the amount of output for each> and in certain cases also the prices. As in Austria and in France, a central selling bureau for all the members of the combination is frequently found. The most successful combinations have been those among the coal-miners in western Germany and the four or five in the leading branches of iron manufacture, also in western Germany. Others of somewhat similar rank have been organized, one, for example, in the sugar industry, which includes both refiners and producers, and another among the manufac- turers of spirits. The former, following that among the Austrian sugar manufacturers, is somewhat peculiar in that the refiners guarantee to the producers of raw sugar a fixed price for their output so far as the sugar is intended for the home market, the refiners expecting to recoup themselves from the consumers through the monopolistic power which they possess. The law does not seem to be hostile to these combinations. Contracts that are immoral in their nature are, of course, non-enforceable. But the courts have, on the whole, not taken an attitude inimical to the larger combinations, and the government seems at times to have been inclined to favour them. In one or two cases where the government is itself a producer, as of soda, it is a member of a combination. Indeed, a Prussian minister in a speech in the Landtag has expressed himself favourably regarding the coal and iron combinations. The facts seem to show that the coal combination, at any rate, has used its power of fixing prices in a conservative way, and it has at times held prices somewhat lower than they probably would have been had free competition existed in that industry. So long as the combinations are managed conservatively, and so long as the government is able to secure a careful supervision over them, it is not to be expected that there will be much hostility in Germany on the part of the government. France. — The number of combinations in France is probably much less than in Great Britain or Germany. In the penal code there has been a provision for many years against monopoly brought about by unfair means, and in one or two rather promi- nent instances there seem to have been convictions under this article. Consequently, the agreements that have been made, so far as they are intended to control prices, are usually kept secret. There have been, however, notably in the case of the iron industries, agreements made among the leading manufac- turers, under which the proportion of output assigned to each was fixed. A single selling bureau has also in such cases been established, which receives all orders and fixes the prices for all of the different establishments concerned. So far this form of organization, although in certain localities it seems to have TRUXTUN— TRYON, SIR G. 339 secured monopolistic power has not been successfully attacked in the courts. For several years it has been supposed that a similar agreement existed among the sugar refiners. They themselves, however, acknowledge only an agreement regarding the amount of the output which shall be assigned to each, and deny any agreement as to prices. Of course an agreement regarding output would be likely to have a material effect upon prices. Somewhat similar combinations exist among the petroleum refiners, the porcelain makers, and some few others. The government has taken no active steps in the matter, but popular opinion seems to be awakening somewhat. Austria. — In Austria the development of combinations has been very marked. The most successful combination, on the whole, as well as one of the earliest, has been that of the iron industry. The sugar industry, however, including both refiners and producers of the raw sugar,' and the petroleum industry, are also combinations of great power. The form of these com- binations is ordinarily that of an agreement regarding both out- put and prices. In some instances a central selling bureau fixes the prices, in others the market is divided, while in others still other forms of agreements of many kinds which serve to secure a monopoly are found. The movement has spread very rapidly indeed, until, in the opinion of many writers in Austria, practically all branches of industry, in which agreements for the lessening of competition will prove advantageous, are now largely controlled by combinations. The courts of Austria have, on the whole, shown themselves hostile to the movement. Con- tracts for the division of the market, for the assignment of fixed proportions of the entire output to different establishments, the fixing of prices, &c., are declared void and will not be enforced by the courts. This adverse action, however, does not seem to have affected very materially the tendency towards combina- tion, although it has perhaps tended somewhat to encourage the formation of large corporations which should purchase all of the separate plant in any one industry. This tendency, again, is checked by the fact that the corporation law requires publicity in business, and that the taxes are heavier on corporations than on private firms, both as regards the legal rate and the certainty of collection. A government commission has recommended recognition of the combinations by law and their careful super- vision and regulation by government authority. (J. W. J.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C. W. Baker, Monopolies and the People (1899); A. Berglund, The United States Steel Corporation (New York, 1907) i G. L. Bolen, Plain Facts as to the Trusts and the Tariff (New York, 1902); J. B. Clark, The Control of Trusts (New York, 1901), The Problem of Monopoly (1904); W. M. Collier, The Trusts; what can we do with them? what can they do for us? (1900) ; W. W. Cook, The Corporation Problem (1891); J. P. Davis, Corporations: a Study of the Origin and Development of Great Business Combinations (New York, 1905) ; E. Dolleans, L Accaparement (Paris, 1902) ; J. R. Dos Passos, Commercial Trusts (New York, 1901) ; L. Duchcsne, L'Avenement du regime syndical a Verniers (Paris, 1908) ; T. Duim- chen, Die Trusts und die Zukunft der Kulturmenschlieit (Berlin, 1903) ; R. T. Ely, Monopolies and Trusts (New York, 1900) ; G. Fagniez, Corporations et Syndicats (Paris, 1904) ; C. Genart, Les Syndicats industriels (Ghent, 1896) ; A. P. C. Griffin, A List of Books relating to Trusts (Washington, 1902) ; E. von Halle, Trusts in the United States (New York, 1895) ; F. W. Hirst, Monopolies, Trusts and Kartells (1905); J. W. Jenks, The Trust Problem (New York, I9°3); L- Liefman, Die Unternehmerverbande (Leipzig, 1897); H. D. Lloyd, Wealth against Commonwealth (New York, 1894) ! D. H. Macgregor, Industrial Combination (1906); H. W. Macrosty, The Trust Movement in British Industry (1907) ; F. Pierce, The Tariff and the Trusts (1907); W. Z. Ripley (editor), Trusts, Pools and Corporations (New York, 1905) ; P. de Rousiers, Les Industries monopolisms aux Etats- Unis (Paris, 1898); I.M.Tarbell, The History of the Standard Oil Company (1905). TRUXTUN, THOMAS (1755-1822), American naval officer, was born at Jamaica, Long Island, on the i7th of February 1755. He went young to sea, and during the War of Indepen- dence was first persuaded to serve in a royal ship. But having been wounded in an action with a privateer manned by his countrymen, it is said that he declared he would never fight them again. Henceforth he commanded a succession of priva- teers sent out to cruise against British trade and transports — the " St. James," the " Mars," the " Independence." He had the reputation of being uniformly successful in all engagements with British vessels. When the independence of the United States was recognized he returned to trade with a high reputation as a seaman. He was the author of a treatise on longitude and latitude, of a " System of masting a 44-gun frigate," and was an advocate for the foundation of a national navy. When the United States navy was reconstituted in 1798 he was one of the original corps of six captains. During the last years of the i8th and first of the ipth century American commerce was sub- ject to much intolerable interference on the part of the French as well as of the British naval officers. It was against the first that Truxtun rendered the services which have made him a prominent personage in the history of the United States navy. In February 1799 he was captain of the United States " Constellation" (36) and on the igth of that month he captured the French " LTnsur- gente " (36). In the following year, and while still in command of the" Constellation," he fought the French " Vengeance" (40), and drove her into Curacao. The crippled state of his own ship, which had lost her mainmast, prevented him from taking possession of the enemy. In 1802 he was to have sailed in com- mand of the squadron sent against the Barbary pirates, but a difference having occurred between him and the navy depart- ment in regard to the appointment of a captain to his flagship, his remonstrance against the official decision of the authorities was treated as a resignation, which it was apparently not meant to be, and he was not employed any further. He died at Philadelphia on the 5th of May 1822. TRYON, DWIGHT WILLIAM (1849- ), American artist, was born at Hartford, Connecticut, on the I3th of August 1849. At the age of twenty-five he left his position as a clerk in a Hart- ford publishing house tc devote himself entirely to art, and two years afterwards went to Paris, where he became a pupil of the ficole des Beaux Arts, under J. de la Chevreuse, Charles Daubigny and A. Guillemet. A skilful landscape painter, New England provided his best subjects. He first exhibited at the Salon in 1 88 1, and in the same year returned to the United States, settling first in New York City; in 1882-1886 he was director of the Hartford School of Art, and in 1886 became professor of art at Smith College. He became a member of the Society of American Artists (1882), a National Academician (1891), and a member of the American Water Color Society. He won numerous medals and prizes at important exhibitions, among his pictures being " Daybreak," " Moonlight " and " Early Spring, New England." TRYON, SIR GEORGE (1832-1893), British admiral, a younger son of Thomas Tryon, of Bulwick Park, Northamptonshire, was born on the 4th of January 1832. He entered the navy in 1848, on board Lord Dundonald's flagship on the North Ameri- can station; was subsequently in the " Vengeance" with Lord Edward Russell in the Black Sea; was landed for service with the naval brigade; and was made a h'eutenant in November, but dated back to the 2ist of October 1854. From 1855 to 1858 he was in the " Royal Albert " flagship of Sir Edmund Lyons; and from 1858 to 1860 in the royal yacht, which gave him his promotion to commander on the 25th of October 1860. From 1861 to 1864 he was commander of the " Warrior," the first British sea-going ironclad; from 1864 to 1866 he commanded the " Surprise" gun- vessel in the Mediterranean; and was promoted to be captain on the nth of April 1866. In 1867 he was sent out as director of transports and store ships for the Abyssinian expedition, a post which involved a great deal of hard work in a sweltering and unhealthy climate. He discharged his duties exceedingly well, but his health broke down, and he returned to England a helpless invalid. From 1871 to 1873 he was private secretary to Mr Goschen, then first lord of the admiralty; and from 1874 to 1877 commanded the " Raleigh " in India with the Prince of Wales, and later in the Mediterranean. In the years 1878-1881 he had command of the " Monarch," one of the Mediterranean fleet under Sir Geoffrey Hornby and Sir Beauchamp Seymour, afterwards Lord Alcester. He was subsequently for two years secretary of the admiralty; and for three years more, on his promotion in April 1884 to the rank of rear-admiral, commander- in-chief on the Australian station. On his return in June 1887 34° TRYON, T.— TRYPANOSOMES he was made K.C.B.; afterwards he was for three years super- intendent of reserves, in which capacity it fell to him to com- mand one of the opposing fleets during the summer manoeuvres, when he showed marked ability and originality of ideas. In 1889 he was promoted to be vice-admiral; and in August 1891 was appointed to command the Mediterranean fleet, which under him — following the example of his old chief, Sir Geoffrey Hornby — became very distinctly an evolutionary and, in that sense, experimental squadron. Some of his methods were afterwards said to be dangerous; but those which were most severely criticized do not appear to have had anything to do with the lamentable accident which ended Tryon's career. On the 22nd of June 1893, the fleet being then off Tripoli on the coast of Syria, in two columns, Tryon made the signal to invert the course, the ships turning inwards in succession. By a fatal error, the psychological cause of which has never been explained, he ignored the patent fact that the two columns were so near each other that the manoeuvre, as ordered, must entail the most serious risk, if not certainty, of collision. And, in fact, the two leading ships did come into collision, with the result that the " Victoria," Tryon's flagship, was cut open and sank in a few minutes. Tryon and 358 officers and men were drowned. See the Life, by Rear-Admiral C. C. Penrose-FitzGerald. TRYON, THOMAS (1634-1703), English humanitarian, was born at Bilbury near Cirencester on the 6th of September 1634. He had but little schooling, spending his youth first in spinning and carding and then as a shepherd. In 1652 he went to London, apprenticed himself to a hatter, and accepted his master's Anabaptist principles until he read the works of Jacob Behmen. He now lived a very ascetic life, though he married and became a prosperous merchant. In 1682 he began to publish his views in support of vegetarianism and abstinence from alcohol and tobacco. He detested war, and in this and his mysticism resembled the early Quakers. He died on the 2ist of August 1703. His best known book, The Way to Health (1691), which much impressed Benjamin Franklin, was a second edition of Health's Grand Preservative; or, The Women's Best Doctor (London, 1682). He wrote on many other subjects, e.g. the education of children, the treatment of negro slaves, the way to save wealth, and dreams and visions. Some scanty autobiographical memoirs were pub- lished in 1705. TRYON, WILLIAM (1720-1788), American colonial governor, was born at Norbury Park, Surrey, England, in 1729. In 1757, when he was a captain of the First Foot Guards, he married a London heiress with a dower of £30,000. In 1764 he was appointed lieutenant-governor of North Carolina, upon Arthur Dobbs's death in 1 765 became governor pro tern., and in December of the same year received his commission as governor. Like many other pre-Revolutionary officials in America, he has generally been pictured by American writers as a tyrant. In reality, however, he seems to have been tactful and considerate, an efficient administrator, who in particular greatly improved the colonial postal service, and to have become unpopular chiefly because, through his rigid adherence to duty, he obeyed the instructions of his superiors and rigorously enforced the measures of the British government. By refusing to allow meetings of the Assembly from the i8th of May 1765 to the 3rd of November 1766, he prevented North Carolina from sending representatives to the Stamp Act Congress in 1765. To lighten the stamp tax he offered to pay the duty on all stamped paper on which he was entitled to fees. With the support of the law-abiding element he suppressed the Regulator uprising in 1768-71, caused partly by the taxation imposed to defray the cost of the governor's fine mansion at New Bern (which Tryon had made the provincial capital), and executed seven or eight of the ringleaders, pardoning six others. From 1771 nominally until the 22nd of March 1780 he was governor of New York. While he was on a visit to England the War of Independence broke put, and on the igth of October 1775, several months after his return, he was compelled to seek refuge on the sloop of war " Halifax " in New York Harbour, but was restored to power when the British took possession of New York City in September 1776, though his actual authority did not extend beyond the British lines. In 1777, with the rank of major- general, he became commander of a corps of Loyalists, and in 1779 invaded Connecticut and. burned Danbury, Fairfield and Norwalk. In 1780 he returned to England, and in 1782 was promoted to be lieutenant-general. He died in London on the 27th of January 1788. See Marshal D. Haywood, Governor William Tryon and his Administration in the Province of North Carolina (Raleigh, North Carolina, 1903). TRYPANOSOMES, or HAEMOFLAGELLATES, minute Pro- tozoan parasites, characterized by the possession of one or two flagella and an undulating membrane, and specially adapted for life in the blood of a vertebrate.1 Of late years considerable progress has taken place in our knowledge of these organisms, research upon them having been stimulated by the realization of their extreme importance in medical parasitology. Not only has the number of known forms been greatly multiplied, but the study of the biology and life-history of the parasites has been attended in some cases with remarkable and unexpected results. Historical. — The first observation of a trypanosome is usually ascribed to Valentin (55), who in 1841 announced his discovery of certain amoeboid parasites in the blood of a trout. In the two or three years following several other observers recorded the occur- rence of similar haematozoa in various fishes. The generic name of Trypanosoma was conferred by Gruby in 1843 upon the well- known parasite of frogs. E. Ray Lankester (18) subsequently described this same form (under the name of Undulina ranarum) A B (From Lankester.) FIG. i.2 — Undulina ranarum, Lankester, 1871. In B the nucleus is shown. and was the first to indicate the presence of a nucleus in the cell-body. To Mitrophanow (1883-1884) and Danilewsky (1885-1889) we owe the first serious attempts to study the com- parative anatomy of these haematozoa. Trypanosomes were first met with in cases of disease by Griffith Evans, who in 1880 found them in the blood of horses suffering from surra in India. In 1894 (Sir) David Bruce discovered the celebrated South African parasite (T. brucei) in cattle and horses laid low with nagana or the tsetse-fly disease; and this worker subsequently demonstrated, in a brilliant manner, the essential part played by the tsetse-fly in transmitting the parasites. The credit for first recognizing a trypanosome in human blood, and describing it as such, must undoubtedly be assigned to G. Nepveu ( 1 898) . Trypanosomes were next seen in human blood 1 Trypanophis, although lacking (so far as is known) a haemal habitat, is included here, since it is undoubtedly closely related to Trypanoplasma . 2 The illustrations in this article are from H. M. Woodcock's " Trypanosomes," in the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. TRYPANOSOMES Occurrence, in Senegambia in IQOI, in a European suffering from intermittent fever. Forde discovered the parasites, but was uncertain of their nature; he shewed them to E. Button, who (n) gave this form the name of Trypanosoma gambiense. A year later A. Castellani (6) found the organisms (most probably the same species) in the cerebro-spinal fluid of patients suffering from sleeping-sickness in Uganda; and it has since been conclusively proved by Sir David Bruce and D. Nabarro (4) that they are the true cause of that dreadful malady. More important, from the standpoint of protozoology, than these interesting medical discoveries have been the investi- gations by A. Laveran and F. Mesnil (20-24), L. Leger (30-35), S. Prowazek (47), F. Schaudinn (50) and others, upon numerous tolerated (i.e. non-pathogenic) forms; these researches supply, indeed, practically all the material facts on which to base an account of the Haemoflagellates at the present day. Trypanosomes are harboured by members of all the chief classes of vertebrates with the exception of cyclostomes. By far the greater number of hosts are furnished by ' fishes, birds and mammals. Among batrachians the parasites have been found, up till now, only in frogs; and among reptiles their occurrence has only been observed in one or two solitary instances (T. damoniae, fig. 3 J). Data with regard to the frequency with which individual species occur, in any kind of host, are as yet somewhat scanty; in one or two cases the parasites are fairly common, T. leurisi, for example, being met with in a considerable percentage of sewer-rats throughout the world. In considering the occurrence of Trypanosomes in mammals, careful distinction must be drawn between natural or true hosts, which are tolerant of the parasites, and casual ones, which are unaccustomed and unadapted to them. A Trypano- some usually produces markedly harmful effects upon gaining an entry into animals which have never been, by their dis- tribution, liable to its invasion previously. Such a state of affairs is produced by the march of civilization into the " hinter- lands " of the various colonies, when man, together with the numerous domesticated animals which accompany him, is brought into proximity to big game, &c., and, what is equally important, into the zone of the particular blood-sucking insects which prey upon the same. Very many of the common domestic mammals can be suc- cessfully infected (either thus accidentally or else on purpose) with different " pathogenic " Trypanosomes, to which they succumb more or less readily, but they cannot be regarded as the natural hosts of those Trypanosomes. In dealing with disease-causing forms, the more narrowly the original source of the parasite concerned is defined, the closer do we get to the true vertebrate host or hosts. In the case of the nagana- parasite, various Antilopidae (e.g. the gnu, bushbuck and koodoo) can certainly lay a strong claim to the honour. The capybara, again, is most probably the native host of T. equinum of mal de caderas of horses in South America. Simi- larly with regard to the many other pathogenic Trypanosomes now known, there is undoubtedly, in each case, some indi- genous wild animal tolerant of that particular form, which serves as a " latent source of supply " to strange mammals. The transmission of the parasites from one vertebrate in- dividual to another is effected, in the great majority of cases,1 Trans- by a blood-sucking invertebrate, and by this means miss/on; alone. The " carrier " of a Trypanosome of warm- Aiteraatioo blooded vertebrates is, in all instances so far de- sts' scribed, an insect, generally a member of the Dip- tera; in the case of parasites of cold-blooded vertebrates the same role is usually played by an ichthyobdellid leech (piscine forms), but possibly, now and again, by an Ixodes (amphibian or reptilian forms). Until lately it remained quite uncertain, however, whether the invertebrate merely conveys the Trypanosomes or whether 1 Trypanosoma equiperdum, the cause of dourine in horses and asses, is apparently only conveyed by the act of coitus. This direct mode of transmission is most likely a secondary acquirement. it is a true alternate host, one i.e. in which definite stages of the parasite's life-cycle are undergone. Schaudinn (50), who investigated certain avian Trypanosomes, considered the latter view to be correct, and believed that the carrier — in this in- stance a gnat — is indeed the definitive host, i.e. the one in which sexual conjugation occurs. Many other workers have since studied the subject and, so far as the parasites of fishes are concerned, there can be little doubt, thanks to the researches of E. Brumpt (50), L. Leger (32, 33) and others, that leeches are true alternate hosts for these forms, in which certain phases of the life-cycle are normally undergone. We cannot write quite so confidently with regard to the relation of the various pathogenic Trypanosomes to Tsetse- flies (Glossinae). In the first place experiment has shown that .biting-flies, other in all probability than the true, natural hosts, may at times transmit the parasites — as it were — accidentally, if, after feeding on an infected animal, they are allowed to bite a fresh one within a limited time. One very helpful factor in determining which is the principal carrier of any form is the coincidence of the zone of a particular insect with that of any disease. By this means it has been ascertained with practical certainty that, among the family of Tsetse- flies (Glossinae) for instance, at least four species are the natural carriers of different Trypanosomes. Of these perhaps the best-known is G. palpalis, of Equatorial Africa, whose bite transmits the human parasite (T. gambiense). Nevertheless, the fact, commented upon by several observers, that even here an infected fly is only infectious for a comparatively short period suggests that this species of fly, at any rate, is not the true alternate host in which the life-cycle of that particular Trypanosome is completed. However, indications furnished by Koch (i6a) point in this connexion to G.ftisca. Lastly, before leaving this interesting and important subject, F. Stuhlmann's work (540) on developmental phases of T. brucii, the nagana parasite in G. fusca and G. tachinoides, does render it probable that the pathogenic forms also have true invertebrate hosts. Schaudinn had fully described the relations of certain avian Trypanosomes to their invertebrate host, Culex pipiens (females). The distribution of the parasites in the gnat is closely Habitat: connected with the process of digestion. The Try- Effects on panosomes ultimately overrun practically all parts Hostl of the body, sometimes not even the ova escaping. Thus true hereditary infection of a succeeding generation of gnats may be brought about. The life of the parasites while in the insect is characterized by an alternation of active periods, during which multiplication goes on, with resting-periods, when the Trypanosomes become attached to the epithelial cells of the host. According to S. Prowazek (47), the behaviour of T. lewisi in a louse (Haemalopinus) is, in its main features, similar. On gaining an entry into the blood of a vertebrate the organisms pass rapidly into the general circulation, and are thus carried all over. Considering them first in a tolerant host, the trend of observation is to show that they are never abundant, but on the contrary usually somewhat scarce. One reason for this scarcity is to be sought in connexion with the fact that multiplicative stages are very rarely met with, at any rate in the general circulation. The parasites are frequently more numerous in the spleen, bone-marrow, kidneys, &c., than else- where, and it has been found that multiplication goes on rather more actively in the capillaries of these organs. The Trypanosomes, in the active phase, are of course always free in the blood plasma (interglobular). In the majority of cases it is very uncertain whether they actually come into relation with the blood corpuscles or not. Schaudinn has stated, however, that Trypanomorpha becomes, in certain phases, attached to a red blood-corpuscle (ectoglobular), and, in others, penetrates inside one and eventually destroys it (endoglobular) ; while his other avian parasite, Trypanosoma ziemanni, appar- ently draws up into itself the white corpuscle (leucocyte) to which it becomes attached. In addition, there are two or three 342 TRYPANOSOMES obervations to hand which shew that piscine, amphibian and mammalian Trypanosomes may also become attached. Prob- ably most forms possess a resting, attached phase at some period or other, in the invertebrate, if not in the vertebrate host. Considering now the Trypanosomes in an unaccustomed, mammalian host, they may either remain infrequent or rare (sometimes, indeed, being unnoticed until shortly before death), or, on the other hand, they may soon become numerous and go on increasing (fig. 2). In the latter case the disease is acute and rapidly fatal; in the former ^ k more chronic and lasts much longer, often several months. The main features of trypano- somosis, or illness caused by a I Trypanosome, show a general agreement, whichever variety is considered; one symptom may be, of course, more marked than another in any particular case. Death is due either to weakness and emaciation (in chronic cases), (After Dofleb.) or to biocking of the cerebral feJaum 2 W^rinTinThe <*- b>; ^ parasites (where blood of a rat eight days after these are abundant), or to dis- inoculation. organization of the nervous a, Parasites. system (paraplegic and sleeping- 6, Blood-corpuscles. sickness cases). In post-mortem examination, the most obvious pathological lesion is hypertrophy of the spleen, which may be very pro- nounced; the lymphatic glands in the neck, inguinal region, &c., are also often greatly swollen. These are undoubtedly the organs which react most strongly to the parasites, and their enlarged condition is to a great extent due to their enhanced activity in elaborating blood-corpuscles and leucocytes to cope with the enemy. Ingestion and dissolution of the Trypano- somes by phagocytes has frequently been observed; and it is probable also that the haematopoietic organs secrete some substance which exerts a harmful action on the parasites, and causes them to undergo involution and assume weird-looking " amoeboid " and " plasmodial " forms. A peculiar feature in the behaviour of the parasites, which is most probably caused by unfavourable biological conditions Aggiomera- in the host, is that known as agglomeration. The ttoa, process is readily brought about artificially by the addition of sera or chemical solutions to blood containing the parasites. Agglomeration consists in the grouping or union together of several Trypanosomes around a common centre; this leads to the formation of rosette-like clusters, or even of large masses composed of several rosettes. The end by which the parasites join is typically, in the case of Trypanosoma, the non-flagellate (anterior) end. If a favourable change in the surrounding medium sets in, the Trypanosomes are able to undergo the reverse process, namely disagglomeration; the parasites liberate themselves and the rosette is dissolved. Trypanosomes vary greatly with regard to size; even in one and the same species this variation is often noticeable, especially under Morphology, different conditions of life. The common Trypanosoma rotatoriumol frogs (fig. 4, A and B) is, taking it all in all, one of the largest forms so far described. Its length (inclusive of the flagellum) varies from 40-60 ju, while its greatest width (including the undulating-membrane) is from 8-30 it; in the very wide individuals breadth is gained more or less at the expense of length. Conversely, T. gambiense, the human parasite (fig. 3 C), is one of the smallest forms known, its average size being about 21-23 M by iJ-2 M. There is equally great diversity in respect of form. Typically, the body is elongated and spindle-shaped ; it is usually more or less curved or falciform (fig. 3, A-D), and tends to be slightly compressed laterally. It may be, however, anything from extremely slender or vermiform (fig. 3, H) to squat and stumpy (fig. 3, G, 4, A). Moreover, apart from the fact that a full-grown adult, ready to divide, is in many cases much plumper than a young adult (cf. T. lewisi, fig. 6, A and B), there can be no doubt that considerable polymorphism also sometimes occurs (e.g. T. rotatorium). In many cases, at any rate, this indicates a difference in sexuality; and it is particularly necessary to bear this factor in mind when considering the avian Trypanosomes, where, perhaps, the extremes of form are to be met with. That one and the same species may appear entirely different in different phases of the life-history is manifest on comparing, for instance, the chief " forms " of Trypanosoma FIG. 3. — Representative Mammalian, Avian and Reptilian Trypano- somes, to illustrate the chief morphological characters. A, Trypanosoma lewisi, after Bradf . and Plimmer. B, T. brucei, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X2OOO.) C, T. gambiense (blood, T-fever), after Bruce and Nabarro. D, T. equinum, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X2ooo.) E, Trypanomorpha (Trypanosoma) noctuae, after Schaud. F, Trypanosoma avium, after Lav. and Mesnil. G, Hanna's Trypanosome from Indian pigeons. H, T. ziemanni, after Schaud. J, T. damonia, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X2ooo.) c.g, Chromatoid grains; v, vacuole; l.s, fold or striation. ziemanni described by Schaudinn. The asexual or indifferent type (fig. 3, H) is extremely thread-like, greatly resembling, in fact, a Spirochaete; on the other hand, both male and female individuals have the form of a very wide spindle. In Trypanoplasma and Trypanophis there are two flagella, inserted into the body very close to the anterior end (fig. 4, F and G). One flagellum is entirely free and directed forwards; the other at once turns backwards and is attached to the convex or dorsal side of the body for the greater part of its length. In all other Trypano- somes there is only one flagellum, which is invariably attached to the body in the same manner as the posterior one of biflagellate forms. This flagellum, however, is most probably not to be con- sidered homologous in all cases. (See Woodcock, loc. cit.) In Trypanomorpha (fig. 3, E), which is to be derived from a Her- petomonadine type, the single, anterior flagellum of the ancestral parasite has been drawn backwards along one side of the body and now originates in the posterior half. Hence in this genus the end bearing the free part of the flagellum is the anterior one. The genus Trypanosoma, in which are included at present the great majority of Trypanosomes, is rather to be regarded as derived from a Heteromastigine ancestor, such as Trypanoplasma, by the loss of the anterior flagellum. Hence in this type the single flagellum represents the posteriorly-directed one of Trypanoplasma, and the end at which it becomes free is the hinder end. The point of origin of the flagellum in Trypanosoma is usually near the anterior end, but may vary considerably (cf. figs.) ; and its free portion may be very short or lacking. Along the dorsal side runs the characteristic fin-like expansion of the body, the undulating-membrane, which is the organella principally concerned in locomotion. This always begins at the place where the attached flagellum emerges from the body; and its tree edge is really constituted by the latter, which forms a flagellar border. The membrane is usually more or less sinuous in outline, and is sometimes thrown into broad folds (fig. 3, F and J). Distally it thins away concurrently with the body. TRYPANOSOMES 343 The body appears to be in all cases naked. A differentiation of the peripheral cytoplasm in the form of an ectoplasmic layer has been described in one or two instances, and it seems probable that in most Trypanosomes there is such a Structure. Jayeri although only poorly developed, as a rule, around the body generally. On the other hand, the undulating-membrane is largely if not entirely an ectoplasmic development. This is usually much clearer and more hyaline than the general cytoplasm. In many forms deep-staining grains or granules, of a chromatoid nature and of varvmg size, are to be seen in the cytoplasm. In only is there an intimate correspondence in this respect between the two principal organellae, but the flagellar apparatus itself is really of nuclear origin and remains closely connected with the kinetonucleus (cf. fig. 7). In most cases, however, little beyond the position and general appearance of the nuclei has been so far made known. The trophonucleus is usually situated somewhere about the middle of the -body. The kinetonucleus is typically near the anterior end; but in a few instances it lies more centrally (e.g. T. inopinatum, T. rotatorium, fig. 4, A-C) ; in Trypanomorpha it is in the posterior half of the body (fig. 3, E). In certain forms the occurrence of prominent myo- nemes or muscle-nbrillae has been described, and, more- over, a nuclear origin assigned to them also. In Try- panomorpha they are confined to the undulating-membrane (fig. 3i E), but in other cases — Trypanosoma ziemanni, T. lewisi, T. brucei, and T. soleae — they are arranged laterally, half running down each side of the body (fig. 4, J). In Trypanoplasma borreli there is only a single myoneme on either side. All Trypanosomes are capable of binary longitudinal fission, and this appears to be the chief method of multi- plication. The division of the nuclear appa- ratus is the first to take place (fig. 5, A). The JHaI"P"ca- kinetonucleus more often .leads the way, but tloa' sometimes either kinetonucleus or trophonucleus may do so indifferently. The duplication of the flagellum begins at its proximal end, that which is in relation with the kinetonucleus. Until recently the process has been con- sidered as an actual longitudinal splitting of the flagellum, following upon the separation of the two daughter-kineto- nuclei. Both Schaudinn (in the case of Trypanomorpha) and Prowazek (in the case of Trypanosoma lewisi and T. brucei), have found, however, that the new flagellum is developed quite independently and laid down alongside the old one. It is at present somewhat uncertain, therefore, in what cases actual splitting occurs. The same applies equally to the formation of the undulating-membrane. If the flagellar border splits, the membrane doubtless divides also; but where the flagellum is a new formation the membrane will be too. The division of the cytoplasm in most forms is equal or sub-equal, and two approximately equal daughter-Trypanosomes result (fig. 5, C). In some instances (e.g. T. equinum, T. equiperdum) the longitudinal fission is apparently multiple, three or even four descen- dants being produced simultaneously. FIG. 4. — Representative Amphibian and Piscine Trypanosomes. A,B, Trypanosoma rotatorium, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X 2000.) C, T. inopinatum, after Serg. (X 1000.) D, T. karyozeukton, after Dutt. and Todd. (X 1000.) E, T. nelspruitense, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X 2000.) F,G, Trypanoplasma borreli (living and stained), after Leger. H, T. cyprini, after Plehn. J, Trypanosoma soleae, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X 2000.) K, T. granulosum, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X 2000.) L, T. remaki, var. magna, after Lav. and Mesnil. (X 2000.) h, Clear zone or halo around kineto- nucleus. ch, Chain of chromatic rodlets run- ning from trophonucleus to kinetonucleus. a.fl. Anterior flagellum; p.fl, Posterior flagellum ; l.s. Longitudinal striations (myo nemes) ; v, Cytoplasmic vacuole. niost cases these granules are, if not confined to, chiefly distributed in the posterior (flagellate) half of the body (figs. 3, B, D and E, 4, E and G). In certain Trypanosomes a well-defined, usually oval vacuole is often, though not constantly, to be observed, situated at a varying distance from the anterior end (figs. 3 and C, G, 4, F). There is no reason to doubt that this vacuole is a normal cell-constituent, for it has been described in parasites in quite normal surroundings and conditions. A Trypanosome always possesses two distinct nuclear bodies, one the trophonucleus, regulating the trophic life of the cell, the other, the kinetonucleus, directing its locomotor activities. The recent investigations of Schaudinn and Prowazek (n. c) have shown that, in some forms at any rate, the finer structure and detailed development of the nuclear apparatus is extremely complex. Not (After Lav. and Mesnil.) FIG. 5. — Stages in Binary Longitudinal Fission of Trypanosoma brucei. T. lewisi differs from most Trypanosomes in that the cytoplasm divides in a very unequal manner (fig. 6). The process is more comparable to budding, since the larger or parent-individual may produce, successively, more than one " daughter "; moreover, the daughter-individuals may subdivide before separating, the whole family remain- ing attached by the non-nagellate (anterior) end (fig. 6, F). In this type of division it may be noted that the kinetonucleus comes to lie alongside the trophonucleus, or even passes to the other side of it (i.e. nearer the flagellar end). Easily derivable from this method is the other one characteristic of T. lewisi, viz. seg- mentation. The chief difference is that in the latter no parent- individual is distinguishable, a rosette of many equal daughter- parasites being formed. The small Trypanosomes resulting from either of these modes of division differ from typical adults by their stumpy, pyriform shape, the position of the kinetonucleus near the flagellar end of the body, and the absence, during the first part of their youth, of an undulating-membrane. At this period they have, in fact, what may be termed a " pseudo-Herpetomonadine " aspect. These young individuals can themselves multiply by equal binary fission, giving 344 TRYPANOSOMES rise to little fusiform parasites; with growth, these gradually assume the adult appearance. Comprehensive researches (1905, seq.) have made it evident that Trypanosomes have a much more varied and complex develop- D I merit and life-history than was previously supposed. meat a a This has now been found to be the case in widely- ... . differing parasites, occurring in. widely-different hosts. ' The following examples have been investigated: Trypanosoma lewisi (also, but much less completely, T. brucei),1 among mammalian forms, described by Prowazek (47) ; T. ziemanni and Trypanomorpha noctuae, among ayian parasites, described by Schaudinn (50) ; Trypanosoma inopinatum, among batrachian forms, described by A. Billet (la and 2), T. barbatulae and Trypano- plasmo. varium, described by L<5ger (32 and 33), and T. borreli, by (A-E, after Lav. and Mesnil; F, alter Wasiel and Senn.) FIG. 6. — Unequal Division and " Budding " process in T. lewisi. m, Parent-individual ; d, Daughter-individual ; d', Daughter- individual dividing. (X 2000.) G. Keysselitz (16), from fishes; also several other piscine Trypano- somes have their development phases in leeches worked on by Brumpt (50). In addition, a Trypanosome whose vertebrate host is yet unknown (T. grayi) has been studied in detail by Minchin (410). It is impracticable here to consider fully all the various develop- mental phases and modifications of the life-cycle described as occur- ring in the above parasites. In view, however, of the great interest excited by Schaudinn's work on avian parasites, as well as on account of the far-reaching importance of his conclusions to the study of the Haematozoa, a brief summary of his celebrated research is necessary. According to Schaudinn's account, he was dealing with two separate Trypanosome parasites of the Little Owl (Athene noctua), viz. Trypanomorpha (Trypanosoma) noctuae and Trypanosoma (Spirochaete) ziemanni. The latter organism, in certain phases, very closely resembles a Spirochaete. In the blood of the owl resting, intracellular phases of both parasites alternate with active trypaniform ones; and, when in the former condition, Schaudinn considers that the parasites are identical with what have been formerly regarded as distinct Haemosporidia, Halteridium and a Leucocytozoon respectively. In other words, he considers that these two Haemosporidian forms are really only phases in the life-history of particular Trypanosomes. To this life-cycle belongs the formation of sexual individuals and their conjugation on arrival m the gnat (Culex) ; the process is described as agreeing in the main, in both cases, with what has already been made known by Mac- Callum for another species of Halteridium. The male gametes, it may be noted, are said to possess the essential characters of a Trypanosome. The motile copula or ookinete formed in the gnat gives 1 T. brucei has also been studied in a Tsetse-fly (G. fusca) by Stuhlmann (540). rise to one of three types of Trypanosome individual: indifferent, male or female. The development of an indifferent ookinete into an indifferent Trypanosome is shown in fig. 7, from which it will be seen that the cytological details are very complex. The indifferent parasites exhibit an alternation of resting, attached phases with active periods, during which they multiply actively and become very abundant in the insect. The male forms, which are very small and the homologues of the microgametes developed in the blood, appear to die off soon. The female Trypanosomes, on the other hand, grow to a large size, laying up a store of reserve nutri- ment. They are very sluggish and do not divide. They are the most resistant to unfavourable conditions of environment, and are able, by a process of parthenogenesis, to give rise to ordinary, indifferent forms again, which can repopulate the gnat. So far as regards the remarkable connexion between Trypanosomes and Haemosporidia indicated by Schaudinn, this has met with a great deal of criticism on the part of Novy and McNeal among others, and it must be admitted that up to 1909 no definite corrobora- tion can be said to have been brought forward. Again, the spiro- chaetiform Trypanosoma (T. ziemanni) described may have been really a true Spirochaete, i.e. a Bacterium. In short, it is quite possible Schaudinn did not sufficiently distinguish between the life-cycles of four distinct parasites of the Little Owl : a Trypano- some, a Spirochaete, a Halteridium and a Leucocytozoon; though, on the other hand, this is by no means proved. However this may be, the research of subsequent workers — e.g. Brumpt (5a), Leger (32, 33), Keysselitz (16), Prowazek (47), Minchin (4ib) and others — has undoubtedly shown that much of Schaudinn's scheme of the life-history of a Trypanosome is well-founded. It is certain, for instance, that the three types of form which he discovered, viz. indifferent, male or female, can be recognized in many cases, often in the vertebrate, but always more sharply differentiated in the invertebrate. Moreover, it is very probable that conjugation occurs soon after the arrival of the parasites in their specific inverte- brate host; and this act may perhaps give rise to an aflagellar copula, which is gregariniform and comparable to an ookinete. Different investigators, it may be noted, have described various H (After Schaudinn.) FIG. 7. — Development of an Ookinete (of Halteridium) into an indifferent Trypanosome (Trypanomorpha). A-D shows the formation of the two nuclear elements (tropho- nucleus and kinetonucleus) from the definitive nucleus (synkaryon) of the ookinete. E-H shows the formation of the myonemes and the flagellar border (flagellum) of the undulating membrane, by means of a greatly elongated nuclear-spindle. t.c, Trophonuclearcentrosome. m, Myonemes. f.b, Flagellar border of undu- lating-membrane (3rd axial spindle). c.3, Its proximal centrosome t.chr, k.chr, c, a.s, chromo- t, k, k.c, Trophonuclcar some. Kinetonuclear do. Centrosomic granule. First axial spindle. a.s3, Second and third do. Trophonucleus. Kinetonucleus. Kinetonuclear centrosome. (its distal one vanishing as such). TRYPANOSOMES 345 complicated nuclear changes and divisions undergone by Trypano- somes; these are considered, in many cases, to represent some kind of parthenogenesis. A very interesting modification of the life-cycle of a Trypanosome which must be mentioned has been made known by Minchin, in his account of T. grayi, in a tsetse-fly (G. palpalis). Unfortunately the vertebrate host of this form is not yet known. Certain indi- viduals of a particular character form definite rounded cysts in the rectum of the fly; in this condition, the only sign of Trypanosome structure is afforded by the two nuclei, which remain separate. These cysts are doubtless for dispersal by way of the anus, and the vertebrate host is in all likelihood infected by the mouth and ali- mentary canal. This reveals a quite novel mode by which infection with a Trypanosome may be brought about; so far, however, T. grayi remains the only known example. As remarked in the section on morphology, the Trypanosomes Classifies- as a whole are preferably regarded as including tioa. two entirely distinct groups, Monadina and Hetero- mastigia. SUB-ORDER MONADINA Family: Trypanomorphidae, Woodcock. — Haemoflagellates de- rived from a uniflagellate, Herpetompnadine form, in which the point of insertion of the single (anterior) flagellum into the body has travelled backwards from the anterior end for a greater or less distance, the flagellum itself having become, concurrently, attached to the body for a portion of its length by means of an undulating membrane. Genus Trypanomorpha, Woodcock, 1906. — With the characters of the family. The only species yet known is the type species, T. noctuae (Celli and San Felice). [Syn. Trypanosoma n. (C. & S.F.), SchaMd.=Halteridium n. (C. & S.F.)]. See figs. 3, E, 7. Vertebrate host, Athene noctua, Little Owl; invertebrate host, Culex pipiens. There are, in addition, other forms, which are probably to be placed in this family, but which are not yet sufficiently well known for their systematic position to be settled. It is, for instance, quite likely that certain Herpetomonadine parasites described by L6ger (29, 34) from various blood-sucking insects are really only stages in the life of a Haemoflagellate. Some of these are placed by Leger in a newly discovered genus, Crithidia. SUB-ORDER HETEROMASTIGINA Family: Trypanosomatidae, Doflein. — Flagellates, in the great majority of instances haemal parasites, derived from a biflagellate, Bodo-Vke. type, in which the posteriorly-directed (trailing) flagellum is always present and attached to the body by an undulating membrane, of which it constitutes the thickened edge. The other, the anterior flagellum, may or may not persist. Genus Trypanoplasma, Lav. and Mesnil, 1902. — The anterior flagellum is present. Both flagella are inserted close together, near the anterior end of the body. Two sub-groups may be distin- guished. In one, exemplified by T. borreli (fig. 4, F and G) from the rudd and minnow, the anterior flagellum is well-developed, and the free parts of both are of about equal length. In the other, exemplified by T. cyprini (fig. 4, H) from carp, the anterior flagellum is much shorter than the free part of the posterior one, and evidently tending to disappear. Known invertebrate hosts for different species are Hemiclepsis and Piscicola, leeches. Genus Trypanophis, Keysselitz, 1904. — The body resembles that of Trypanoplasma in general appearance, but the locpmotor appa- ratusdoes not appear to be so well-developed, especially in T. grobbeni. The anterior flagellum is longer than the free part of the posterior one. The species included are not, so far as is known, haemal parasites. T. grobbeni occurs in the coelenteric cavity of various Siphonophora. An interesting form, " Trypanoplasma " intestinalis, which re- sembles both the above genera, occurs in the alimentary canal of Box hoops. Probably this is not a haemal parasite, and lacks an alternate host. Genus Trypanosoma, Gruby, 1843. — (Principal synonyms: Un- dulina. Lank., 1871; Herpetomonas, Kent, 1880, only in part; Paramoecioides, Grassi, 1881; Haematomonas, Mitrpphan, 1883.) There is no anterior flagellum. The point of insertion of the at- tached (posterior) flagellum into the body, and, consequently, the commencement of the undulating membrane may be almost any- where in the anterior half of the body, but is usually near the extremity. Among the more important and better-known forms are the following : — • Parasitic in mammals: T. lewisi (Kent), the well-known natural Trypanosome of rats (figs. 3, A, 6, A) ; T. brucii, Plim. and Bradf., the cause of nagana among cattle, horses, &c., in South Africa (fig. 3, B) ; T. evansi, Steel, the cause of surra to horses in Indp- Burmah; T. equiperdum, Dofl., the cause of dpurine in horses in Algeria and other regions of the Mediterranean littoral ; T. equinum, Voges, causing mal de caderas or " hip-paraplegia " in South America (fig. 3, D) ; T. theileri, Lav., a very large form, the cause of falziektfi or bile-sickness to cattle in the Transvaal; and T. gam- tense, Dutton (syn. T, ugandense, Castellani, T. castellanii, Kruse), the cause of human trypanosomosis in central Africa, which becomes sleeping-sickness when the organisms penetrate into the cerebro-spinal fluid (fig. 3, C). Parasitic in birds: T. avium (Danil., Lav. emend.), probably the form to which Danilewsky's original investigations related, para- sitic in owls and (according to Novy and McNeal) also in other birds (fig. 3, F) ; T. johnstoni, Dutt. and Todd, a very spirochaetiform type, from little birds (Estrelda) in Senegambia; and Hanna's peculiar wide species from Indian birds, with a remarkably tapering anterior end (fig. 3, G). Lastly, there is T. ziemanni, Lav., [syn. Spirochaete z. (Lav.), Schaud, " Haemamoeba " z., Lav., the " Leuco- cytozpon " of Danil.], from various owls, and Culex pipiens, whose life-history has been described by Schaudinn (fig. 3, H). (As above mentioned, this form may not be a true Trypanosome.) Only one reptilian form is well known, T. damoniae, Lav. and Mesn., from a tortoise, Damonia reevesii (fig. 3, J). Parasitic in batrachia: T. rotalorium, Mayer (syn. Amoeba r., Mayer, July 1843, T. sanguinis, Gruby, November 1843, Undulina ranarum, Lank., 1871), the best-known parasite of frogs, which exhibits remarkable polymorphism (fig. 4, A and B) ; T. mesa and T. karyo- zeukton, Dutt. and Tpdd, even larger than T. r. (fig. 4, D), with peculiar cytological differentiation, may be only sub-species; T. inopinatum, Sergent, and T. nelspruitense, Lav., also from frogs (fig. 4, C). Parasitic in fishes: T. remaki, Lav. and Mesnil, from pike, a relatively small form (fig. 4, L); T. barbatulae, L6ger, from loach; T. granulosum, Lav. and Mesnil, a very long vermiform parasite, from eels (fig. 4, K) ; T. soleae, Lav. and Mesnil, from soles, with a relatively small flagellum (fig. 4, J); and T. scyllii and T. rajae, from those Elasmobranchs, both very large forms, described by Lav. and Mesnil. Undoubtedly closely allied to the Haemoflagellates, although no actual trypaniform phase has yet been observed, are the important parasites usually known as the " Leish- Thg man-Donovan " bodies, without some consideration Leishmta- of which an account of the Haemoflagellates would Doaovaa- hardly be complete. These bodies are constantly found in certain tropical fevers (e.g. dum-dum fever, kala-azar) particularly prevalent throughout Indo-Burma, of which they are generally held to be the cause. They were discovered by W. Leishman in 1900, but before his first account of them (36) was published they were also seen quite inde- pendently by C. Donovan. Moreover, organisms very similar to these (morphologically, indeed, the two sorts appear scarcely distinguishable) are found in various sores or ulcers (e.g. Delhi boil, Oriental sore, " bouton d'Alep ") to which people in different parts of the East are liable. These were first described by J. H. Wright (58). The chief distinction between the parasites in the two cases is in their habitat. In the one case they are entirely restricted to the neighbourhood of the boil or ulcer, whereas in the other there is a general infection of the body, the organisms spreading to all parts and being met with in the spleen, liver, bone-marrow, &c., and (rarely) in the peripheral circulation. The parasites are either free or intracellular. In the latter case they invade cells of a leucocytic or phagocytic character as a rule; Leishman's form is particularly abundant in large macrophageal cells originating from the vascular endothelium of the spleen (fig. 8, I. M). The parasites themselves are very minute and usually ovoid or pyriform in shape (fig. 8, I. a), the latter being, perhaps, the most typical. The splenic type is somewhat smaller than Wright's parasite; the former, when pear-shaped, is from 33 to 4 M in length by ij to 2 fi in width, the latter being about 4 n by 3 ft (fig. 8, III.). The body is probably not limited by any distinct membrane. The cytoplasm is finely granular and fairly uniform in character. The most interesting point about the morphology is the fact that two chromatic bodies, of very unequal size, are almost invariably to be recognized. The larger nuclear body, which corresponds to the trophonucleus of a Trypanospme, is usually round or oval; the smaller one, representing a kinetonucleus, has the form either of a little rod or of a round grain, and is generally separate from the larger nucleus. The parasites multiply in two ways — (a) by binary fission, and (b) by multiple division or segmentation. The principal stages in the first method are well known (fig. 8, I. 6); they offer strong resemblance to the process in Piroplasma. Multiple division has not yet been so satisfactorily made out. It appears to con- form more or less to the radial or rosette type of multiplication, enlarged rounded parasites, with a varying number of nuclei (up to about eight) uniformly arranged near the periphery, having been often noticed (fig. 8, I. c and IV. b). The details of the process are somewhat differently described, however, by different observers. Laveran and Mesnil (27) gave the name Piroplasma donovani to TRYPANOSOMES Irishman's form,1 and there is no doubt that the parasites are closely allied to that type of organism. This does not, however, preclude in any way the supposition that they— equally with certain other Haemosporidia — represent, nevertheless, only a phase of a complete life-cycle; and this supposition has in fact been definitely proved to be true by the work of Rogers (48). Rogers cultivated the parasites obtained from cases of kala-azar in artificial media, and found that what were unmistakably flagellate FIG. 8. I. Piroplasma (Leishmania) donovani, Lav. and Mesnil. a, Typical pear-shaped or oval forms; b, various stages in longi- tudinal division; c, nuclear division preparatory to multiple fission; d, endoglobular forms, in red blood-corpuscles (P = pigment grains) ; e, bacillary form of the parasite in a corpuscle; M, large macrophageal cell with many parasites (after Donovan). II. Uninuclear leucocyte (L) containing several parasites (after Lav. and Mesnil). III. P. (Heleosoma) tropicum (Wright). a, Single individuals; 6, dividing forms (from Mesnil, mostly after Wright). IV. P. donovani in cultures of different ages. a, Ordinary forms of varying sizes; b c, stages in multiple division; d, binary fission; e, /, g, flagellate forms (after Rogers), stages developed in the cultures at different intervals (fig. 8, IV. e, j, g). These forms were elongated and spindle-like; and to one end of the body, near which the smaller nuclear element was situated, a well-developed flagellum was attached. Since then many other workers have obtained similar stages [see Leishman and Statham (38), Christophers (7)]; but however slender and Trypanosome- like the flagelliform parasites may appear, up till now no indica- tions of an undulating membrane have been seen, and the kineto- nuclear element is never far from the insertion of the flagellum. Nevertheless, the general appearance and structure of these motile forms so greatly resemble that of a Herpetomonad, or of the " pseudo-Herpetomonadine " forms of a Trypanosome which are obtained in cultures, that it cannot be doubted that the " Leish- man-Donovan-Wright " bodies are closely connected with the Haemoflagellates. That being so, it is quite possible that, in normal conditions and circumstances, these parasites also possess, at some period of the life-cycle, a trypaniform phase. Nothing definite is yet known with regard to the transmission of the parasites by an alternate invertebrate host, although there is presumptive evidence in favour of this supposition.2 A word or two must be said in conclusion with reference to . the supposed connexion of the Spirochaetae with the Supposed ... . • Connexion Trypanosomes. In Schaudinn s great memoir he oftheSpiro- regarded Trypanosoma ziemanni as possessing, in chaetae with certain phases, the actual characteristics of a •paoo- Spirochaete as then known; and, further, he was inclined to think that other Spirochaetae (e.g. S. obermeieri of relapsing fever) were also only phases in the 1 R. Ross (49), regarding the parasites as a quite different kind of Sporozoan, termed them Leishmania; and Wright named his variety from tropical ulcers Heleosoma tropicum. 2 Patton (Sci. Mem. India, No. 27, 1907) has brought forward evidence to show that the bed-bug (Cimex macrocephalus) is the invertebrate host. life-cycle of a particular Haemoflagellate. As a result of his more recent investigations on S. plicalilis (the type-species of Ehrenberg) and other forms (51), he finds, however, that this is not the case, but that the organisms exemplified by S. plicatilis are to be widely separated from the Trypanosomes, and placed rather with the Bacteria. In addition, it is most probable that, at any rate, certain other spirilliform parasites, e.g. S. balbianii, S. refringens, agree fundamentally in structure with the type-species. . On the other hand, evidence has lately been brought forward to show that certain parasites which greatly resemble a Spiro- chaete are really related to the Trypanosomes. This is the case with the celebrated organism first described by Schaudinn and E. Hoffmann (52) from essential syphilitic lesions, and now known as Treponema (Spirochaete) pallida, Schaud. F. Krzysztalowicz and M. Siedlecki have published an important account (17) of this parasite, which they consider possesses a true trypaniform phase, and for which they have proposed the name Trypanosoma luis. This view requires, however, corroboration. Nevertheless the resemblance between the biology of this organism in relation to syphilis (as regards mode of infection, habitat, &c.) and that of Trypanosoma equiperdum, the cause of dourine or " horse-syphilis," may not be without significance. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A comprehensive review of the Haemoflagel- lates and allied parasites, considered up to the end of 1905, has been published by (i) H. M. Woodcock, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1906), 50, p. 150. The principal original papers referred to are: (10) A. Billet, " Culture d'un trypanosome de la grenouille chez une hirudinee," &c., C. r. ac. sci. (1904), 139, p. 574; (2) " Sur le Trypanosoma inopinatum de la grenouille verte d'Algerie et sa relation possible avec les Drepanidium," C. r. soc. mot. (1904), 57, p. 161, figs; (3) J. R. Bradford and H. G. Plimmer, "The Trypanosoma brucei, the organism found in Nagana or the Tsetse- fly disease," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1902), 45, p. 449, with pis.; (4) D. Bruce, D. Nabarro and E. D. Greig (various reports on sleeping-sickness and other trypanosomoses in Uganda), Roy. Soc. Comm. (1903-1905), Nos. I, 4 and 5; (5) E. Brumpt, " Contribu- tion & 1'etude de 1'evolution des hemogregarines et des trypano- somes," C. r. soc. biol. (1904), 57, p. 165; (50) idem," On the mode of transmission and development of Trypanosomes and Trypano- plasms in leeches," C. r. soc. biol. (1906), 60, pp. 160, 162; and op. cit. (1906), 61, p. 77; (6) A. Castcllam, " Trypanosoma and Sleeping- sickness," Rep. Sleeping-sickness Comm. Roy. Soc. (1903), Nos. I and 2; (7) S.R.Christophers, "Reports on a parasite found in persons suffering from enlargement of the spleen in India," Sci. Mem. India (1904- 1905), Nos. 8, II and 15; (8) Danilewsky, " Recherches sur la parasito- logie comparee du sang des oiseaux (Kharkoff, 1888-1889); (9) D. Doflein, Die Protozoen als Parasiten Una Krankheitserreger, (Jena [G. Fischer], 1901); (10) C. Donovan, "Human Piro- plasmosis," Lancet (1904), p. 744, I pi.; (n) E. Dutton, "Note on a Trypanosoma occurring in the Blood of Man," Brit. Med. Journ. (1902), p. 881; (12) Dutton and J. L. Todd, " First Report of the Trypanosomiasis Expedition to Senegambia, 1902," Mem. Livpl. Sch. Trap. Med. (1903) n; (13) Gruby, "Recherches et observations sur une nouvelje espece d'Hematozoaire (Trypano- soma sanguinis) " C. r. ac. sci. (1843), 17, p. H34. also Ann. sci. nat. (1844), 3, i. p. 105, figs.; (14) W. Hanna, "Trypanosoma in Birds in India," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1903), 47, p. 433, i pi.; (15) G. Keysselitz, " Vber Trypanophis grobbem (Trypanosoma grobbeni, Poche)," Arch. Protistenk. (1904), 3, p. 367, figs.; (16) idem, " Generations- und Wirthswechsel von trypanoplasma borreli, Lav. u. Mesnil," op. cit. 7, p. I, figs. ; (160) R. Koch, " Mittheilungen iiber den Verlauf der deutschen Expedition ... in Ostafrika," Deutsch. med. Wochensch. (1906), app., p. 51; op. cit. (1907), p. 49; (17) F. Krzysztalowicz and M. Siedlecki, " Contribution a 1'etude de la structure et du cycle evolutif de Spirochaete pallida, Schaud.," Bull. Ac. Cracovie (i9°5). p. 713, i pi.; (18) E. R. Lankester, "On Undulina, the type of a new group of Infusoria," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1871), 1 1, p. 387, figs. ; (19) " The Sleeping-sickness," Quart. Rev. (July 1904), p. 113, figs.; (20) A. Laveran, "Sur un nouveau trypanosome des bovides," C. r. ac. sci. (1902), 134, p. 512; (21) idem, " Sur un trypanosome d'une chouette," C. r. soc. biol. (!9O3). 55. P- 528, figs.; (22) idem, " Sur un nouveau trypanosome d'une grenouille," op. cit. (1904), 57, p. 158, figs.; (23) Laveran and F. Mesnil, " Recherches morphologiques et experimentales sur le trypanosome des rats, Tr. lewisi (Kent)," Ann. tnst. Pasteur (1901), 15, p. 673, 2 pis. ; (24) idem, "Des Trypanosomes des poissons," Arch. Protistenk. (1902), i, p. 475, figs.; (25) idem, " Recherches morphologiques et experimentales sur le trypanosome du Nagana ou maladie de la mouche tse-tse," Ann. inst. Past. (1902), 16, p. i, figs.; (26) idem, Trypanosomes et trypanosomiases (Paris [Masson et Cie], 1904); (27) idem, " Sur un protozoaire nouveau (Piroplasma TSAIDAM— TSANA 347 donovani. Lav. et Mesn.) parasite d'une fieVre de 1'Inde, " C. r. ca. sci. (1903), 137, p. 957, figs,; (28) idem, " Sur la nature bacteYienne du pritendu trypanosome des huitres, T. balbianii, " C. r. soc. biol. (1901), 53, p. 883; (there are numerous other papers by these authors in the C. r. ac. sci. and the C. r. soc. biol. from 1900 onwards); (29) L. Leger, "Sur un flage!16 parasite de I' Anopheles maculipennis," C. r._ soc. biol. (1902), 54, p. 354, figs. ^(30) idem, " Sur la morphologic du trypanoplasma des vairons," C. r. ac. sci. (1904), 138, p. 824; (31) idem, " Sur la structure et les affinites des trypanoplasmes " (1904), t. c. p. 856, figs.; (32) idem, " Sur les (1904), t. c. p. 345; (34) idem, " Sur les affinity's de VHerpetomonas subulata et la phylogcnie des trypanosomes " (1904), t. c. p. 615; (35) idem, " Sur la presence d'un trypanoplasma intestinal chez les poissons," op. cit. (1905), 58, p. 511; (36) W. Leishman, "On the possibility of the occurrence of trypanosomiasis in India," Brit. Med. Journ. (1903), i. 1252, figs.; (37) idam, " Note on the nature of the parasitic bodies found in tropical splenomegaly," op. cit. (1904), i. 303 ; (38) Leishman and Statham, " The development of the Leishman body in cultivation," Journ. Army Med. Corps (1905), 3, 14 pp., I pi. ; (39) J. Lignieres, " Contribution 4 1'etude de la trypanosomose des equidiSs sud-americains' connue sous le nom de Mai de Caderas," Rec. med. vet. (8) (1903), 10, p. 51, 2 pis. ; (40) A.F.Mayer, " Spici- legium pbservationum anatomicarum de organo electrico in raiis anelectrias et de haematozois," (Bonn, 1873), 18, pp., pis.; (41) F. Mesnil, F. Nicolle and P. Remlinger, " Sur le protozoaire du bouton d'Alep," C. r. soc. biol. (1904), 57, p. 167; (410) E. A. Minchin, " On the occurrence of encystation in Trypanosoma grayi," &c., Proc. Roy. Soc. (1907), 79 B,p. 35.; (416) idem (with Gray and Tulloch), " Glossina palpalis in relation to Trypanosoma gambiense," &c., op. cit. (1906), 78 B, p. 242, 3 pis.; (42) Mitrophanow, " Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Hamatozen," Biol. Centbl. (1883), 3. p. 35, figs.; (43) G. Nepveu, " Sur un trypanosome dans le sang de 1'homme," C. r. soc. tool. (1898), 50, p. 1172; (44) F. G. Novy and W. I. McNeal, " On the Trypanosomes of Birds," Journ. Inf. Dis. (1905), 2, p. 256, pis.; (45) W. S. Perrin, " The life-history of Trypanosoma balbianii" Proc. Roy. Soc. (1905), 76 B, p. 367, figs., also in Arch. Protistenk. (1906), 7 pis.; (46) M. Plehn, " Trypanoplasma cyprini, n. sp.," Arch. Protistenk. (1903), 2, p. 175, I pi.; (47) S. Prowazek, " Studien tiber Saugethiertrypanosomen," Arb. kais. Gesundheits- amte (1905), 22, 44 pp., pis.; (48) L. Rogers," On the development of flagellated organisms (Trypanosomes) from the spleen Protozoic parasites of cachexial fevers and Kala-azar," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1904), 48, p. 367, i pi.; 149) R. Ross, " Notes on the bodies recently described by Leishman and Donovan, " Brit. Med. Journ. (1903), i. 1261, 1401, figs. ; (50) F. Schaudinn, " Generations- und Wirthswechsel bei Trypanosoma und Spirochaete," Arb. kais. Gesundheitsamte (1904), 20, p. 387, figs.; (51) idem, " Zur Kenntniss der Spirochaete pallida," Deutsch. med. Wochenschr. (1905), No. 42, p. 1665; (52) Schaudinn and E. Hoffmann, " Vorlaufiger Bericht iiber das Vor- kommen von Spirochaeten in syphilitischen Krankheitsproducten , " Arb. kais. Gesundheitsamte (1905), 22, p. 527; (53) E. and E. Sergent, " Sur un trypanosome nouveau parasite de la grenouille verte," C. r. soc. biol. (1904), 56, p. 123, fig. ; (54) idem, " Hemamibes des oiseaux et moustiques ' Generations alternantes,' de Schaudinn," op. cit. (I9°5)» 58> P- 57; (54o) F. Stuhlmann, " Beitrage zur Kenntniss derTsetsefliege,"&c., Arb. kais. Gesundheitsamte (1907), 26, p. 83, 4 P.'8'. (55) Valentin, " (Jber ein Entozoon im Blute von Salmo fario, " Mutter's Arch., $\, -p. 435; (56) O. Voges, " Mai de Caderas," Zeitschr. Hyg. (1902), 39, p. 323, I pi.; (57) Wasielewsky and G.Senn, " Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Flagtllaten des Rattenblutes," op. cit. (1900), 33, p. 444, pis. (58); J. H. Wright, "Protozoa in a case of tropical ulcer (Delhi sore), " Journ. Med. Research, Boston (1903), 10, p. 472, pis. (H. M. Wo.) TSAIDAM, or more correctly TSADUM, a depression, or self- contained shallow basin in the N.E. of Tibet, crossed by 37° N. and stretching from 92° to 97°. It is separated from the high plateau of Tibet by the Burkhan-Buddha range, and on the N.E. it is bounded by the eastward continuation of the Astin- tagh ranges, which there consist of four, namely, the lower and upper ranges, and a subsidiary chain flanking the lower range on the north and another subsidiary chain flanking the upper range on the south (see KUEN-LUN). The valleys which divide the east ranges of the Kuen-Lun system terminate, or rather merge in, the sandy desert basin of Tsaidam; amongst them the Kakir valley between the upper Astin-tagh and the Akato-tagh and the Kum-kol valley between the Kalta-alagan and the range I. of the Arka-tagh (see KUEN-LUN). Tsaidam lies at an altitude of 11,400 ft. or about 3000 ft. lower than the Kum- kol lakes, and receives from the valley in which they lie the river Chulak-akkan or Tsagan tokhoy, which rises probably on the north slope of the Shapka-monomakha Mountain, one of the culminating summits in the region north of the Arka-tagh range. " It is very possible that the north-west of Tsaidam, which is perfectly unknown, is broken up into several separate basins. The south-east part of the same great expanse also appears to consist of several smaller basins rather than of one single great basin, each possessing its own salt lake; but then these smaller basins are undoubtedly separated from one another by remarkably low and insignificant thresholds or swellings. " l The north-east part of the basin con- sists of a network of basins, which admit of being grouped in four divisions — Sartang or Serteng, Makhai, Tsadam or Tsaidam, and Kurlyk or Tosun. _The characteristic feature of each of these is that which is found in so many of the valleys of the Tibetan border- land, namely, a pair of linked lakes, one containing salt water and the other fresh water. The only inhabitants of Tsaidam are Mongols — Sartang Mongols in the north and Tajinur Mongols in the south. The south-east part of the region is drained by the Holuzun-nor or Bam-gol, an affluent of the upper Hwang-ho or Yellow River of China. The Sartang basin is drained by the Khalting-gol and its tributary the Holuin-gpl, which rise in the Humboldt and Ritter Mountains and empty into the lake of Sukhain-nor. TSANA, a lake of North-East Africa, chief reservoir of the Abai or Blue Nile. Tsana lies between 11° 36' and 12° 16' N. and 37° 2' and 37° 40' E., filling a central depression in the Abyssinian highlands. It is about 5690 ft. above the sea, but from 2500 to 3000 ft. below the mountain plateau which encircles it. Its greatest length is 47 m., its greatest breadth 44 m., and it covers, approximately noo sq. m., having a drain- age area, including the lake surface, of some 5400 sq. m. In shape it may be compared to a pear, the stem being repre- sented by the escaping waters of the Abai. The shores of the lake are well denned, generally flat, and bordered by reeds, but at places the mountains descend somewhat abruptly into the water. Elsewhere the land rises in gentle undulations, except at the moufhs of the larger tributary streams, where are alluvial plains of considerable size. At the south-east end the lake forms a bay about eleven miles long, and from three to eight miles across, and from this bay the Abai issues. The whole of the coast-line is considerably indented and many narrow promontories jut into the lake. The island of Dek (8 m. long by 4 broad) is in the south-western part of the lake. Near it is the smaller island of Dega, whilst numerous islets fringe the shores. Lake Tsana is fed by three large rivers and by many petty streams. The chief tributary is the Abai, which enters the lake at its south- west corner through a large papyrus swamp. This river, and the Abai or Blue Nile which issues from the lake, are regarded as one and the same stream and a current is observable from the inlet to the outlet. Next in importance of the affluents are the Reb and Gumara, which run m parallel courses and enter the lake on its eastern side. The outlet of the lake is marked by openings in a rocky ledge, through which the water pours into a lagoon-like expanse. Thence it issues by two or three channels, with a fall of about 5 ft. in a succession of rapids. These channels unite within a couple of miles into one river — the Abai with a width of 650 ft. After passing a large number of rapids in the first sixteen miles of its course the Abai enters a deep gorge by a magnificent fall — the Fall of Tis Esat — the water being confined in a channel not more than 20 ft. across and falling 150 ft. in a single leap. The gorge is spanned by a stone bridge built in the I7th century. From this point the Abai makes its way through the mountains to the plains of Sennar, as described in the article NILE. The average annual rainfall in the Tsana catchment area is estimated at 3J ft., and the volume of water received by the lake yearly at 6,572,000,000 of cubic metres. More than half of this amount is lost by evaporation, the amount discharged into the river being placed at 2,924,000,000 cubic metres. The seasonal altera- tion of the lake level is not more than 5 ft. The rainy season lasts from the beginning of June to the end of September. During this period the discharge from the lake is, it appears, little greater than in the dry season, the additional water received going to raise the lake level. Thus the rise in the Blue Nile, in its lower course, would seem to be independent of the supply it derives from its source. Tsana has been identified with the Coloe Palus of the ancients, which although placed 12° too far .south by Ptolemy was described by him as a chief reservoir of the Egyptian Nile and the source of the Astapos, which was certainly the Blue Nile. In 1625 it was visited by the Portuguese priest Jeronimo Lobo, and in 1771 by James Brucs. Dr. Anton Stecker, in 1881, made a detailed examination of the lake, enabling the carto- graphers to delineate it with substantial accuracy. By the Portuguese of the I7th century the lake was styled Dambia, 1Sven Hedin, Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia, , iii. 344 (Stockholm, 1905-1907). TSAR— TSCHAIKOVSKY and this name in the slightly altered form of Dembea was in use until towards the close of the igth century. By many Abyssinians the lake is called Tana, but the correct Amharic form is Tsana. See NILE and ABYSSINIA, and the authorities there cited. The British Blue Book, Egypt, No. 2, 1904, contains a special report (with maps) upon Lake Tsana by Mr C. Dupuis, of the Egyptian Irrigation Service. In the Boll. soc. geog. italiana for December 1908 Captain A. M. Tancredi gives the results (also with maps) of an Italian expedition to the lake. (W. E. G. ; F. R. C.) TSAR, or CZAR, the title commonly given both abroad and in Russia itself to the sovereign of Russia, whose official style is, however, " Emperor and Autocrat " (Imperator i Samov- lastityel). In its origin the word tsar seems to have connoted the same as imperator, being identical with the German Kaiser in its derivation from the Latin Caesar. In the old Slavonic Scriptures the Greek /3acriXeus is always translated tsar, and this title was also given to the Roman Emperor. The old Russian title for a sovereign was knyaz, prince, or veliky knyaz, grand prince. The title tsar was first adopted by the Slavonic peoples settled in the Balkan peninsula, who were in close touch with the Eastern emperor; thus it was used by the medieval Bulgarian kings. It penetrated into Russia as a result of the growing intercourse between old Muscovy and Constantinople, notably of the marriage alliances contracted by Russian princes with the dynasty of Basil the Macedonian; and it was assumed by the Muscovite princes who revolted from the yoke of the Mongols. The other tsars were gradually ousted by those of Moscow, and the modern Russian emperors inherit their title of tsar from Ivan III. (1462-1505), or perhaps rather from his grandson Ivan IV. (1533-1584) who was solemnly crowned tsar in 1547. Throughout, however, the title tsar was used, as it still is in popular parlance, indifferently of both emperors and kings, being regarded as the equivalent of the Slavonic krol or kral (Russ. korol, Magyar, kirdly), a king, which had been adopted from the name of Charle- magne (Germ. Karl, Lat. Carolus Magnus). Thisuse being equivocal, Peter the Great, at the peace of Nystad (Novembers, 1721), assumed the style of imperator, an exotic word intended to symbolize his imperial dignity as the equal of the western emperor. This new style was not, however, recognized by the powers until the time of Catherine II., and then only on the express understanding that this recognition did not imply any precedency or superiority of the Russian emperor over other sovereigns. Henceforth, what- ever popular usage might be, the title tsar was treated officially as the equivalent of that of king. Thus the Russian emperor is tsar (king) of Poland and of several other parts of his dominions. Thus, too, the prince of Bulgaria, on assuming the royal style, took the title of tsar of Bulgaria. The title ." White Tsar, applied to the Russian emperor and commonly quoted as though it had a poetic or mystic meaning, is a translation of a Mongol word meaning " independent " (cf. the feudal " blanch tenure, " i.e. a tenure free from all obligation of personal service). The wife of the tsar is tsaritsa. In former times the title tsarevich (king's son) was borne by every son of a tsar; but the word has now fallen out of use. The heir to the throne is known as the tsesarevich or cesarevich (q.v.), i.e. son of Caesar, the other Imperial princes bearing the old Russian title of veliky knyaz (grand duke; q.v.). TSARITSYN, a town of Russia, in the government of Saratov, situated on the right bank of the Volga, where it suddenly turns towards the south-east, 40 m. distant from the Don. Pop. (1900), 67,650. Tsaritsyn is the terminus of a railway which begins at Riga and, running south-eastwards, intersects all the main lines which radiate from Moscow to the south. It is also connected by rail with Kalach on the Don, where merchandise from the Sea of Azov is disembarked. Corn from middle Russia for Astrakhan is transferred from the rail- way to boats at Tsaritsyn; timber and wooden wares from the upper Volga are unloaded here and sent by rail to Kalach ; and fish, salt and fruits sent from Astrakhan by boat up the Volga are here unloaded and despatched by rail to the interior of Russia. The town has grown rapidly since the completion of the railway system, and has a large trade in petroleum from Baku. Tsaritsyn is also the centre of the trade in the mustard of Sarepta, Dubovka and the neighbourhood. The fisheries are important. The buildings of the town include a public library, and the church of St John (end of i6th century), a fine specimen of the architecture of its period. Here are iron, machinery and brick works, tanneries, distilleries, and factories for jam, mustard and mead. Market gardening is an important industry. A fort was erected here in the, i6th century to prevent the incursions of the free Cossacks and runaway serfs who gathered on the lower Volga, as also the raids of the Kalmucks and Cir- cassians. In 1606 Tsaritsyn took part in the rising in favour of the false Demetrius, and Stenka Razin took the town in 1670. The Kalmucks and Circassians of the Kuban attacked it repeatedly in the I7th century, so that it had to be fortified by a strong earthen and palisaded wall, traces of which are still visible. TSARSKOYE SELO, a town of north Russia, in the govern- ment of St Petersburg, and an imperial residence, 1 5 m. by rail south of the capital. Pop. (1885), 15,000; (1897), 22,353. The town stands on the Duderhof Hills and consists (i) of the town proper, surrounded by villages and a German colony, which are summer resorts for the inhabitants of St Petersburg; and (2) of the imperial parks and palaces. The former is built on a regular plan, and its houses nearly all stand in gardens. The cathedral of St Catherine is a miniature copy of that at Constantinople. The imperial parks and gardens cover 1680 acres; the chief of them is the " old " garden, containing the " old palace," built (1724) by Rastrelli and gorgeously decorated with mother-of-pearl, marbles, amber, lapis lazuli, silver and gold; the gallery of Cameron adorned with fine statues and entrance gates; numerous pavilions and kiosks; and a bronze statue (1900) of the poet Pushkin. A second palace, the Alexander, was built by Catherine II. in 1792, and has in its park an historical museum and an arsenal. When Peter the Great took possession of the mouth of the Neva, a Finnish village, Saari-mois, stood on the site now occupied by the town, and its Russified name Sarskaya was changed into Tsarskoye when Peter presented it to his wife Catherine. It was especially embellished by the tsaritsa Elizabeth. Under Catherine II., a town, Sophia, was built close by, but its inhabitants were transferred to Tsarskoye Selo under Alexander I. The railway connecting the town with St Petersburg was the first (1838) to be constructed in Russia. TSCHAIKOVSKY, PETER ILICH (1840-1893), Russian com- poser, born at Votkinsk, in the province of Vyatka, on the 7th of May 1840, was the son of a mining engineer, who shortly after the boy's birth removed to St Petersburg to assume the duties of director of the Technological Institue there. While studying in the school of jurisprudence, and later, while holding office in the ministry of justice, Tschai'kovsky picked up a smattering of musical knowledge sufficient to qualify him as an adept amateur performer. But the seriousness of his musical aspira- tion led him to enter the newly founded Conservatorium of St Petersburg under Zaremba, and he was induced by Anton Rubinstein, its principal, to take up music as a profession. He therefore resigned his post in the ministry of justice. On quitting the Conservatorium he was awarded a silver medal for his thesis, a cantata on Schiller's " Ode to Joy." In 1866 Tschaikovsky became practically the first chief of the recently founded Moscow Conservatorium, since Serov, whom he succeeded, never took up his appointment. In Moscow Tschaikovsky met Ostrovskiy, who wrote for him his first operatic libretto, The Vojeeoda. After the Russian Musical Society had rejected a concert overture written at Rubinstein's suggestion, Tschaikovsky in 1866 was much occupied on his Winter Day Dreams, a symphonic poem, which proved a failure in St Petersburg but a success at Moscow. In 1867 he made an unsuccessful debut as conductor. Failure still dogged his steps, for in January 1869 his Vojeeoda disappeared off the boards after ten performances, and sub- sequently Tschaikovsky destroyed the score. The Romeo and Juliet overture has been much altered since its production by the Russian Musical Society in 1870, in which year the composer once more attempted unsuccessfully an operatic production, TSCHUDI 349 St Petersburg rejecting his Undine. In 1871 Tscha'ikovsky was busy on his cantata for the opening of the exhibition in celebration of the bicentenary of Peter the Great, his opera The Oprischnik, and a textbook of harmony, which latter was adopted by the Moscow Conservatorium authorities. At Moscow in 1873 his incidental music to the Snow Queen failed, but some success came next year with the beautiful quartet in F. During these years Tschaikovsky was musical critic for two journals, the Sovremennaya Lietopis and the Russky Vestnik. On the death of Serov he competed for the best setting of Polovsky's Wakula the Smith, and won the first two prizes. Yet on its production at St Petersburg in November 1876 this work gained only a succes d'cstime. Since then it has been much revised, and is now known as The Little Shoes. Meanwhile the Second Symphony and the Tempest fantasia had been heard, and the pianoforte concerto in B flat minor completed. This was first played by von Billow in Boston, Massachusetts, some time later, and was entirely revised and republished in 1889. At last something like success came to Tschaikovsky with the production of The Oprischnik, in which he had incorporated much of the best of The Vojevoda. The Third — or Polish — Symphony, four sets of songs, the E-flat quartet (dedicated to the memory of Lamb), the ballet " The Swan Lake," and the " Francesca da Rimini " fantasia, all belong to the period of the late 'seventies — the last being made up of operatic fragments. Tschaikovsky in 1877 first began to work on the opera of Eugen Onegin. With the production of this work at the Moscow Conservatorium in March 1879 real success first came to him. The story, by Pushkin, was a familiar one, and the music of Tschaikovsky was not so extravagant in its demands as had been the music of his earlier operas. Meanwhile the more personal side of the composer's career had been given a romantic touch by his acquaintance with his lifelong benefactress, Mme von Meek, and his deplorable fiasco of a marriage. In 1876 he had aroused the interest of Nadezhda Filaretovna von Meek (1831-1894), the wife (left a widow in 1876) of a wealthy railway engineer and contractor. She had a large fortune and she began by helping the com- poser financially in. the shape of commissions for work, but in 1877 this took the more substantial shape of an annual allow- ance of £600. The romance of their association consisted in the fact that they never met, though they corresponded with one another continually. In 1890 Mme von Meek (who died two months after the composer, of progressive nervous decline), imagining herself — apparently a pure delusion — to be ruined, discontinued the allowance; and though Tschaikovsky was then no longer really in need of it, he failed to appreciate the patho- logical reason underlying .Mme von Meck's condition of mind, and was deeply hurt. The wound remained unhealed, and the correspondence broken, though on his death-bed her name was on his lips. Her connexion with his life was one of its dominating features. His marriage was only a brief and misguided incident. Tschaikovsky married Antonina Ivanovna Milyukova on the 6th of July 1877, but the marriage rapidly developed into a catastrophe, through no fault of hers but simply through his own abnormality of temperament; and it resulted in separation in October. He had become taciturn to moroseness, and finally quitted Moscow and his friends for St Petersburg. There he fell ill, and an attempt to commit suicide by standing chin-high in the river in a frost (whereby he hoped to catch his death from exposure) was only frustrated by his brother's tender care. With his brother, Tschaikovsky went to Clarens to recuperate. He remained abroad for many months, moving restlessly from one place to another. In 1878 he accepted (but later resigned) the post of director of the Russian musical department at the Paris Exhibition, completed his Fourth Symphony and the Italian Capriccio, and worked hard at his " 1812 " overture, more songs, the second pianoforte concerto, and his " Liturgy of St Chrysostom," an interesting contribution to the music of the Eastern Church. The work was confiscated for some time by the intendant of the imperial chapel, on the ground that it had not received the imprimatur of his predecessor Bortniansky in due accordance with a ukaz of Alexander I. Bortniansky was dead, but his successor was obstinate. Finally the work was saved from destruction by an official order. Tschaikovsky returned only for a short time to Moscow. Thence he went to Paris. In 1879 he wrote his Maid of Orleans (produced in 1880) and his first suite for orchestra. In 1881 died Nicholas Rubinstein — to whose memory Tschaikovsky dedicated the trio in A minor. During the next five years Tschaikovsky travelled, and worked at Manfred and Hamlet, the operas Mazeppa and Charodaika, the Mozartian suite and the fine Fifth Symphony. During a great part of the time he lived in retirement at Klin, where his generosity to the poor made him beloved. His operas The Queen of Spades and the one-act lolanthe were feeble by comparison with his earlier works; more effective, however, were the ballets Sleeping Beauty and Casse-noisette. In 1893 Tschaikovsky sketched his Sixth Symphony, now known as the Pathetic, a work that has done more for his fame in foreign lands than all the rest of his works. This was the year in which the composer conducted a work of his own at Cambridge on the occasion of his receiving the honorary degree of Doctor of Music. In the same year, on the 6th of November, he died from an attack of cholera at St Petersburg. Tschaikovsky's work is unequal. In dramatic compositions he lacked point precisely as Anton Rubinstein lacked point. But in the invention of broad, sweeping melody Tschaikovsky was far ahead of his compatriot. Among his songs and smaller pianoforte works, as in his symphonies and quartets, are passages of exquisite beauty. The best of Tschaikovsky's work is more distinctly Russian than that of most of his compatriots; it is not German music in disguise, as is so much of the music by Rubinstein and Glazounow, and it is not incoherently ferocious, like so much of the music by Balakirev. See Mrs Rosa Newmarch's Tchaikovsky (1900) supplemented in 1906 by her condensed English edition of the Life and Letters, which appeared in Russian in 1901 in three volumes, edited by Modeste Tschaikovsky, the composer's brother. TSCHUDI, or SCHUDY, the name of one of the most distin- guished families of the land of Glarus, Switzerland. It can be traced back as a peasant, not a noble, race to 1289, while after Glarus joined the Swiss Confederation in 1352 various members of the family held high political offices at home, and were distinguished abroad as soldiers and in other ways. In literature, its most eminent member was GILES or AEGIDIUS TSCHUDI (1505-1572), who, after having served his native land in various offices, in 1558 became the chief magistrate mlandam- mann, and in 1559 was ennobled by the emperor Ferdinand, to whom he had been sent as ambassador. Originally inclined to moderation, he became later in life more and more devoted to the cause of the counter-Reformation. It is, however, as the historian of the Swiss Confederation that he is best known; by incessant wanderings and unwearied researches amongst original documents he collected material for three great works, which therefore can never wholly lose their value, though his researches have been largely corrected by those of more recent students. In 1538 his book on Rhaetia, written in 1528, was published in Latin and in German — De prisca ac vera Alpina Rhaetia, or Die uralt wahrhaftig Alpisch Rhatia. The historical reputation of Giles Tschudi has suffered very much owing to recent researches. His inventions as to the early history of the Swiss Confederation are described under TELL. His statements and documents relating to Roman times and the early history of Glarus and his own family had long roused suspicion. Detailed examination of late years has proved beyond the shadow of a doubt that he not merely claimed to have copied Roman inscrip- tions that never existed, and amended others in a most arbitrary fashion, but that he deliberately forged a number of documents with a view to pushing back the origin of his family to the roth century, thus also entirely misrepresenting the early history of Glarus, which is that of a democratic community, and not (as he pretended) that of a preserve of several aristocratic families. Tschudi's historical credit is thus hopelessly ruined, and no 350 TSENG KUO-FAN— TSETSE-FLY document printed or historical statement made by him can henceforward be accepted without careful verification and examination. These discoveries have a painful interest and importance, since down to the latter part of the igth century Swiss historical writers had largely based their works on his investigations and manuscripts. For a summary of these discoveries see G. v. Wyss in the Jahrbuch of the Historical Society of Glarus (1895), vol. xxx., in No. I (1894), of the Anzeiger f. schweizerische Geschichte, and in his Geschichte d. Historiographie in d. Schweiz (1895), pp. 196, 201, 202. The original articles by Vogelin (Roman inscriptions) appeared in vols. xi., xiv. and xv. (1886-1890) of the Jahrbuch f. schweizer Geschichte, and that by Schulte (Glarus) in vol. xviii. (1893) of the same periodical. For the defence, see a weak pamphlet, Schulte u. Tschudi (Coire, 1898), by P. C. v. Planta. Tschudi's chief works were not published until long after his death. The Beschreibung Galliae Comatae appeared under Gallati's editorship in 1758, and is mainly devoted to a topographical, historical and antiquarian description of ancient Helvetia and Rhaetia, the latter part being his early work on Rhaetia revised and greatly enlarged. This book was designed practically as an introduction to his magnum opus, the Chronicon helveticum, part of which (from 1001 to 1470) was published by J. R. Iselin in two stately folios (I734~I73^); the rest consists only of rough materials. There exist two rather antiquated biographies of Tschudi by I. Fuchs (2 vols., St Gall, 1805) and C. Vogel (Zurich, 1856), but his extensive complete correspondence has not yet been printed. Subjoined is a list of other prominent members of the family. DOMINIC (1596-1654) was abbot of Muri and wrote a painstaking work, Origo et genealogia gloriosissimorum comitum de Habsburg (1651). JOSEPH, a Benedictine monk at Einsiedeln, wrote a useful history of his abbey (1823). The family, which became divided in religious matters at the Reformation, also includes several Protestant ministers: JOHN HENRY (1670-1729), who wrote Beschreibung des Lands Glarus (1714); JOHN THOMAS (1714-1788), who left behind him several elaborate MSS. on the local history of Glarus; and JOHN JAMES (1722-1784), who compiled an elaborate family history from 900 to 1500, and an account of other Glarus families. JOHN Louis BAPTIST (d. 1784), who settled in Metz and contributed to the Encyclopedic, and FREDERICK (1820-1886), the author of Das Thierleben der Alpen- •welt (1853), were distinguished naturalists. Among the soldiers may be mentioned CHRISTOPHER (1571-1629), a knight of Malta and an excellent linguist, who served in the French and Spanish armies; while the brothers Louis LEONARD (1700-1779) and JOSEPH ANTHONY (1703-1770) were in the Neapolitan service. VALENTINE (1499-1555), the cousin «f Giles, was, like the latter, a pupil of Zwingli, whom he afterwards succeeded as pastor of Glarus, and by his moderation gained so much influence that during the thirty years of his ministry his services were attended alike by Romanists and Protestants. The best-known member of the family in the igth century was IWAN (1816-1887), author of an excellent guide-book to Switzerland, which appeared first (1855) under the name of Sckweizerfuhrer, but is best known under the title (given in 1872 to an entirely recast edition) of Der Tourist in der Schweiz. (W. A. B. C.) TSENG KUO-FAN (1811-1872), Chinese statesman and general, was born in 1811 in the province of Hunan, where he took in succession the three degrees of Chinese scholarship. In 1843 he was appointed chief literary examiner in the province of Szechuen, and six years later was made junior vice-president of the. board of rites. When holding the office of military examiner (1851) he was compelled by the death of his mother to retire to his native district for the regulation mourning. At this time the Taiping rebels were overrunning Hunan in their conquering career, and had possessed themselves of the cities and strongholds on both shores of the Yangtse-kiang. By a special decree Tseng was ordered to assist the governor of the province in raising a volunteer force, and on his own initiative he built a fleet of war junks, with which he attacked the rebels. In his first engagement he was defeated, but, happily for him, his lieutenants were more successful. They recovered the capital, Chang-sha, and destroyed the rebel fleet. Following up these victories of his subordinates, Tseng recaptured Wuchang and Hanyang, near Hankow, and was rewarded for his success by being appointed vice-president of the board of war. In 1853 other triumphs led to his being made a baturu (a Manchu order for rewarding military prowess), and to his being decorated with a yellow riding-jacket. Meanwhile, in his absence, the rebels retook Wuchang and burnt the protecting fleet. The tide quickly turned, however, and Tseng succeeded in clearing the country round the Poyang lake, and subsequently in ridding the province of Kiangsu of the enemy. His father died in 1857, and after a brief mourning he was ordered to take supreme command in Cheh-kiang, and to co-operate with the governor of Fukien in the defence of that province. Subsequently the rebels were driven westwards, and Tseng would have started in pursuit had he not been called on to clear the province of Ngan-hui of rebel bands. In 1860 he was appointed viceroy of the two Kiang provinces and Imperial war commissioner. At this time, and for some time previously, he had been fortunate in having the active support of Tso Tsung-t'ang, who at a later period recovered Kashgar for the emperor, and of Li Hung-Chang. Like all true leaders of men, he knew how to reward good service, and when occasion offered he appointed the former to the governorship of Cheh-kiang and the latter to that of Kiangsu. In 1862 he was appointed assistant grand secretary of state. At this time the Imperial forces, assisted by the " Ever-victorious Army," had checked the progress of the rebellion, and Tseng was able to carry out a scheme which he had long formulated of besieging Nanking, the rebel headquarters. While Gordon, with the help of Li Hung-Chang, was clearing the cities on the lower waters of the Yangtse-kiang, Tseng drew closer his besieging lines around the doomed city. In July 1864 the city fell into his hands, and he was rewarded with the rank and title of marquis and the right to wear the double-eyed peacock's feather. After the suppres- sion of the Taipings the Nienfei rebellion, closely related to the former movement, broke out in Shantung, and Tseng was sent to quell it. Success did not, however, always attend him on this campaign, and by Imperial order he was relieved of his command by Li Hung-Chang, who in the same way succeeded him in the viceroyalty of Chihli, where, after the massacre of Tientsin (1870), Tseng failed to carry out the wishes of his Imperial master. After this rebuff he retired to his viceroyalty at Nanking, where he died in 1872. Tseng was a voluminous writer. His papers addressed to the throne and his literary disquisitions are held in high esteem by the scholars of China, who treasure as a memorial of a great and un- corrupt statesman the edition of his collected works in 156 books, which was edited by Li Hung-Chang in 1876. (R. K. D.) TSETSE-FLY (Tsetse, an English rendering of the Bantu nsi-nsi, a fly), a name applied indiscriminately to any one of the eight species of Glossina, a genus of African blood-sucking Diptera (two- winged flies, see DIPTERA), of the family Muscidae. Tsetse-flies are of great economic and pathological importance as the disseminators of tsetse-fly disease (nagana) and sleeping sickness. These maladies are caused by minute unicellula animal parasites (haematozoa) of the genus Trypanosoma (see TRYPANOSOMES) ; and recent investigations have shown that, under normal conditions, the particular species of Trypanosoma concerned (T. brttcei, in the case of nagana, and T. gambiense in that of sleeping sickness) are introduced into the blood of sus- ceptible animals or man only by the bite of one or other of the species of tsetse. (See PARASITIC DISEASES). The names of the recognized species of tsetse-flies are as follows: Glossina palpalis (see fig.); G. pallicera; G. morsitans; G. tachinoides', G. pallidipes; G. longipalpis', G. fusca; and G. longipennis. A ninth so-called species, described in 1905 from specimens from Angola, is not really distinct from G. palpalis but appears to be identical with the sub-species G. palpalis •wellmani. In appearance tsetse are somewhat narrow-bodied flies, with a prominent proboscis, which projects horizontally in front of the head, and with the wings in the resting position closed flat one over the other like the blades of a pair of scissors (see fig., B). The latter characteristic affords an infallible means for the recognition of these insects, since it at once serves to distinguish them from any blood-sucking flies with which they might otherwise be confused. The coloration of tsetse-flies is sombre and inconspicuous; the brownish TSHI— TUAM 351 or greyish-brown thorax usually exhibits darker longitudinal markings, and when the insect is at rest the abdomen or hinder half of the body is entirely concealed by the brownish wings. In some species the abdomen is of a paler colour and marked with sharply denned, dark brown bands, which are interrupted on the middle line. The length of the body, exclusive of the proboscis, which measures about a line to a line and a half, varies according to the species from 6 or 8 millimetres in the case of G. tachinoides, to about 1 1 § millimetres in that of G. fusca or longipennis ; the closed HJ.E.TEFIZI wings, however, project beyond the body and thus increase its apparent length. G. palpalis, the disseminator of sleeping sickness (see fig.), is about 95 millimetres in length and is the darkest of all the tsetse-flies, though the dark brown abdomen has pale lateral triangular markings and usually at least an indication of a pale longitudinal median stripe. In all tsetse-flies the proboscis in the jiving insect is entirely concealed by the palpi, which are grooved in their inner sides and form a closely fitting sheath for the piercing organ; the base of the proboscis is expanded beneath into a large onion-shaped bulb, which is filled with muscles. The head of the insect contains a muscular pharynx by means of which the blood from the wound inflicted by the proboscis (labium) is pumped into the alimentary canal and the so-called sucking-stomach. The tip of the proboscis is armed with a complicated series of chitinous teeth and rasps, by means of which the fly is enabled to pierce the skin of its victim ; as usual in Diptera the organ is closed on the upper side by the labrum, or upper lip, and contains the hypopharynx or common outlet of the paired salivary glands, which are situated in the abdomen. The proboscis of tsetse-flies is without the paired piercing stilets (mandibles and maxillae) possessed by other blood- sucking Diptera, such as the female horse-flies and mosquitoes. For the anatomy of the tsetse see E. A. Minchin, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ixxvi. 531-547- Tsetse-flies are restricted to Africa, where they occur in suitable localities throughout the greater portion of the tropical region, although not found either in the Sahara or in the veld country of the extreme south. For practical purposes the northern limit of Glossina, as at present known, may be shown on the map by drawing a line from Cape Verde to the Nile a little to the south-east of El Obeid, and thence to the coast of Somaliland at 4° N. ; while the southern boundary of the genus may similarly be represented by the Cunene river, in the south of Angola, and a line thence to the north-eastern end of St Lucia lake, in Zululand. Within the area thus defined tsetse-flies are not found continuously, however, but occur only in small tracts called" belts " or " patches," which, since cover and shade are necessities of life to these insects, are always situated in forest, bush or banana plantations, or among other shady vegetation. In South and Central Africa, at any rate, " fly-belts " are usually met with in damp, hot, low-lying spots on the margins of water-courses, rivers and lakes, and seldom far from water of some kind. It appears, however, that in this respect the habits of the different species show a certain amount of variation; thus, while G. palpalis exhibits an especial fondness for water and haunts more or less dense cover at the water's edge, recent observations in German East Africa show that G. fusca is in no way connected with water, but is much more frequently encountered at a distance from it. Similarly; the oft-repeated assertion that there is a definite connexion between tsetse-flies and big game, especially the buffalo (Bubalus caffer), in that the former are dependent upon the latter for their continued existence, is certainly not true as regards G. palpalis, although in South Africa there can be no question that the ex- termination of big game has been followed or accompanied by the disappearance of tsetse from many localities in which they formerly abounded. As a rule tsetse-flies are most active during the warmer hours of the day, but they frequently bite at night, especially by moonlight. The blood-sucking habit is common to both sexes, and the abdomen, being capable of great expansion, is adapted for the periodical ingestion of an abundant food-supply. The act of feeding, in which the proboscis is buried in the skin of the victim nearly up to the bulb, is remarkably quick, and in thirty seconds or less the abdomen of the fly, previously flat, becomes swollen out with blood like a berry. Stuhlmann's experiments with G. fusca show that the insect is able to ingest considerably more than (sometimes more than twice) its own weight of blood, which would appear to be the only food, and must be drawn from the tissues of a victim. Specimens of G. fusca, even though fasting and kept for days in absolutely dry air, could never be induced to imbibe water, sugar-cane juice or extra- vasated blood. The reproduction of tsetse-flies is highly remarkable; instead of laying eggs or being ovovivi- parous the females deposit at intervals of about a fortnight or three weeks a single full-grown larva, which forthwith buries itself in the ground to a depth of several centi- metres, and assumes the pupal state. The practical importance of this peculiar life-history is very great, since larvae thus protected cannot easily be destroyed. It is important to note that although sleeping sickness (of which the chief foci are at present the Congo Free State and Uganda) has hitherto been associated with one particular species of Glossina, it has been shown experi- mentally both that other tsetse-flies are able to transmit the parasite of the disease, and that G. palpalis can convey kindred parasites which are fatal to domestic animals. Since, moreover, it is believed that at least five species of Glossina are carriers of nagana, it may well be that all tsetse-flies can disseminate both nagana and sleeping sickness. (E. E. A.) TSHI, TCHWI, CHI, or Oji, a group of Negro peoples of the Gold Coast (q.v.). The chief of these are the Ashanti, Fanti, Akim and Aquapem. Their common language is the Tshi, from which they gain their family name. TSU-SHIMA (" the island of the port "), an island belonging to Japan, situated about midway between Korea and the island of Iki, so that the two islands were used as places of call in former times by vessels plying between Japan and Korea. Tsu-shima lies about 34° 20' N., 129° 20' E. The nearest point of the Korean coast is 48 m. distant. It has an area of 262 sq. m. and a population of 39,000. It is divided at the waist by a deep sound (Asaji-ura), and the southern section has two hills, Yatachi-yama and Shira-dake, 2130 ft. and 1680 ft. high respectively, while the northern section has Ibeshi-yama and Mi-take, whose heights are 1128 ft. and 1598 ft. The chief town is Izu-hara. The Mongol armada visited the island in the i3th century and com- mitted great depredations. In 1861 an attempt was made by Russia to obtain a footing on the island. The name of the battle of Tsu-shima is given to the great naval engagement of the 27th and 28th of May 1905, in which the Russian fleet under Admiral Rozhdestvensky was defeated by the Japanese under Admiral Togo. TUAM, a market town and episcopal city of Co. Galway, Ireland, 20 m. directly N.N.E. of Galway on the Limerick & Sligo branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. (1901), 3012. Anabbey was founded here towards the end of the 5th century, and in the beginning of the 6th an episcopal see by St Jarlath. The Protestant archbishopric of Tuam was lowered to a bishopric on the death of Archbishop Power Le Poer Trench in 1839, and united with that of Killala and Achonry. It is, however, a Roman Catholic archbishopric. The Protestant cathedral is also the parish church, and was to a great extent re- built c. 1 86 1 from plans by Sir Thomas Deane. Only the chancel of the old church remains, but its red sandstone arch is a remark- ably fine example of Norman work; it dates from the middle of the 1 2th century. The modern Roman Catholic cathedral is Perpendicular in style and cruciform in plan. The interior is elaborately decorated. The cross of Tuam, re-erected in modern times, bears inscriptions in memory of Turlogh O'Conor, king of Ireland, and O'Hoisin, successively (1128) abbot of St Jarlath's Abbey and archbishop (1152) of Tuam, when the see was raised. St Jarlath's Roman Catholic college, usually called the New College, is a seminary founded in 1814 for the education of priests. To the west are the* archbishop's palace and a convent of 352 TUAREG— TUAT Presentation nuns. The town has a considerable retail trade, and is a centre for the disposal of agricultural produce. Tuam received its first charter from James I. Before the union in 1800 it returned two members to the Irish Parliament. TUAREG, or TAWAREK (more properly Tawarik, the collective form of tarki, from Arabic terek, to give up), the name given to the western and central Saharan Berber peoples, in reference possibly to their abandonment of Christianity or their early home in Mauretania. They call themselves Imoshagh (" the noble people "), another form of Amazigh. They inhabit the desert from Tuat to Timbuktu and from Fezzan to Zinder. The Tuareg country covers about 1,500,000 sq. m., less than 3000 acres of which are cultivated. There are only some half- dozen commercial places in the whole Sahara to which the Tuareg resort. These are the centres from which the trade routes radiate, Wargla, Timbuktu, Ghat, Ghadames, Murzuk and Insalah. The Tuareg, at any rate the noble class, are regarded as among the purest of the Berber stocks, but with the adoption of Islam they have become largely Arabized in manners and customs, though the nomad Tuareg preserve in singular purity the Tama- shek dialect of the Berber language. Their general colour is the reddish yellow of southern Europeans, the uncovered parts of the body being, however, darker through exposure. Their hair is long, black, and silky, beards black and thin; eyes black, some- times blue; noses small; hands delicate, but bodies muscular. They are a tall people, the chiefs being especially noted for their powerful build. They dress generally in a black tunic (some tribes wear white), trousers girt with a woollen belt, and wear as turban a cloth called litham, the end of which is drawn over the face, allowing nothing to be seen but the eyes and the tip of the nose. The purpose of this is to protect the throat and lungs from the sand. These cloths are dark blue or white: the former being worn most by the nobles, the latter by the common people. To this difference of colour is due the terms " black " and " white " Tuareg. The Tuareg seldom remove their masks or face-cloths. Even abroad they wear them, and have been seen so dressed in the streets of Paris. The Arabs call them " People of the Veil." The Tuareg are divided into five main tribes or confederations of tribes: the Azgar (Asjer) about Ghat and Ghadames; the Kelui around Air; the Hoggar (Ahaggar) in the mountains of that name and in the centre of the Sahara; the Awellimiden in the desert north and east of Timbuktu; and the Arrerf Ahnet, a recent offshoot of the Hoggars living in the Adrar'n Ahnet region north-west of the Hoggar massif. Owing to their nomadic life their political organization is not so democratic as that of other Berber peoples; chiefs and the members of the popular assembly are nominally elective; practically, however, the office of chief is hereditary in a ruling family. On a chief's death the office goes, with the approval of the tribesmen, to the eldest son of his eldest sister, in no case to any of his sons. The Tuareg are nominally Mahommedans, and belong to the Malikite section of the Sunnites. The Senussite sect, however, has many adherents, but more because of the Tuareg hatred of foreigners than from devoutness. A very few perform, by way of Tripoli, the pilgrimage to Mecca. They have not many mosques, and these are merely small stone enclosures a few feet high, with a niche at one end towards Mecca. There are a number of desert monasteries, huge camps pitched in a circle. Here the marabout lives surrounded by his followers, shifting the " monas- tery " as the requirements of his flocks compel. In these monasteries many Tuareg children receive their education. Socially the Tuareg are divided into five classes, viz.: Thaggaren or nobles; Marabouts or priests; Imghad or serfs; Ireghenaten or cross-breeds; and the slaves. The nobles are all pure-blooded, and provide the tribal chiefs. They do no manual work, but almost live in the saddle, either convoying those caravans which have paid blackmail for safe passage, or making raids on trade-routes or even outlying Arab settlements. Before the French occupation they sometimes penetrated into the very heart of Algeria and Tunisia. Among the Imghad serfdom is hereditary, and whole tribes are vassals to the nobles. They cannot be sold or freed like slaves, though they may be inherited. Most of them have practical inde- pendence and act as " squires " to the nobles on their pillaging expeditions. The cross-breeds are the descendants of mixed marriages between the nobles and serfs. These follow their mother's status. The slaves are chiefly Sudanese negroes. They are well treated and are practically members of the Tuareg family, but the Tuareg never intermarry with them. The Tuareg weapons are a straight two-edged sword about 4 ft. long, a dagger bound to the left forearm by a leather ring, and a slender iron lance some 9 ft. long barbed for about a foot. On his right arm the Tuareg warrior wears a heavy stone to give increased weight to his lance and sword-play or to parry blows. Muskets are common, no noble or freedman being without one. Besides this the Tuareg carry leathern shields. In hunting, wooden missiles like boomerangs are used. Among the low-caste hill tribes of Hoggar bows and arrows are the only weapons. Little is known of the history of the Tuareg. The name is that given them by the Arabs. They are the descendants of those Berbers who were driven into the desert by the great Arab invasion of North Africa in the nth century. Ibn Khaldun in the I4th century locates them to the south and west of Tunisia. They were constantly at war with the Arabs on the north, and the Negro peoples of the Sudan on the south. For their relations with the French, with whom they came into contact after the conquest of Algeria, see SAHARA. AUTHORITIES. — H. Duveyrier, Les Touaregs du Nord (Paris, 1864); Lieut. Hourst, The Exploration of the Niger (Eng. trans., London, 1898), pp. 199-249; W. J. Harding King, A Search for the Masked Tuaregs (London, 1903) ; M. Benhazera, Six Mois chez les Touareg du Ahaggar (Algiers, 1908); Lieut. C. Jean, Les Touareg du sud-est: I'A'ir, leur role dans la politique saharienne (Paris, 1909) ; E. Doutte, Magie el religion dans I'Afrique du nord (Algiers, 1909) ; " Essai de transcription methodique des noms de lieux touareg " in Bull. soc. geog. d'Alger (1908). TUAT, a Berber word l sometimes applied generally to all the oases in the western part of the Algerian Sahara, i.e. between 2° W. and 2^° E. 26° and 30° N., sometimes restricted to a par- ticular group which borders the east side of Wad Mzaud between 265° and 275° N. According to the first usage Tuat includes the oases of Gurara in the north and Tidikelt in the south with the important centre of Insalah. The three groups are spoken of col- lectively by the French as the Tuat archipelago. The district is comparatively fertile, being formed of recent alluvium extending along the base of the Tademait plateau (Cretaceous) , and produces dates and some cereals and vegetables. The wadi Saura (known in its lower course as the Messaud), formed by the junction of the wadis Zusfana and Ghir, marks the north-western boundary of the oases. After the winter rains in the Atlas it carries a consider- able body of water in its upper course, but lower down its channel is choked by sand. Works were undertaken (1909) by the French to keep open the channel as it passes Tuat proper. At Gurara water is obtained from springs brought to the surface by the outcrop of impervious Devonian rocks. There is an extensive sebkha or salt lake at Gurara. The oases support a comparatively large population. The separate ksurs or hamlets, of which the district is said to contain over 300, are in Tuat proper placed close together. The political centre of Tuat is the oasis of Timmi, which has some forty ksurs. All the ksurs are strongly fortified, the walls of the citadels being of immense thickness. The whole region has been formed into an -administrative unit known as lerritoire des oasis sahariennes, and comprising a native commune subdivided into the annexes of Tuat, Gurara and Tidikelt. In 1906 the commune had a population of 134 Europeans and 49,873" natives, of whom 112 enjoyed municipal rights. There were four places with over 2000 inhabitants: Adrar (Timmi), 2686, and Zaniet-Kunta, 3090 , in Tuat ; Insalah, 2837, in Tidikelt ; and Timimun, 2330, in Gurara. Nine other places had between looo and 2000 inhabitants. By race (excluding the troops) there were 19,654 Arabs, 5470 Berbers, 4374 negroes, 191 Jews (professing Islam) and 19,412 persons of mixed blood. The district is of importance as commanding the routes southwards to Timbuktu from both Morocco and Algeria, and it is thus a great centre of trade. The oases appear to have been inhabited from a very early period. According to tradition numbers of Jews migrated thither in the 2nd century A.D. They were the predominant element in the oases when the conquests of Sidi Okba drove the Zenata south (7th century). These Berbers occupied Tuat and, to a large extent, absorbed the Jewish popu- lation. The Arabs took possession of the oases in the loth century and imposed Islam upon the people. Thereafter the region was governed by Zenata Berbers or by Arab chieftains. In the I4th 1 The etymology of the word is doubtful; it is used in the sense of an inhabited district — hence an oasis. 1 By a clerical error the native population in the census returns is given as 60,497. TUBA 353 century the sultan of Morocco occupied the oases, which remained in political dependence upon Morocco. In the 1 7th century, how- ever, the sovereignty of the sultan had become almost nominal and this state of quasi-independence continued. The treaty of 1845 between Morocco and France left the question of the possession of Tuat, Gurara and Tidikelt unsettled. After the murder in 1881 of the members of the Flatters mission — a French expedition sent into the Sahara — a measure concerted at Insalah, several of the Tuat headmen sought Moroccan protection, fearing the vengeance of France. A chief calling himself the Moroccan pasha established himself at Timmi, but Morocco took no active step to assert her sovereignty. In 1899 a French scientific mission, under Colonel Flamand, was despatched to the oasis of Tidikelt. The French were attacked by the natives (Dec. 28, 1899), whom they defeated, and the next day Insalah was occu- pied. This was the beginning of a serious campaign in which the French suffered severe losses, but by March 1901 the whole of the fortified places in the three oases had been captured. To cut off the oases from Morocco the town of Igli, 140 m. north-west of Gurara, was also annexed by the French (April 5, 1900). Igli (pop. 1057 in 1906) occupies an important position, being placed at the junction of the wadi Zusfana and the wadi Ghir. The French were not, however, left in peaceable possession of their newly acquired territory. Attacks by the nomad tribes, Moroccan and others, were made on the line of communications, and during 1903 the French troops suffered serious losses. To punish the tribes the town of Figig was bombarded by the French (June 8, 1903). On the 2nd of September following a band of nomads attacked, at a place called El Mung'ar, the escort of a convoy going to Taghit. After maintaining the fight 7^ hours the French were reinforced and their enemies drew off. Out of 115 combatants the French lost 38 killed and 47 wounded. To consolidate their position the French authorities deter- mined to connect the oases with the Algerian Sahara proper by carriage roads and railways. One road goes north-east to El Golea, 150 m. distant from Insalah; another north from Igli to a post called Beni Ounif, 2$ m. south of Figig, to which point the railway from Ain Sefra, in the Oranese Sahara, was carried in 1903. The continuation of this railway to Igli was begun in the folio wing year. Major A. G. Laing visited the Tuat territory in 1825 on his way to Timbuktu, but his papers were lost. The next European to visit Tuat was Gerhard Ronlfs, who described his explorations and investigations in Tagebuch seiner Reise durch Marokko nach Tuat, 1864 (Gotha, 1865) and Reise durch Marokko . . . Exploration der Oasen von Tafilet, Tuat und Tidikelt . . . (Bremen, 1868). A. G. P. Martin's Les Oasis sahariennes (Algiers, 1908) gives an account of the history and economic condition of the oases. Consult also Commandant E. Laquiere, Les Reconnaissances du General Serviere dans les oasis sahariennes (Paris, 1902), a valuable mono- graph by an officer who took part in the operations in 1900-1901 ; E. F. Gautier, Sahara aleerien (Paris, 1908), and various contribu- tions by G. B. M. Flamand in LaGeographie andAnnales geographiques for IQOO, Comptes rendus (1902), Bull. geog. hist, et descriptive (1903), &c. (F. R. C.) TUBA, in music. The tubas — bombardon, helicon, eupho- nium (Fr. tuba, sax-tuba, bombardon; Ger. Tuben, Tenor-bass, Bombardon, Kontrabasstuba, Helikon;Ital. basstuba, bombardone) — are a family of valved instruments of powerful tone forming the tenor and bass of the brass wind. In the orchestra these instru- ments are called tubas; in military bands euphonium (tenor), bombardon and helicon (bass). The modern tubas owe their existence to the invention of valves or pistons ( Ger. V 'entile) by two Prussians, Stolzel and Bliimel, in 181 5. The tubas are often confounded with the baritone and bass of the saxhorns, being like them the outcome of the application of valves to the bugle family. There is, however, a radical difference in construction between the two types: given the same length of tubing, the fundamental octave of the tubas is an octave lower than that of the saxhorns, the quality of tone being besides immeasurably superior. This difference is entirely due to the proportions of the truncated cone of the bore and consequently of the column of air within. By increasing the calibre of the bore in proportion to the length of the tube it was found that the fundamental note or first sound of the harmonic series was easily XXVII. 12 obtained in a full rich quality, and by means of the valves, with this one note as a basis, a valuable pedal octave is obtained, absent in the saxhorns. Prussia has not adopted these modifica- tions; the bass tubas with large calibre, which have long been introduced into the military bands of other countries and retained in that country, are founded on the original model invented in BBb Bombardon or Contrabass Tuba (Besson). 1835 by Wieprecht and Moritz, a specimen of which is preserved in the museum of the Brussels Conservatoire. The name " bass tuba " was bestowed by Wieprecht upon his newly invented bass with valves, which had the narrow bore afterwards adopted by Sax for the saxhorns. The evolution of the modern tubas took place between 1835 and 1854 (see VALVES). The instruments termed Wagner tubas are not included among the foregoing. The Wagner tubas are really horns designed for Wagner in order to provide for the Nibelungen Ring a complete quartet having the horn timbre. The tenor tuba corresponds to the tenor horn, which it outwardly resembles, having its tube bent in rectangular outline and being played by means of a funnel- shaped mouthpiece. The bore of the Wagner tenor and tenor- bass tubas, in Bb and F, is slightly larger than in the horn, but much smaller than in the real tubas. The bell, funnel-shaped as in the German tubas, is held to the right of the performer, the valves being fingered by the left hand. There are four valves, lowering the pitch respectively i tone, 5 tone, 13 tone, 2 tones (or 2§ tones). The harmonic series is the same for both instruments, the notation being as for the horn in C. C. B flat Tenor. Real Sounds. F Bass. -a> *" : hm—sr N.B. — The black notes are difficult to obtain strictly in tune as open notes. By means of the valves the compass is extended downwards an octave for each instrument. The timbre of the tenor tuba is only slightly more metallic and less noble than that of the French horn with valves. Many motives in the Ring are given out by the quartet of horns and Wagner tubas. The modern tuba finds its prototype as well as the origin of the name in the Roman tuba (the Greek salpinx), definite information concerning which is given by Vegetius.1 Compared with the other military service instruments of the Romans, the buccina and cornu, the tuba was straight and was used to sound the charge and retreat, and to encourage and lead the soldiers during action; it was sounded at the changing of the guard, as the signal to begin and leave off work, &c. The tuba is represented, together with the buccina and cornu, on Trajan's column in the scenes described by Vegetius. During the middle ages the tuba was as great a favourite as the busine (see BUCCINA and TRUMPET), from which it may readily be distinguished by its marked conical bore and absence of bell. It is recorded that King Frederick Barbarossa gave an order on the I4th of January 1240 in Arezzo for four tubas of silver and for slaves to be taught to play upon them.2 During the middle ages the Latin word tuba is variously translated, and seems to have puzzled the compilers of vocabularies, who often render it by trumba (Fr. trompe). (K. S.) 1 De re militari, iii. 5 and ii. 7. 2 Dr Alwin Schultz, Hofisches Leben, i. 560, note 3. • 354 TUBE— TUBERCULOSIS TUBE (Lat. tuba), a pipe or hollow cylinder. Tubes play an. important part in engineering and other works for the conveyance of liquids or gases, and are made of diverse materials and dimensions according to the purpose for which they are intended, metal pipes being of the greatest consequence. Accord- ing to the process of manufacture metal tubes may be divided into seamed and seamless. One of the earliest uses of seamed wrought-iron tubes was for gun-barrels, and formerly these were made by taking a strip of wrought iron, bending it so that the edges overlapped and then welding by hammering, with or without the aid of grooved swages. The development of gas lighting increased the demand for tubes, and in 1824 James Russell introduced the butt-welded tube, in which the edges of the skelp are not made to overlap, but are brought into closest possible contact and the welding is effected in a double swage, having corresponding grooves of the diameter of the tube required; this method required no mandrel as did those previously in use. The following year saw another improve- ment in making these pipes, when Cornelius Whitehouse effected a butt weld by drawing the bent skelp through a die. Stronger tubes are obtained by using grooved rollers instead of a die, the skelp being mounted on a mandrel. This is the method commonly adopted at the present day for making this class of tube. Seamed tubes, especially of copper and brass, are made by brazing or soldering the edges of the skelp. Another method is to bend the edges so that they interlock, the contact being perfected by rolling. Seamless tubes, which are stronger than those just described, are made by drawing a bloom of the metal perforated by an axial hole or provided with a core of some refractory material, or, in certain cases, by forcing the plastic metal by hydraulic pressure through an appropriate die. The seamless steel tube industry is now of great dimen- sions owing to the development of steam engineering. Another type of seamless tube is the cast-iron tube, usually of large diameter and employed for gas and water mains; these pipes are made by casting. TUBERCULOSIS. The word " tuberculosis," as now used, signifies invasion of the body by the tubercle bacillus, and is applied generally to all morbid conditions set up by the presence of the active parasite. The name is derived from the " tubercles " or " little lumps " which are formed in tissues invaded by the bacillus; these were observed and described long before their real nature or causation was known. (For an account of the organism, which was discovered by Koch in 1882, see PARASITIC DISEASES.) The bacillus attacks every organ and tissue of the body, but some much more frequently than others. The commonest seats of tuberculous disease are the lungs, lymphatic glands, bones, serous membranes, mucous membranes, intestines and liver. Before the discovery of the bacillus its effects in different parts of the body received separate names and were classified as distinct diseases. For instance, tuberculosis of the lung was called " consumption " or " phthisis," of the bones and lymphatic glands " struma " or " scrofula," of the skin " lupus," or the intestinal glands " tabes mesenterica." Some of these names are still retained for convenience, but the diseases indicated by them are known to be really forms of tuberculosis. On the other hand, there are " tubercles " which are not caused by the tubercle bacillus, but by some other source of irritation, including various parasitic organisms, some of which closely resemble the tubercle bacillus. To these forms of disease, which are not as yet well understood, the term pseudo-tuberculosis has been given. Lastly, the word " tubercular " is still sometimes applied to mere lumpy erup- tions of the skin, which have no connexion with tuberculosis or pseudo-tuberculosis. Pathology. — The effects of tuberculosis on the structures attacked vary greatly, but the characteristic feature of the disease is a breaking-down and destruction of tissue. Hence the word " phthisis," which means " wasting away " or " decay," and was used by Hippocrates, accurately describes the morbid process in tuberculosis generally, as well as the constitutional effect on the patient in consumption. According to the most recent views, the presence and multiplication of the bacilli excite by irritation the growth of epithelioid cells from the normal fixed cells of the tissue affected, and so form the tubercle, which at first consists of a collection of these morbidly grown cells. In a typical tubercle there is usually a very large or " giant " cell in the centre, surrounded by smaller epithelioid cells, and outside these again a zone of leucocytes. The bacilli are scattered among the cells. In the earliest stages the tubercle is microscopic, but as several of them are formed close together they become visible to the naked eye and constitute the condi- tion known as miliary tubercle, from their supposed resem- blance to millet seeds. In the next stage the cells forming the tubercle undergo the degenerative change known as " casea- tion," which merely means that they assume in the mass an appearance something like cheese. In point of fact, they die. This degeneration is believed to be directly caused by a toxin produced by the bacilli. The further progress of the disease varies greatly, probably in accordance with the resisting power of the individual. In proportion as resistance is small and pro- gress rapid the cheesy tubercles tend to soften and break down, forming abscesses that burst when superficial and leave ulcers, which in turn coalesce, causing extensive destruction of tissue. In proportion as progress is slow the breaking-down and "de- structive process is replaced by one in which the formation of fibrous tissue is the chief feature. It may be regarded as Nature's method of defence and repair. In tuberculosis of the lungs, for instance, we have at one end of the scale acute phthisis or " galloping consumption," in which a large part or even the whole of a lung is a mass of caseous tubercle, or is honeycombed with large ragged cavities formed by the rapid destruction of lung tissue. At the other end we have patches or knots of fibrous tissue wholly replacing the original tubercles or enclos- ing what remains of them. Such old encapsuled tubercles may undergo calcareous degeneration. Between these extremes come conditions which partake of the nature of both in all degrees, and exhibit a mixture of the destructive and the healing processes in the shape of cavities surrounded by fibrous tissue. Such intermediate conditions are far more common than either extreme; they occur in ordinary chronic phthisis. The term " fibroid phthisis " is applied to cases in which the process is very chronic but extensive, so that considerable cavities are formed with much fibrous tissue, the contraction of which draws in and flattens the chest-wall. Tuberculosis commonly attacks one organ or part more than another, but it may take the form of an acute general fever, resembling typhoid in its clinical features. " Acute miliary tuberculosis " is a term generally used to indicate disseminated infection of some particular organ — usually the lungs or one of the serous membranes— in which the disease is so severe and rapid that the tubercles have not time to get beyond the miliary state before death occurs. Tuberculosis is exceedingly apt to spread from its original seat and to invade other organs. The confusing multiplicity of terms used in connexion with this disease is due to its innumer- able variations, and to attempts to classify diseases according to their symptoms or anatomical appearances. Now that the cause is known, and it has become clear that different forms of disease are caused by variations in extent, acuteness and seat of attack, the whole subject has become greatly simplified, and many old terms might be dropped with advantage. Tuberculosis in the Lower Animals. — Most creatures, including worms and fishes, are experimentally susceptible to tuber- culosis, and some contract it spontaneously. It may be called a disease of civilization. Domesticated animals are more sus- ceptible than wild ones, and the latter are more liable in captivity than in the natural state. Captive monkeys, for instance, commonly die of it, and of birds the most susceptible are farmyard fowls, but it is practically unknown in animals in the wild state. In cattle coming chiefly from the plains (United States Bureau of Animal Industry Reports, 1900-1905) the number found diseased was only 0-134% in 28,000,000. Of the domesti- cated animals, horses and sheep are least, and cattle most, affected; pigs, dogs and cats occupy an intermediate position. TUBERCULOSIS 355 The percentage of tuberculous animals recorded at the slaughter- houses of Berlin in 1892-1893 was as follows: Cows and oxen, 15-1; swine, 1-55; calves, o-n; sheep, 0-004. Similar records at Copenhagen in 1890-1893 give the following result: Cows and oxen, 17-7; swine, 15-3; calves, 0-2; sheep, 0-0003. The order of the animals is the same, and it is confirmed by other slaughter- house statistics; but the discrepancies between the figures indicate considerable variation in frequency, and only allow general conclusions to be drawn. A striking fact is the compara- tively small amount of tubercle in calves. It shows, as Nocard has pointed out, that heredity cannot play an important part in the transmission of bovine tuberculosis. The infrequency of the disease in sheep is attributed to the open-air life they lead, and no doubt that is an important factor. The more animals and persons are herded together and breathe the same air in a confined and covered space, the more prevalent is tuberculosis among them. Stefansky found the disease in 5% of the rats caught in Odessa, and Lydia Rabinowitch obtained similar results in rats caught in Berlin. But there are evidently degrees of natural resistance also. Horses are more confined than cattle in the United Kingdom, yet they are far less affected; and on the other hand, cattle running free in the purest air may take the infection from others. Professor McEacharn of Montreal states that he has seen tuberculosis prevalent in ranch cattle, few of which were ever under a roof, ranging on the foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Montana. In cows and monkeys the lungs are chiefly affected; in horses and pigs the intestine and abdominal organs. The relation between human and animal tuberculosis has been much debated. The bacillus in man very closely resembles that found in other mammalia, and they were considered identical until Koch threw doubt on this view at the British Congress on Tuberculosis in 1901. The British govern- ment thereupon appointed a royal commission to inquire into the relations of human and animal tuberculosis. The second interim report of the commission was issued in 1907, and the conclusions arrived at in it are: " That there seems to be no valid reason for doubting the opinion, never seriously doubted before 1901, that human and bovine bacilli belong to the same family. On this view the answer to the question, Can the bovine bacillus affect man? is obviously in the affirmative. The same answer must also be given to those who hold the theory that human and bovine tubercle bacilli are different in kind, since the ' bovine kind ' are readily to be found as the causal agents of many fatal cases of human tuberculosis." The commission also found that there is an essential unity not only in the nature of the morbid processes induced by -human and bovine tubercle bacilli, but also in the morphological characteristics exhibited by the tubercle bacilli which cause these processes. . The conclusions of the members of the Paris Congress on Tuberculosis, held in 1905, are: " That human tuberculosis can be transferred to the bovine animal, and that what is termed the bacillus of bovine origin can be discovered in the human subject, and that there is a possibility that they may be varieties of one species." The distribution of tuberculosis is universal, and it is coincident with Distribution the existence of the human race in the habitable and regions of the globe. Its comparative absence in Mortality. tjje Arctic regions seems more due to the sparsity of population than to climatic effect. Indeed, it has been shown that climate has much less effect in its prevalence than has been formerly thought to be the case, the con- clusion of Hirsch being that " the mean level of the tem- perature has no significance for the frequency or rarity of phthisis in any locality." The nature of the occupations and the density of population in any given area tend to its increase or otherwise, and the comparative immunity enjoyed by uncivilized races is due to their open-air life and to the sanitary advantages derived from the comparatively frequent changes of the sites of their camps and villages. Segregation of these races in fixed areas has shown an increased incidence of tuberculosis, and when living under civilized conditions they fail to exhibit any natural immunity. Altitude has an apparent influence on the frequency of phthisis, the rarity of the disease at high altitudes in Switzerland having been demonstrated, and a like protective influence is enjoyed by certain elevated districts in Mexico, notwithstanding the insanitary conditions of the towns thereon. The protection afforded by the altitude is alleged to be due to the dryness of the atmosphere, its freedom from impurities and the increased solar radiation. While no race is exempt from tuberculosis, certain races afford a greater case incidence. E. Baldwin states that the mortality from con- sumption in recently immigrated races in the United States is much greater than in those of longer residence. It was found that among those whose mothers were of foreign birth the rate was — in Russians 71-8, Germans 167, Scottish 172-5, French 187-7 an(l Irish 33Q-6, while in native-born Americans it was 1 1 2-8. The well-known susceptibility of the Irish has been attributed to the moisture of the climate, under-feeding, and the residual inferiority of a population drained by the emigration of a large number of able-bodied adults. That there is some added factor is shown by the fact that the above mortality of 339 in those having Irish mothers, in 1901, was greater by 31% than that of the Irish in Ireland at the same period. The Jews are said to show a relative immunity, but the matter requires further investigation. The factor which seemingly has the most constant influence on the mortality from tuberculosis is density of population. A high rate of mortality occurs in connexion with overcrowding and bad ventilation in cities, and it is proved that the death-rate from this disease is considerably lower in the country than in the towns. In addition, when we consider that it does not occur in epidemics or at certain seasons, but is constantly active, it will easily be seen that no other disease is so destructive to the human race. At the Tuberculosis Congress, held in Paris in 1905, it was stated by Kayserling that one-third of all deaths and one-half the sickness amongst adults in Germany was due to tuberculosis. In 1908 the mortality from all forms of tuberculosis in England and Wales was, according to the registrar-general's returns, 56,080, less by 3455 than the average of the previous five years, being equal to 10-8% of the mortality from all causes, while in Ireland in 1909 14% of the total mortality was assigned to it. The following table gives the comparative mortality from pulmonary tuberculosis for certain fixed years together with the estimated population of certain selected countries: — Estimated Population in Years. Mortality from Pulmonary Tuberculosis. 1892. I9OO. 1907. 1892. 1900. 1907. England and Wales Ireland .... German Empire . France .... Norway .... Italy .... Holland .... Belgium .... Switzerland . 29,760,842 4,633,808 47.I25,446 38,360,000 2,010,000 30,665,662 4,645,660 6,195-355 3,002,263 32,249,187 4,468,501 52,624,706 38,9OO,OOO 2,211,300 32,346,366 5-159,347 6,693,548 3,299,939 34,945-600 4,377,064 61,994,743 39,222,000 2,305,700 33,776,087 5,709,755 7,317,561 3-525,290 43,323 10,048 113,720 31,080 3,358 39,715* 8,906 10,491 5,785 42,987 10,076 108,827 34,357 4,249 41,733* 8,451 9,"7 6,692 39,839 8,828 97-555 40,304 4.656 41,968* 7-403 • 7,377 6,063 * In Italy the mortality given is for all forms of tuberculosis. We thus see there is a general tendency to decrease in the death- rate, with the possible exception of France and Norway. In England the decrease has been most marked, having fallen from 3457 per million living in 1851-1860, or 15-6% of all deaths, to 1583 per million living, or a mortality of 10-8 % of the death-rate from all causes for all ages and sexes. Death-rate of Tuberculosis per million living in England and Wales, 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890. I9OO. 1908. Males Females .... Both Sexes 3300 3300 3300 3300 3000 3150 2900 2500 2700 2700 2IOO 24OO 22OO I&OO 1900 l800 1350 1583 TUBERCULOSIS In English counties containing populations of 100,000 or over the highest rates were — in 1908 — London, 1806; Lancashire, 1848; Northumberland, 1947; Carnarvonshire, 2025; and Carmarthen- shire, 2328 per million living. Of the fifteen counties in England and Wales with the highest tuberculosis mortalities, no fewer than seven are Welsh. Cardiganshire, with 2270 for both sexes, has a rate nearly double that of England. According to the United States census of 1900, the death-rate from tuberculosis in the area chosen for registration which embraced ten registration states, namely, Connecticut, Maine, District of Columbia, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island and Vermont, and 153 registration cities outside these states, was: — . Number of Deaths from Tuberculosis. Death-rate per 100,000. 1890 1900 48,236 54-898 245-4 190-5 i by phthisis at ages under 5 years, more liable at the age of 5-20, and again less liable at subsequent ages." These observations, it must be noted, refer only to consumption. The comparative immunity of the very young does not extend to all forms of tuberculous disease. On the contrary, tuberculosis of the bowels and mesenteric glands (tabes mesenterica), tuberculous peritonitis and tuberculous men- ingitis are pre-eminently diseases of childhood. The tables at foot of page show in detail the relative incidence of pulmonary phthisis at different ages, and the steady diminution of the disease in England and Wales since 1850. Occupation has a marked influence on the prevalence of pul- monary tuberculosis. The comparative mortality figures for vanous occupations are taken from the supplement to the registrar-general's 6sth annual Report, and show the incidence of pulmonary phthisis, agriculturists being taken at 100 for purposes of comparison. Occupied Males: England and Wales. The returns of the mortality statistics of the United States for the year 1908 cover an area of 17 states, the district of Columbia and 74 registration cities, representing an aggregate population of 45,028,767, or 51-8 % of the total estimated population of the United States. Mortality from Tuberculosis in the United States in given areas. Annual Average, 1901-1905. Tuberculosis (all forms) , 62,833- Pulmonary Phthisis, S5,25i- Number Tuberculosis fall forms) per 100,000 of the population, 103-2. 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 66,797 65,352 75,512 176,650 78,289 58,763 56,770 65,341 66,374 67,376 201-6 193-6 184-2 183-6 173-9 In the United States tuberculosis of the lungs forms from 86 to 87 % of all cases. The death-rate, as we see, is steadily decreasing. It is, however, difficult to estimate the ravages of the disease in that country owing to the fact that rather less than half the United States is still unprovided with an adequate system of registration. The following was the death-rate from tuberculosis (all forms) per 100,000 of the population of the chief cities of the United States during 1908: — Highest. Tin miner . Copper miner . Scissors maker File maker . General shopkeeper Brush maker . 816 • 574 533 387 387 325 Furrier 316 Printer 300 Chimney sweep . . . 284 Hatter . . 280 156 158 159 165 194 '97 Lowest. Coal miner .... 89 Chemical manufacturer 98 Carpenter, joiner . . 150 Artist . . . Blacksmith . Worsted manufacturer Baker . . . Bricklayer . Cotton manufacturer . Tailor 248 The high incidence in the first group will be seen chiefly to affect those occupations where there is dust (scissors and file makers and furriers). The high mortality amongst general shopkeepers can onjy be ascribed_ to continuous indoor occupation. Coal miners enjoy an unexplained immunity. Dr Von Korosy has tabulated the result of seventeen years' observation in Budapest, which is an excessively tuberculous town. His figures include both males and females above fifteen years of age, and extend to 106,944 deaths. The field of observation is evidently very different from those which furnished the statistics already given. His results are: (i) Males — printers 606, butlers 520, shoemakers 494, dyers 493, millers 492, joiners 485, tinkers and locksmiths 484, masons 467, labourers 433, tailors 418, bakers 398, drivers 370, servants 360, carpenters 339, officials 336, butchers 333, innkeepers 272, merchants 253, lawyers 205, physicians 1 1 8, capitalists 106; (2) Females — servants 353, day labourers (? char-women) 333, washerwomen 314, gardeners 269, capitalists 42. The inmates of lunatic asylums, who are classed among the New Orleans 298-3 Sacramento, California .... 294-3 Washington 264-0 Baltimore 249-9 Jersey City 241-1 New York 234-4 Philadelphia 234-1 Saratoga Springs, New York . . 232-2 Indianapolis 222-6 Boston, Massachusetts .... 219-1 St Louis 188-3 Chicago 180-7 Kansas City 172-9 Cleveland, Ohio 142-4 Pittsburg, Pennsylvania . . . 139-2 Detroit 122-5 St Paul, Minnesota . . . .111-8 The returns in the United States show a high rate of mortality from tuberculosis amongst the coloured population, the negro being particularly susceptible to pulmonary _ phthisis; the death-rate from this cause is nearly double that amongst whites. Age and Sex. — The most complete in- formation under this heading is derived from the English records. "In both sexes," says Dr Tatham, " the real liability to phthisis begins somewhere between the fifteenth and the twentieth year. Among males it attains its maxi- mum at age 45-55, when it reaches 3173 per million living. Among females it attains its maximum (2096) at age 35-45. In both sexes the rate rapidly declines after _the attainment of its maximum. Practically the incidence of pulmonary phthisis is upon the ages from 15 to 75. years, ^very old people and young children being comparatively exempt. Ac- cording to recent experience, females seem to be rather less liable than males to death ENGLAND AND WALES Tuberculous Phthisis. — Mortality in several Periods, 1851-1899. Annual Rate per Million Living. MALES. AGES. Period. All Under Ages. 5 Years. 5— 10 — 15— 20 — 25— 35— 45— 55— 65- 1851-1860 2579 1329 525 763 2399 4052 4031 4004 3830 3231 2389 1861-1870 2467 990 431 605 2190 3883 4094 4166 3861 3297 2024 1871-1880 2209 783 340 481 1675 3092 3699 4120 3860 3195 1924 1881-1885 1927 584 274 372 1381 2467 3246 3726 3567 2937 1800 1886-1890 1781 521 234 3i8 1212 2222 2842 3436 3446 2904 1845 1891-1895 1634 467 197 260 1075 2O26 2548 3268 3205 2686 1572 1896-1899 1521 403 140 195 908 1841 2341 3110 3173 2627 1530 1900-1904 H79 366 149 182 799 1643 2147 2811 3130 2560 1309 1903-1907 1385 359 138 163 743 1472 2022 2573 2945 2498 1316 1908 1310 205 134 161 676 I858 2114 1964 2OOO 1830 1061 FEMALES. AGES. Period. All Under Ages. 5 Years. 5— 10 15— 20— 25— 35— 45— 55— 65- 1851-1860 2774 1281 620 1293 3516 4288 4575 4178 3121 2383 1635 1861-1870 2483 947 477 1045 3"2 3967 4378 3900 2850 2065 1239 1871-1880 2028 750 375 846 2397 3140 3543 3401 2464 1777 1093 1881-1885 1738 553 350 749 2006 2596 3070 2927 2197 1541 995 1886-1890 1497 483 307 658 1626 2075 2552 2563 1936 1490 966 1891-1895 1303 421 260 56i 1428 1740 2155 2305 1742 1294 800 1896-1899 1141 334 201 410 1165 1547 1862 2096 1597 1242 787 1900-1904 1042 316 203 417 IOO2 1274 1593 1807 1481 1136 670 1903-1907 975 308 194 391 959 "94 1488 1643 1382 1075 666 1908 931 229 192 441 1270 1438 1761 1407 1156 945 654 TUBERCULOSIS 357 Heredity. " unoccupied," suffer excessively from tubercle. According to Dr Mott, pathologist to the London County Council, tuberculous lesions are found in more than one-third of the bodies of inmates examined post mortem. The majority contract the disease in the asylums. Medical opinion has undergone a great change with regard to the influence of heredity. The frequent occurrence of con- sumption among members of the same family used to be ex- plained by assuming the existence of a tuberculous "diathesis" or inherent liability to consumption which " ran in families " and was handed down from one generation to another. As the real nature of the disease was not understood, the inherited diathesis was regarded as a sort of latent or potential consumption which might develop at any time and could hardly be avoided. The children of consumptive parents had the " seeds " of the disease in them, and were thought to be doomed with more or less certainty. Great importance was therefore attached to heredity as a factor in the incidence of tuberculosis. The discovery that it is caused by a specific parasitic infection placed the question in a different light, and led to a more careful examination of the facts, which has resulted in a general and increasing tendency to minimize or deny the influence of heredity. At the Berlin Congress on Tuberculosis in 1899 Virchow pronounced his disbelief in the theory on patho- logical grounds. " I dispute this heredity absolutely," he said. " For a course of years I have been pointing out that if we ex- amine the bodies of infants newly born, who have had no life apart from the mother, we find no tuberculosis in them. I am convinced that what looked like tuberculosis in the newly born was none of it tuberculosis. In my opinion there is no authenticated case of tubercle having been found in a dissected newly-born infant." Observations on animals similarly tend to disprove the existence of congenital tuberculosis (Nocard). The theory that the germs may remain latent in the offspring of tuberculous parents (Baumgarten) is unsupported by evidence. The occurrence of disease in such offspring is ascribed to infection by the parents, and this view is confirmed by the fact that the incidence in consumptive families is greater on female children, who are more constantly exposed to home infection, than on the male (Squire). The statistical evidence, so far as it goes, points in the same direction. It is even denied that the children of consumptives are specially pre- disposed. Recognition of the communicability of tuberculosis has directed attention to the influence of conditions in which people live massed together in close proximity. The pre- Deasityot valence of the disease in large centres of popula- andove* ^on nas already been noted, and the influence of crowding, aggregation is no doubt considerable; but it does not always hold good. The distribution in England and Wales does not correspond with density of population, and some purely rural districts have a very high mortality. Broadly, however, the rural counties have a low mortality, and those containing large urban populations a high one. In France in the department of the Oise, in purely industrial villages, the mortality from pulmonary phthisis is from 56 to 61 per 10,000; in a village in which part of the population worked in the fields and part in factories the mortality was 46 per 10,000; and in purely agricultural villages it ranged from o to 10 per 10,000. The following table is taken from the Supplement to the Registrar- General's 65th Report for England and Wales : — diseases in relation to overcrowding, the same authority found that " while associated with overcrowding is a tendency of the population to die from disease generally, this tendency is especially manifested in the case of phthisis, and is not manifested in the case of every disease." Other Conditions. — Poverty, insufficient food and insanitary dwellings are always more or less associated with overcrowding, and it is difficult to distinguish the relative influence of these factors. An. analysis of 553 deaths Ji Edinburgh according to rentals in 1899 gave these results: under £10, 230; from £10 to £20, 190; above £20, 106 (Littlejohn) ; but the corre- sponding population is not stated. An investigation of selected houses in Manchester gave some interesting results (Coates). The houses were divided into three classes: (i) infected and dirty; (2) infected but clean; (3) dirty but not infected; infected meaning occupied by a tuberculous person. Dust was taken from all parts of the rooms and submitted to bacteriological tests. The conclusions may be summarized thus: The effects of overcrowding were not apparent; a large cubic space was found to be of little avail if the ventilation was bad; the beneficial effects of light and fresh air were markedly shown even in the dirtiest houses; ordinary cleanliness was found not sufficient to prevent accumulation of infectious material in rooms occupied by a consumptive; no tuberculous dust was found in dirty houses in which there was no consumption. The upshot is to emphasize the importance of light and air, and to minimize that of mere dirt. This is quite in keeping with earlier in- vestigations, and particularly those of Dr Tatham on back-to- back houses. Darkness and stuffiness are the friends of the tubercle bacillus. • So much has the question of cleanliness, and of housing in a sani- tary district, to do with the prevalence of the disease, that the follow- ing table taken from the Report of the Registrar-General for Ireland for the year 1909 shows the marked class incidence in all forms of tuberculosis. Distribution of Tuberculosis Mortality by Classes in Ireland, ipop. All forms of Tuberculosis. Pulmonary Phthisis. Other forms of Tuberculosis. Professional and independent class Middle class, civil service and smaller officials .... Large traders, business mana- gers Clerks I-4I 1-82 i-59 2-Q2 0-64 1-30 I-O4 2>77 , °'77 0-52 o-55 O'CQ ' Householders in 2nd-class localities Artisans Petty shopkeepers and other traders Domestic servants .... Coach and car drivers, and vanmen Hawkers, porters and labourers 2-52 2-94 3-85 i-3i 4-24 4-83 1-85 2-23 3-00 1-04 3-06 2-88 O-67 0-71 0-85 0-27 1-18 1-95 In relation to the last two classes the effect of exposure and also of alcoholic excess must be added to overcrowding and privation. The low rate noticeable for domestic servants must be ascribed to the better food and housing they enjoy while in situations. In Hamburg the mortality was 10-7 per 10,000 in those whose income rose above 3500 marks, 39-3 where the income was 900 to 1200 marks, and 60 per 10,000 where the income fell below that figure. It is now generally accepted that tubercle bacilli may enter the body by various paths. At the International Congress on Tuberculosis held in Vienna in 1907 Weichselbaum summarized the channels of infection in pulmonary tuberculosis as follows: All occupied Males. Occupied Males (London). Occupied Males (industrial districts). Occupied Males (agricultural districts). All Causes .... Tuberculous Phthisis. 1900-1902. 1890-1892. 1900-1902. 1890-1892. 1900-1902. 1890-1892. 1900-1902. 1890-1892. IOO IOO 119 122 119 156 H3 183 121 "5 156 147 72 71 86 90 It will be noted that the rate in the agricultural districts is low compared to the industrial districts or purely urban district chosen. There is obviously a close relation between density of population and the prevalence of phthisis. Comparing phthisis with other (i) By inhalation directly into the bronchioles and pulmonary alveoli, or by way of the bronchial glands through the blood and lymph channels into the lung. (2) Through the mucous 358 TUBERCULOSIS membrane of the nose, mouth or tonsils into the neighbour- ing lymphatic glands, and thence through the blood or lymph into the lungs. (3) By ingestion of tubercle bacilli infection. into the lower Part °f the gastro-intestinal tract in the food; thence the bacilli may pass through the lining membrane, infect the neighbouring glands and pass by the blood or lymph stream to the lungs. (4) By penetration of other mucous membranes (such as the conjunctival or urogenital) or through the skin. (5) Possible, though very rare, placental infection. Tubercle bacilli may not produce any anatomical lesion at the point of entrance, or they may remain latent for a very long time; and it has been experimentally proved that they may pass through mucous membranes and leave no trace of their progress. As reported to the Royal Commission, the introduction of bacilli into the alimentary canal is not necessarily followed by the development of tuberculosis. The writings of Von Behring have led to renewed attention being paid to intestinal infection, particularly through the milk supply. Von Behring suggests that the bacillus itself may become modified in the human body. Measures for the prevention of tuberculosis may be divided into two classes: (i) general; (2) special. Great attention _ . has been paid to the latter since the infectious "'nature of the disease was established. The former include all means by which the conditions of life are improved among the mass of the people. The most important of these are probably housing and food supplyj The reduction of the disease recorded in England is attributed to the great changes which have gradually taken place in such conditions since, say, 1850. Wages have been raised, food cheapened, housing im- proved, protection afforded in dangerous trades, air spaces provided, locomotion increased, the ground and the atmo- sphere have been cleaned and dried by sanitary means. In addition to these general measures is the provision of consump- tion hospitals, which act by segregating a certain amount of disease. Yet all these things, beneficial as they may be, do not wholly account for the reduction, for, if the records can be trusted, it was in progress before they had made any way or had even been begun. This observation, coupled with the appar- ently general tendency to diminution among civilized races, suggests the operation of some Jarger agency. The theory of acquired resistance, which has been already mentioned, would explain the diminution; and it is also in keeping with other facts, such as the great susceptibility of savage races, which have not been long exposed to tuberculosis, and the results of labora- tory experiments in artificial immunity. The point is of great importance, and deserves careful attention; for if the theory be correct, the special measures for preventing tuberculosis, which are occupying so much attention, may eventually have unexpected results. Their general aim is the avoidance of infection, and they include (i) the provision of special institu- tions— hospitals, sanatoria and dispensaries; (2) the prevention ' of spitting; (3) the notification of consumption; (4) the administrative control of tuberculosis in animals; (5) the dissemination of popular knowledge concerning the nature of the disease. The greatest stress is laid upon the prevention of spitting, because the germs are contained in the sputum of consumptive persons, and are scattered broadcast by expectoration. The sputum quickly dries, and the bacilli are blown about with the dust. There is no question that infection is so conveyed. The Manchester scientific experiments, mentioned above, are only one series out of many which prove the infectivity of dust in the proximity of consumptive persons, and they are confirmed by actual experience. Several cases are recorded of healthy persons having contracted the disease after occupying rooms in which consumptive persons had previously lived. It is a legitimate inference that spitting in public is an important means of disseminating tuberculosis, though it may be noticed that international prevalence by no means corresponds with this disgusting practice, which is a perfect curse in Great Britain, and far more common both there and in the United States than on the continent of Europe. Prohibition of spitting under a statutory penalty is attended with certain difficulties, as it is obviously impossible to make any distinction between tuberculous and other persons; but it has been applied in New York and elsewhere in America, and some local authorities in Great Britain have adopted by-laws to check the practice. Another means of controlling dangerous sputa is more practi- cable, and probably more effective, namely, the use of pocket spittoons by consumptive persons. Convenient patterns are available, and their use should always be insisted on, both in public and in private. The most effective way of destroying the sputa is by burning. For this purpose spittoons of papier mache and of turf have been successfully used in the Vienna hospitals (Schrotter). When glass spittoons are used the contents can be sterilized by disinfectants and passed down the drain. Notification is of great service as an aid to practical measures of prevention. It has been applied to that purpose with good results in several cities and states in America, and in some towns in Great Britain. New York has made the most systematic use of it. Voluntary notification was adopted there in 1894, and in 1897 it was made compulsory. The measures linked with it are the sanitary supervision of infected houses, the education of the people and the provision of hospitals. In England, Manchester has led the way. Voluntary notification was adopted there in 1899: it was at first limited to public institu- tions, but in 1900 private practitioners were invited to notify their cases, and they heartily responded. In Sheffield notifi- cation was made compulsory by a local act in 1904 for a limited period, and was found so valuable that the period was extended in 1910. The objects aimed at are to visit homes and instruct the household, to arrange and provide disinfection, to obtain information bearing on the modes of infection, to secure bacterio- logical examination of sputum, and to collect information to serve as a basis of hospital provision. Disinfection is carried out by stripping off paper, previously soaked with a solution of chlorinated firne (\\ oz. to the gallon), and washing the bare walls, ceiling, floor and everything washable with the same solution. This is found effective even in very dirty houses. In clean ones, where the patients have not been in the habit of spitting about the rooms, it is sufficient to rub the walls with bread-crumb and wash the rest with soap and water. Clothing, bedding, &c., are disinfected by steam. The advantages of these sanitary measures are obvious. Notification is no less important as a step towards the most advantageous use of hospitals and sanatoria by enabling a proper selection of patients to be made. It is compulsory throughout Norway, and is being adopted elsewhere, chiefly in the voluntary form. In 1908 the Prevention of Tuberculosis (Ireland) Act was passed, which conferred on local authorities the right to make notifi- cation compulsory in their districts, and provided that certain sections of the Public Health (Ireland) Act 1878 and the Infec- tious Diseases Prevention Act 1890 should apply to tuberculosis. By this act also the county councils were enabled to establish hospitals and dispensaries for the treatment of tuberculosis and were empowered to borrow money or levy a poor rate for the erection of sanatoria for the treatment of persons from their respective counties suffering from the disease. The prevalence of tuberculosis in cattle is of importance from the point of view of prevention of the probability that abdominal tuberculosis, which is a very fatal form of the disease in young children, and has not diminished in prevalence like other forms, is caused by the ingestion of tuberculous milk. Whether it be so or not, it is obviously desirable that both meat and milk should not be tuberculous, if it can be prevented without undue interference with commercial interests. Preventive measures may be divided into two classes. They may deal merely with the sale of meat and milk, or they may aim at the suppression of bovine tuberculosis altogether. The former is a comparatively easy matter, and may be summed up in the words " efficient inspec- tion." The latter is probably impracticable. If practicable, TUBERCULOSIS 359 \ it would be excessively costly, for in many herds one half the animals or even more are believed to be tuberculous, though not necessarily the sources of tuberculous food. Unless the danger is proved to be very much greater than there is any reason to suppose, " stamping out " may be put aside. Efficient inspection involves the administrative control of slaughter- houses, cowsheds and dairies. The powers and regulations under this head vary much in different countries; but it would be useless to discuss them at length until the scientific question is settled, for if the reality of the danger remains doubtful, oppres- sive restrictions, such as the compulsory slaughter of tuberculous cows, will not have the support of public opinion. Whatever measures may be taken for the public protection, individuals can readily protect themselves from the most serious danger by boiling milk; and unless the source is .beyond suspicion, parents are recommended, in the present state of knowledge, so to treat the milk given to young children. A great deal has been done in most countries for the dis- semination of popular knowledge by forming societies, holding conferences and meetings, issuing cheap literature, and so forth. It is an important item in the general campaign against tuberculosis, because popular intelligence and support are the most powerful levers for setting all other forces in motion. In Ireland, where an attempt had been made to deal with the question by arousing the interest of all classes, tuberculosis exhibitions have been held in nearly every county, together with lectures and demonstrations organized by the Women's National Health Association; and an organized attempt was made in the autumn of 1910 in England, by a great educational campaign, to compel the public to realize the nature of the disease and the proper precautions against it. The improved outlook in regard to the arrest or so-called " cure " of tuberculosis is mainly derived from the improved Diagnosis methods of diagnosis, thus enabling treatment to ""I be undertaken at an earlier and therefore more Treatment. favourable stage of the disease. The physical signs in early stages of the lung . affection are often vague and inconclusive. A means of diagnosis has therefore been sought in the use of tuberculin. The methods are three: (i) The subcutaneous injection method of Koch; (2) the cutaneous method of Von Pirquet; (3) the conjunctiva! method of Wolff- Eisner and Calmette. The first method depended on the re- action occurring after an injection of " old tuberculin." It is unsuitable in febrile conditions, and has now been relegated to the treatment of cattle, where it has proved invaluable. In Von Pirquet's method a drop of old tuberculin diluted with sodium chloride is placed on a spot which has been locally scarified. The presence of tuberculosis is demonstrated by a local reaction in which a hyperaemic papule forms, surrounded by a bright red zone. Reaction occurs in tuberculosis of the bones of joints and skin. Von Pirquet in 1000 cases obtained a reaction in 88% of the tuberculous, and 10% of those clinically non-tuberculous. In the latter there may have been latent cases of tuberculosis. In the conjunctiva! or opthalmo-reaction of Calmette and Wolff-Eisner the instillation of a drop of a dilute solution of tuberculin into the conjunctiva is followed in the tuberculous subject by conjunctivitis. The reaction generally appears in from 3 to 12 hours, but may be delayed to 48. In a series of cases observed by Audeoud a positive reaction was obtained in 95% of 261 obviously tuberculous cases and in 8-3 % of 303 cases which presented no clinical symptoms. Very advanced cases fail to react to any of these tests, as do general miliary tuberculosis and tuberculous menin- gitis. As well as the three methods mentioned above the occurrence of a " negative phase " in the phagocytic power of the leucocytes following an injection of Koch's tuberculin T.R. may be said to be diagnostic of tuberculosis. Another valuable aid in diagnosis is that of the X-rays. By their help a pulmonary lesion may be demonstrated long before the physical signs can be obtained by ordinary examination. To discuss at all fully the treatment of the various forms of tuberculosis or even of consumption alone would be quite beyond the scope of this article. It must suffice to mention the more recent points. The open-air treatment of consump- tion has naturally attracted much attention. Neither the curability of this disease nor the advantages of fresh air are new things. Nature's method of spontaneous healing, explained above, has long been recognized and understood. There are, indeed, few diseases involving definite lesions which exhibit a more marked tendency to spontaneous arrest. Every case, except the most acute, bears signs of Nature's effort in this direction; and complete success is not at all uncommon, even under the ordinary conditions of life. Perhaps it was not always so: the ominous character popularly attributed to consumption may once have been justified, and the power of resistance, as we see it now, may be the result of acquired immunity or of the gradual elimination of the susceptible. However this may be, the natural tendency to cure is undoubtedly much assisted by the modern system of treatment, which makes pure air its first consideration. The principle was known to Sydenham, who observed the benefit derived by consumptives from horse exercise in the open air; and about 1830 George Boddington proposed the regular treatment of patients on the lines now generally recognized. The method has been most systematically developed in Germany by the provision of special sanatoria, where patients can virtually live in the open air. The example has been followed in other countries to a certain extent, and a good many of these establishments have been provided in Great Britain and elsewhere; but they are, for the most part, of a private character for the reception of paying patients. Germany has extended these advantages to the working classes on a large scale. This has been accomplished by the united efforts of friendly and philanthropic societies, local authorities, and the state; but the most striking feature is the part played by the state insurance institutes, which are the outcome of the acts of 1889 and 1899, providing for the compulsory insurance of workpeople against sickness and old age. The sanatoria have been erected as a matter of business, in order to keep insured members off the pension list, and they are supported by the sick clubs affiliated to the institutes. They number forty-five, and can give three months' treatment to 20,000 patients in the year. The clinical and economic results are said to be very encouraging. In about 70% of the cases the disease has been so far arrested as to enable the patients to return to work. In England, where more than 14 millions of the population belong to friendly societies, it is estimated that the sick pay of consumptive members costs three times as much as the average sick pay to members dying of other causes. An effort has been made by the National Association for the Establishment and Maintenance of Sanatoria for Workers Suffering from Tuber- culosis to establish such sanatoria, together with training for suitable work during convalescence, the gradual resumption of wage-earning being resumed while in touch with the medical authorities. The important features of the sanatorium treatment are life in the open air, independently of weather, in a healthy situation, rest and abundance of food. The last has been carried to rather extravagant lengths in some institutions, where the patients are stuffed with food whether they want it or not. The sanatorium movement on the German model is rapidly extending in all countries. For those who are able to do so advantage may be taken of the combined sanatorium and sun treatment. In certain high altitudes in Switzerland, which are favoured by a large amount of sunshine and a small percentage of moisture, much benefit has been derived from the exposure of the un- clothed body to the sun's rays. The power of the sun in high altitudes is so great that the treatment can be continued even when the snow is on the ground. Not only is the sun-treatment applicable to pulmonary tuberculosis, but also to the tuber- culosis of joints, even in advanced cases. The treatment has to a great extent replaced surgical procedure in tuberculosis of joints, but it requires to be persevered in over a considerable period of time. It should be remembered that the benefits of fresh air are not confined to sanatoria. If the superstitious 36° TUBEROSE— TUBINGEN dread of the outer air, particularly at night, could be abolished in ordinary life, more would be done for public health than by the most costly devices for eluding microbes. Not only con- sumption, but the other respiratory diseases, which are equally destructive, are chiefly fomented by the universal practice of breathing vitiated air in stuffy and overheated rooms. The cases most suitable for the treatment are those in an early stage. Other special institutions for dealing with consumption are hospitals, in which England is far in advance of other countries, and dispensaries; the latter find much favour in France and Belgium. In Great Britain the pioneer work as regards the establish- ment of tuberculosis dispensaries was the establishment of the Victoria Dispensary for Consumption in Edinburgh in 1887, where the procedure is similar to that in Dr Calmette's dispen- saries in France. In connexion with the dispensary home visits are made, patients suitable to sanatoria selected, advanced cases drafted to hospitals, bacteriological examinations made, cases notified under the voluntary system, and the families of patients instructed. There is an urgent need for the multi- plication of such dispensaries throughout the United Kingdom. The recent act providing for the medical inspection of schools has done much to sort out cases of tuberculosis occurring in children, and to provide them with suitable treatment and prevent them from becoming foci for the dissemination of the disease. In Germany special open-air schools, termed forest- schools, are provided for children suffering from the disease, and an effort is being made in England to provide similar schools. Of specific remedies it must suffice to say that a great many substances have been tried, chiefly by injection and inhalation, and good results have been claimed for some of them. The most noteworthy is the treatment by tuberculin, first introduced by Koch in 1890, which, having sunk into use as a diagnostic reagent for cattle, received a new lease of life owing to the valu- able work done by Sir Almroth Wright on opsonins. The tuberculins most in use are Koch's " old " tuberculin T.O., consisting of a glycerin broth culture of the tubercle bacilli, and Koch's T.R. tuberculin, consisting of a saline solution of the triturated dead tubercle bacilli which has been centrifuged. This latter is much in use, the dosage being carefully checked by the estimation of the tuberculo-opsonic index. The injections are usually unsuitable ^o very advanced cases. Marmorek's serum, the serum of horses into which the filtered young cul- tures of tubercle bacilli have been injected, and in which a tuberculo-toxin has been set free, has proved very successful. Behring's Tulase is a tuberculin preparation formed by a pro- cess of treating tubercle bacilli with chloral, and Bereneck's tuberculin consists of a filtered bouillon culture treated with orthophosphoric acid. The variety of cases to which these treatments are suitable can only be estimated from a careful consideration of each on its own merits. In the treatment of tuberculous lesions, the surgeon also plays his part. Tuberculosis is specially prone to attack the spongy bone-tissue, joints, skin (lupus) and lymphatic glands — especially those of the neck. Recognizing the infective nature of the disease, and knowing that from one focus the germs may be taken by the blood-stream to other parts of the body, and so cause a general tuberculosis, the surgeon is anxious, by removing the primary lesion, to cut short the disease and promote imme- diate and permanent convalescence. Thus, in the early stage of tuberculous disease of the glands of the neck, for instance, these measures may render excellent service, but when the disease has got a firm hold, nothing short of removal of the glands by surgical operation is likely to be of any avail. The results of this modern treatment of tuberculous disease of the skin and of the lymphatic glands has been highly gratifying, for not only has the infected tissue been completely removed, but the resulting scars have been far less noticeable than they would have been had less radical measures been employed. One rarely sees now a network of scars down the neck of a child, showing how a chain of tuberculous glands had been allowed to work out their own cure. A few years ago, however, such con- ditions were by no means unusual. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — " Tuberculosis," in Allbutt and Rotteston's System of Medicine (1909); A. Ransome, Milroy Lectures; " Tuberculosis," in Osier's Modern Medicine (1907); Second Interim Report of the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis (1907) ; Report, by C. Theodore Williams and H. Timbre!! Bulstrode, of the International Congress on Tuberculosis held at Paris in 1905; Alexander Foulerton, Milroy Lectures (1910); Sir Thomas Oliver, Diseases of Occupation; Arthur Newsholme, The Prevention of Tuberculosis (1908) ; Douglas Powell, " Lecture on the Prevention of Consumption," Journ. San. Inst. (Aug. 1904) ; Calmette and Gudrin, " Origine intestinale de la tuber- culose pulmonaire," Annales de I'institut Pasteur, vol. xix. No.io; D. Muller, " Milk as a source of infection in Tuberculosis," Journ. Compar. Path, and Therapeutics, vol. xix. (H. L. H.) TUBEROSE. The cultivated tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) is a plant allied to the Mexican agaves, and is a native of the same country. The tuberous root-stock sends up a stem 3 ft. in height, with numerous lanceolate leaves and terminal racemes of waxy white funnel-shaped very fragrant flowers. Each flower is about 1 1 in. long, with a long tube and a six-parted limb. The stamens are six in number, emerging from the upper part of the tube, and bear linear anthers. The ovary is three- celled, and the ovoid fruit is crowned by the persistent flower. The plant is largely grown in the United States and at the Cape of Good Hope for export to England, as it is found that imported bulbs succeed better than those grown in the United Kingdom. The double-flowered form is that principally grown. Cultivated plants require a rich soil, considerable heat, and, at first, abundance of water. TUBINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttem- berg, picturesquely situated on the hilly and well-wooded banks of the Neckar, at its junction with the Ammer and Steinlach, 22 m. south of Stuttgart by road and 43 m. by rail. Pop. (1905), 16,809. The older town is irregularly built and un- attractive, but the newer suburbs are handsome. The most conspicuous building is the old ducal castle of Hohentiibingen, built in 1507-1535 on a hill overlooking the town, and now con- taining the university library of 460,000 volumes, the observa- tory, the chemical laboratory, &c. Among the other chief buildings are the quaint old Stiftskirche (1460-1483), a Gothic building containing the tombs of the rulers of Wurttemberg, the new aula and numerous institutes of the university, all of which are modern, and the town-hall dating from 1435 and restored in 1872. The university possesses a very important library. A monument was erected in 1873 to the poet Johann Ludwig Uhland (1787-1862), who was born and is buried here, and another, in 1881, to the poet Johann Christian Friedrich Holderlin (1770-1843). Tubingen's chief claim to attention lies in its famous university, founded in 1477 by Duke Eber- hard of Wurttemberg. Melanchthon was a lecturer here (1512-1518). The university adopted the reformed faith in 1534, and in 1537 a Protestant theological seminary, a resi- dential college — the so-called Stift — was incorporated with it. In 1817 a Roman Catholic theological faculty was added, with a seminary called the Konvikt, and there are now also faculties of law, medicine, philosophy, poh'tical economy and natural science. The leading faculty has long been that of theology, and an advanced school of theological criticism, the founder and chief light of which was F. C. Baur, is known as the Tubingen school. The university was attended in 1908 by 1891 students and had a teaching staff of over 100. The commercial and manufacturing industries of the town are slight. Printing, book-selling, the manufacture of surgical and scientific instruments, chemicals, gloves and vinegar, and the cultivation of hops, fruit and vines are among the leading occupations of the inhabitants. The country in the neighbourhood of Tubingen is very attractive; one of the most interesting points is the former Cistercian monastery of Bebenhausen, founded in 1185, and now a royal hunting-chateau. Tubingen is mentioned as a strong fortress in 1078, and was ruled from 1148 by counts palatine. In 1342 it was purchased by the count of WUrttemberg, whose descendants afterwards acquired the title of duke. The treaty of Tubingen is the name TUBUAI— TUCSON given in German history to an arrangement made in 151 between Duke Ulrich and his subjects, by which the latte acquired various rights and privileges on condition of relievin the former of his debts. The town was captured by the Swabia: League in 1519, by Turenne in 1647, and again in 1688 by th French, who destroyed the walls. See Eifert, Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt und Universita Tubingen (Tubingen, 1849) ; Maier, Die Musenstadt Tubingen (Ttibin gen, 1904); Tubingen und seine Um.ge.bung (Tubingen, 1887-1889). TUBUAI, or AUSTRAL ISLANDS, an archipelago in the south Pacific Ocean, between 21° 49' and 27° 41' S., 144° 22' and 154 51' W., to the south of the Society Islands, with a total land area of no sq. m., belonging to France. They form a curved broken chain from north-west to south-east which includes four principa islands: Tubuai (area 40 sq. m.), Vavitao or Ravaivai, Rurutu or Oheteroa, Rapa or Oparo, and Rimitara, with Maretiri or the Bass Islands, and other islets. Tubuai, Vavitao and Rapa are volcanic and reach considerable elevations (2100 ft. in Rapa) The islands are well watered and fertile, producing coco-nut palms, arrowroot and bananas; but they lie too far south for the bread fruit to flourish. The natives belong to the Polynesian race; they were once much more numerous than now, the present population not exceeding 2000. A Tahitian dialect is spoken in the western islands; in Rapa, however, which with the Bas: Islands lies detached from the rest, to the south, the language is, akin to that of the Rarotongans in the Cook Islands. There are remarkable ancient stone platforms and walls, massively built, on the summits of some of the peaks in Rapa; they resemble the terraces in Easter Island (Rapanui), which is believed to have been peopled from Rapa. The scattered islands of the Tubuai archipelago were discovered at different times'. Captain Cook visited Rurutu in 1769 and Tubuai in 1777; Rapa was discovered by George Vancouver in 1791, Vavitao perhaps in 1772 by the Spaniards who attempted to colonize Tahiti, and certainly by Captain Broughton in 1791. The islands never attracted much attention from Europeans, and the French protection and sub- sequent annexation were carried out spasmodically between the middle of the igth century and 1889. TUCKER, ABRAHAM (1705-1774), English moralist, was born in London, of a Somerset family, on the 2nd of September 1705, son of a wealthy city merchant. His parents dying during his infancy, he was brought up by his uncle, Sir Isaac Tillard. In 1721 he entered Merton College, Oxford, as a gentleman com- moner, and studied philosophy, mathematics, French, Italian and music. He afterwards studied law at the Inner Temple, but was never called to the bar. In 1727 he bought Betchworth Castle, near Dorking, where he passed the remainder of his life. He took no part in politics, and wrote a pamphlet, " The Country Gentleman's Advice to his Son on the Subject of Party Clubs " (1755), cautioning young men against its snares. In 1736 Tucker married Dorothy, the daughter of Edward Barker of East Betchworth, cursitor baron of the exchequer. On her death in 1754, he occupied himself in collecting together all the letters that had passed between them, which, we are told, he transcribed twice over under the title of " The Picture of Artless Love." From this time onward he occupied himself with the composition of his chief work, The Light of "Nature Pursued., of which in 1763 he published a specimen under the title of " Free Will." The stric- tures of a critic in the Monthly Review of July 1763 drew from him a pamphlet called Man in Quest of Himself, by Cuthbert Comment (reprinted in Parr's Metaphysical Tracts, 1837), " a defence of the individuality of the human mind or self." In 1765 the first four volumes of his work were published under the pseudonym " Edward Search." The remaining three volumes appeared posthumously. His eyesight failed him completely in 1771, but he contrived an ingenious apparatus which enabled him to write so legibly that the result could easily be transcribed by his daughter. In this way he completed the later volumes, which were ready for publication when he died on the 2oth of November 1774. His work embraces in its scope many psychological and more strictly metaphysical discussions, but it is chiefly in connexion with ethics that Tucker s speculations are remembered. In some impor- tant points he anticipates the utilitarianism afterwards systematized by Paley, who expresses in the amplest terms his obligations to his predecessor. " Every man's own satisfaction " Tucker holds to be the ultimate end of action; and satisfaction or pleasure is one and the same in kind, however much it may vary in degree. This universal motive is further connected, as by Paley, through the will of God, with the " general good, the root where out all our rules of conduct and sentiments of honour are to branch." The Light of Nature was republished with a biographical sketch by Tucker's grandson, Sir H. P. St John Mildmay (1905), 7 vols. (other editions 1834, 1836, &c.), and an abridged edition by W. Hazhtt appeared in 1807. See James Mackintosh, Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy (Edinburgh, 1832) ; and specially bir Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the i8th Century, iii. 119-130. TUCKER, CHARLOTTE MARIA (1821-1893), English author, who wrote under the pseudonym "A.L.O.E." (a Lady of England) , was born near Barnet, Middlesex, on the 8th of May 1821, the daughter of Henry St George Tucker (1771-1851)^ distinguished official of the East India Company. From 1852 till her death she wrote many stories for children, most of them allegories with an obvious moral, and devoted the proceeds to charity. In 1875 she left England for India to engage in missionary work, and died at Amritsar on the 2nd of December 1893. TUCKER, JOSIAH (1712-1799), English economist and divine, the son of a small Welsh farmer, was born at Laugharne, Carmar- thenshire, in 1712. He was educated at St John's College, Oxford, and became successively a curate and rector in Bristol. This led him to take considerable interest in politics and trade, and during the greater portion of a long life he poured out a succession of pamphlets on these matters. He was appointed dean of Gloucester in 1758. He died on the 4th of November 1799, and was buried in Gloucester Cathedral. His Important Questions on Commerce (1755) was translated into French by Turgot. TUCSON (possibly from Piman styuk-son, " dark or brown spring," pronounced Tooson), a city and the county-seat of Pima county, Arizona, U.S.A., on the Santa Cruz river, in the S.E. part of the state, about 130 m. S.E. of Phoenix. Pop. (1880), 7007; (1890), 5150; (1900), 7531 (2352 foreign-born, chiefly from Mexico); (1910), 13,193. It is served by the Southern Pacific and the Twin Buttes railways, the latter connecting with the mines of the Twin Buttes district, about 27 m. south by east, and with the Randolph lines in Mexico. The city lies about 2360 ft. above the sea in a broad valley sheltered by mountains 5000-9000 ft. high. Its climate, characteristic of southern Arizona, attracts many invalids and winter visitors. Tucson is the seat of the university of Arizona (1891; non-sectarian, coeducational), which is organ- ized under the Morrill Acts; in 1909 it 'had 40 instructors and 201 students. At Tucson also are a desert botanical laboratory 'owning a tract of some 1000 acres about i m. west of the city) established by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, St foseph's Academy (Roman Catholic); a Roman Catholic cathe- dral; the Tucson Mission (Presbyterian), a boarding school for Indians, the San Xavier Mission for Indians (Roman Catholic) and a Carnegie library. In 1900 Tucson became the see of a •toman Catholic bishop. The surrounding country is arid and unproductive except where irrigated; but the soil is very rich, and Tucson is the centre of one of the oldest farming and ranching districts of the state. The Southern Pacific railway has division leadquarters and repair shops here. Tucson is first heard of in history in 1699, conjecturally, as an ndian rancheria or settlement; and in 1763 certainly as a msita, n that year temporarily abandoned, of the Jesuit mission of San Xavier del Bac, founded between 1720 and 1732, 9 m. south f what is now Tucson; in 1776 it was made a presidio (San Uigustin del Tugison), or military outpost, and although a few •paniards may possibly have lived there before, the foundation f Tucson as a Spanish town dates from this time. It was never fter abandoned during the Indian wars. In 1848 it had 760 in- abitants. The abandonment by the Mexicans in 1848 of the mis- ion towns of Tamacacori (a visita of Guevavi, a mission founded n the first third of the i8th century) and the presidio at Tubac established before 1752) increased its importance. Tucson lay vithin the territory acquired by the United States by the Gadsden 'urchase in 1853; it was occupied by the United States in 1856. "ort Lowell, 7 m. north-east of the city, was built as a protection 362 TUCU MAN— TUDOR (FAMILY) against the Apache Indians in 1873; it was abandoned in 1891. In the earlier days of Territorial history Tucson was the political centre of Arizona. Here were held in August 1856 a convention that demanded a Territorial government from Congress, another in April 1860 that organized a provisional government indepen- dently of Congressional permission, and others in 1861 that attempted to cast in the lot of Arizona with the Confederate states. Tucson was occupied by the Confederates in February 1862 and by the Union forces in May. It was the Territorial capital from 1867 to 1877. Its prosperity fluctuated with the fortunes of the surrounding mining country. Tucson was incorporated as a town in 1877, and chartered as a city in 1883. TUCUMAN, a northern province of Argentina, bounded N. by Salta, E. by Santiago del Estero, S. and W. by Catamarca. Area, 8926 sq. m. Pop. (1895), 215,742; (1-904, estimated) 263,079. The Sierra de Aconquija is on the western frontier of the province and there is also broken country in the north, but in the east the country is flat, alluvial and very fertile. The only large river is the Sali, or Dulce, which receives a large number of small streams from the Sierra de Aconquija and flows through Santiago del Estero to the Porongos lagoons on the frontier of Cordoba. The exports are sugar, rum (aguardiente), timber, hides, leather, fruit and Tafi cheese made in an upland valley of the Aconquija. TUCUMAN, or SAN MIGUEL DE TUCUMAN, a city of Argentina, capital of the province of Tucuman, on the right bank of the Sali, or Dulce river, 780 m. by rail N.W. of Buenos Aires, in lat. 26° 50' S., long. 64° 35' W. Pop. (1895), 34,305; (1904, esti- mated) 5 s ,000. The climate is warm and enervating, with no great seasonal variation during the year except in the rainfall, which falls almost wholly between September and April. The tempera- ture averages about 67°, with a maximum of 104°. Malarial diseases, especially " chucho " (fever and ague), are common. Tucuman is laid out in regular squares, and still retains many of its old characteristics, low buildings enclosing large courts (patios), with large rooms, thick walls, and tile roofs. The more noteworthy edifices and institutions of Tucuman are the " matriz " church, Merced church, cabildo, national college, normal school, the Belgrano theatre, hospital, public library, courts of justice, post office, and sundry charitable institutions. Tucuman was founded in 1565 by Diego Villaruel at the con- fluence of the Sali and Monteros rivers, but frequent inundations led to a removal to its present site in 1585. In i68oit succeeded Santiago del Estero as the capital of the province of Tucuman, then under the government of the Spanish viceroy at Lima. The province of Tucuman then extended from Jujuy south to Cordoba. In 1776 the viceroyalty of La Plata was created and Tucuman was transferred to its jurisdiction. In 1816 a conven- tion of delegates from the La Plata provinces met in Tucuman and signed (July gth) an act of independence, which formally dissolved all ties with the mother country. TUDELA, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Navarre, on the Saragossa-Logrono and Tudela-Tarazona railways, and on the right bank of the river Ebro, which is here joined by its tributary the Queiles. Pop. (1900), 9499. The Ebro is here crossed by a massive and ancient bridge of 19 arches. Most of the public buildings, such as the town-hall, bull-ring, hospitals and schools, are modern; but there is a Romanesque collegiate church, Santa Maria, which was founded in 1135 and consecrated in 1 188. This church is one of the most perfect in northern Spain, the sculptured doorways and cloisters being especially fine. There are many sawmills in the town, and an active timber trade; the manufactures of cloth, linen, spirits, preserved fruit, pottery, &c., and the trade in grain, wine and oil are of less importance. Tudela, the Roman Tutela, was occupied by the Moors in the 8th century, and taken from them by Alphonso I. of Aragon in 1114. The town was an episcopal see from 17 83 to 1851. In 1808 the Spanish forces under Generals Castanos and Palafox were twice defeated here by the French under Marshal Lannes. TUDOR (FAMILY). The house of Tudor, which gave five sovereigns to England, is derived by all the Welsh genealogists from Ednyfed Vychan of Tregarnedd in Anglesey, who is named in 1232 as steward of Llywelyn, prince of North Wales, and seven years later, as an arbitrator in a convention to which Davydd, the son of Llywelyn, was a party. His pedigree has been traced from Marchudd ap Cynan and beyond him, according to the veracious Lewys Dwnn, from Brutus, the great-grandson of Aeneas. Gronw, or Gronwy, one pf his younger sons, had Tre- castell for his portion. Tudor, son of Gronw, who lived to be called Tudor Hen or the old Tudor, founded the Carmelite friary in Bangor and was grandfather of Tudor Vychan ap Gronw of Trecastell, who is said to have assumed the style of a knight, and to have had that rank confirmed to him by Edward III. This Tudor Vychan was the father of four sons, of whom the eldest, Gronw Vychan, was in favour with the Black Prince and with Richard II. He was forester of Snowdon and steward of the bishop of Bangor's lordship in Anglesey. He died in 1382, an infant son being heir to his lands in Penmynydd, whose sister carried them to her husband Gwylym ap Gmffydd of Penrhyn. Gronw Vychan,, whom a bard calls " a pillar of the court: the ardent pursuer of France," was probably the warrior whose effigy remains in the church at Penmynydd. Gronw's brothers Gwylym and Rhys served Richard II. as captains of archers. Their youngest brother, Meredydd ap Tudor, escheator of Anglesey in 1392 and, like Gronw, an officer of the household of the bishop of Bangor, is said to have slain a man and fled to the wild country about Snowdon. He was the father of Owen ap Meredydd, commonly called Owen Tudor, a squire who appears at the court of the infant king Henry VI. By all accounts he was a goodly young man: the chroniclers dwell upon the beauty which attracted the queen mother. She gave the handsome squire a post in her household. About 142801 1429, it must have been common knowledge that the presump- tuous Welshman and the daughter of Charles VI. of France were living as man and wife. There is no direct evidence for their marriage. An act had but lately been passed for making it a grave offence to marry with the queen dowager without the royal consent: this act is said to have been afterwards cut out from the statute book. Richard III. denounced his rival Richmond as the son of a bastard, but it must be remembered that Richard was ready to foul the memory of his own mother in order to say the same of the young Edward V. But no one yet has found time or place of Owen Tudor's marriage with Catherine of France. Five children were born to them, the sons being Edmund and Jasper and another son who became a monk. In 1436, a date which suggests that Bedford had been Owen's protector, the influence of Gloucester was uppermost. In that year the queen dowager was received within Bermondsey Abbey, where she died in the following January. Her children were taken from her, and Owen Tudor " the which dwelled with the said queen" was ordered to come into the king's presence. He had already seen the inside of Newgate gaol, and he would not obey without a safe conduct. When he had the safe conduct sent him he came up from Daventry and went at once to sanctuary at Westminster, whence even the temptations of the tavern would not draw him. Allowed to go back to Wales, he was retaken and lodged again in Newgate. He broke prison again, with his chaplain and his man, the sheriffs of London having a pardon in 1438 for the escape from gaol of " Owen ap Tuder, esquire," and he returned to his native Wales. When Henry VI. came of full age he made some provision for his step-father, who took the red rose and fought manfully for it. But Mortimer's Cross was his last battle (Feb. 4, 1460/1). He fell into the hands of the Yorkists, who beheaded him in Hereford market place and set up his head on the market cross. Thither, they say, came a mad woman who combed the hair and washed the face of this lover of a queen, setting lighted wax torches round about it. His eldest son Edmund of Hadham, born about 1430 at Hadham in Herts, one of his mother's manors, was brought up with his brothers by the abbess of Barking until he was about ten years old. The king then took them into his charge. Edmund was a knight in 1449 and in 1453 ne was summoned as earl of Richmond, his patent, dated the 6th cf March 1452/3, giving TUDOR FLOWER— TUFF him precedence next to the dukes. He was declared of legiti- mate birth, and in 1455 the royal favour found him a wife in the Lady Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, duke of Somerset. But he died the next year, and his only child, afterwards Henry VII., was born on the 28th of January 1456/7, three months after his death. Edmund's younger brother, Jasper Tudor, survived him many years. Jasper was knighted in 1449 and, about the date of Edmund's patent, was created earl of Pembroke. He bore the royal arms of France and England, differenced with a blue border charged with the royal martlets of the Confessor's fabulous shield, and the same was formerly to be seen upon his Garter stall-plate of 1459. He fought at St Albans in 1455 for the king who had advanced him, and two years later we find him strengthening the defences of Tenby. In 1460 he seized and took Denbigh, where the queen joined him after Northampton. He shared the defeat in 1461 at Mortimer's Cross, where his father the Welsh squire was taken and beheaded, and left the country in 1462. In 1465 he made a last descent upon Wales, to be driven off by William Herbert, who was rewarded with his earldom of Pembroke, already forfeited by attainder. But he was an obstinate and loyal partisan. He came back again with Warwick in 1470 and was hurrying to join the queen when Tewkesbury was fought and lost. After many adventures he carried off his young nephew Richmond to Brittany. The two came back together in 1485. After Bosworth, Jasper was created duke of Bedford and restored to his earldom, the earl-marshalship being given him in 1492. He lived to fight at Stoke in 1487 against Lincoln and Simnel his puppet and to be one of the leaders of the host that landed in France in 1492. He died in 1495 leaving no issue by his wife Catherine, the widow of the second duke of Buckingham and a daughter of Richard Widvile, Earl Rivers. But his bastard daughter Ellen is said to have been mother of Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. (O.BA.) TUDOR FLOWER, or CRESTING, an architectural ornament much used in the Tudor period on the tops of the cornices of screen work, &c., instead of battlements. It consists generally of a flat, upright leaf standing on stems. TUDOR PERIOD, in architecture, the later development of medieval architecture which followed the Perpendicular and, although superseded by the Elizabethan and the Renaissance styles, still retained its hold on English taste, portions of the additions to the various colleges of Oxford and Cambridge being still carried out in the Tudor style down to the middle of the i8th century. In church architecture the principal examples are Henry VII. 's Chapel at Westminster (1503), King's College Chapel, Cambridge, and St George's Chapel, Windsor; and the old schools at Oxford; and in domestic work, Eltham Palace, Kent; Oxburgh Hall, Norfolk; King's College, Aberdeen; Layer Marney Hall, Essex; the manor house at East Barsham, Norfolk; and Ford's Hospital, Coventry. It was a further debasement of the Perpendicular style, and the four-centred arch was its principal feature; some of the most remarkable examples of the bow- window belong to this period; the mouldings are more spread out and the foliage becomes more natural. TUFF (ItaUw/o), a rock consisting of volcanic ashes, the ejecta- menta of craters in a state of eruption. The products of a volcanic eruption may be classified into three groups: (a) steam and other gases, (6) lavas, (c) ashes. The ashes have not been burnt in any way though they resemble cinders in appearance: they are merely porous, slaggy pieces of lava which have been tossed into the air by outbursts of steam and have become vesicular by the expansion of the gases within them while they were still plastic. Among the loose beds of ash which cover the slopes of many volcanoes, three classes of materials are represented. In addition to true ashes (a) of -the kind above described, there are lumps of the old lavas and tuffs (t) forming the walls of the crater, &c., and which have been torn away by the violent outbursts of steam, pieces of sedimentary rocks (c) from the deeper parts of the vol- cano, which were dislodged by the rising lava, and are often intensely baked and recrystallized by the heat to which they have been subjected. In some great volcanic explosions nothing but materials of the second kind were emitted, as at Bandaisan in Japan in 1888. There have been many eruptions also at which the quantity of broken sedimentary rocks mingled with the ashes is very great; as instances we may cite the volcanoes of the Eifel and the Devonian tuffs, known as " Schalsteins," in Germany. In the Scotch coalfields some old volcanoes are plugged with masses consisting entirely of sedimentary debris: in such a case we must suppose that no lava was ejected, but the cause of the eruption was the sudden liberation and expansion of a large quantity of steam. These accessory or adventitious materials, however, as distinguished from the true ashes, tend to occur in angular fragments; and when they form a large part of the mass the rock is more properly a " volcanic breccia " than a tuff. The ashes vary in size from large blocks twenty feet or more in diameter to the minutest impalpable dust. The large masses are called " bombs "; they have mostly a rounded, elliptical or pear-shaped form, owing to rotation in the air while they were still viscous. Many of them have ribbed or nodular sur- faces, and sometimes (at Volcano and Mont Pele) they have a crust intersected by many cracks like the surface of a loaf of bread. Any ash in which they are very abundant is called an agglomerate (q.v.). In those layers and beds of tuff which have been spread out over considerable tracts of country and which are most frequently encountered among the sedimentary rocks, smaller fragments preponderate greatly and bombs more than a few inches in dia- meter may be absent altogether. A tuff of recent origin is generally loose and incoherent, but the older tuffs have been, in most c^ses, cemented together by pressure and the action of infiltrating water, making rocks which, while not very hard, are strong enough to be extensively used for building purposes (e.g. in the neighbourhood of Rome). If they have accumulated sub- aerially, like the ash beds found on Etna or Vesuvius at the present day, tuffs consist almost wholly of volcanic materials of different degrees of fineness with pieces of wood and vegetable matter, land shells, &c. But many volcanoes stand near the sea, and the ashes cast out by them are mingled with the sediments that are gathering at the bottom of the waters. In this way ashy muds or sands or even in some cases ashy limestones are being formed. As a matter of fact most of the tuffs found in the older forma- tions contain admixtures of clay, sand, and sometimes fossil shells, which prove that they were beds spread out under water. During some volcanic eruptions a layer of ashes several feet in thickness is deposited over a considerable district, but such beds thin out rapidly as the distance from the crater increases, and ash deposits covering many square miles are usually very thin. The showers of ashes often follow one another after longer or shorter intervals, and hence thick masses of tuff, whether of subaerial or of marine origin, have mostly a stratified character. The coarsest materials or agglomerates show this least distinctly; in the fine beds it is often developed in great perfection. Apart from adventitious material, such as fragments of the older rocks, pieces of trees, &c., the contents of an ash deposit may be described as consisting of more or less crystalline igneous rocks. If the lava within the crater has been at such a tempera- ture that solidification has commenced, crystals are usually present. They may be of considerable size like the grey, rounded leucite crystals found on the sides of Vesuvius. Many of these are very perfect and rich in faces, because they grew in a medium which was liquid and not very viscous. Good crystals of augite and olivine are also to be obtained in the ash beds of Vesuvius and of many other volcanoes, ancient and modern. Blocks of these crystalline minerals (anorthite, olivine, augite and hornblende) are common objects in the1 tuffs of many of the West Indian volcanoes. Where crystals are very abundant the ashes are called " crystal tuffs." In St Vincent and Martinique in 1902 much of the dust was composed of minute crystals enclosed in thin films of glass, because the lava at the moment of eruption had very nearly solidified as a crystalline mass. Some basaltic volcanoes, on the other hand, have ejected great quantities of TUGELA— TUGGURT black glassy scoria which, after consolidation, weather to a red soft rock known as palagonite; tufis of this kind occur in Iceland and Sicily. In the Lipari Islands and Hungary there are acid (rhyolitic) tuffs, of pale grey or yellow colour, largely composed of lumps and fragments of pumice. Over a large portion of the sea bottom the beds of fine mud contain small, water-worn, rounded pebbles of very spongy volcanic glass; these have been floated from the shore or cast out by submarine volcanoes, and may have travelled for hundreds of miles before sinking; it has been proved by experiment that some kinds of pumice will float on sea- water for more than a year. The deep sea-deposit known as the " red clay " is largely of volcanic origin and might be suitably described as a " submarine tuff-bed." For petrographical purposes tuffs are generally classified according to the nature of the volcanic rock of which they consist; this is the same as the accompanying lavas if any of these were emitted during an eruption, and if there is a change in the kind of lava which is poured out, the tuffs also indicate this equally clearly. Rhyolite tuffs contain pumiceous, glassy fragments and small scoriae with quartz, alkali felspar, biotite, &c. In Iceland, Lipari, Hungary, Nevada, New Zealand, recent tuffs of this kind occur. The broken pumice is clear and isotropic, and when the particles are very small they have often crescentic, sickle-shaped, or biconcave outlines, showing that they are produced by the shattering of a vesicular glass; this is sometimes described as ash-structure. In the ancient rocks of Wales, Charnwood, the Pentland Hills, &c., similar tuffs are known, but in all cases they are greatly changed by silicification (which has filled them with opal, chalcedony and quartz) and by devitrification. The frequent presence of rounded corroded quartz crystals, such as occur in rhyolitic lavas, helps to demonstrate their real nature. Trachyte luffs contain little or no quartz but much orthoclase and oligoclase felspar with often biotite, augite and hornblende. In weathering they often change to soft red or yellow " clay-stones, " rich in kaolin with secondary quartz. Recent trachyte tuffs are found on the Rhine (at Siebengebirge), in Ischia, near Naples, Hungary, &c. Andesitic tuffs are exceedingly common. They occur along the whole chain of the Cordilleras and Andes, in the West Indies, New Zealand, Japan, &c. In the Lake district, North Wales, Lome, the Pentland Hills, the Cheviots and many other districts of Britain, ancient rocks of exactly similar nature are abundant. In colour they are red or brown; their scoriae fragments are of all sizes from huge blocks down to minute granular dust. The cavities are filled up with many secondary minerals, such as calcite, chlorite, quartz, epidote, chalcedony : but in micro- scopic sections the nature of the original lava can nearly always be made out from the shapes and properties of the little crystals which occur in the decomposed glassy base. Even in the smallest details these ancient tuffs have a complete resemblance to the modern ash beds of Cotopaxi, Krakatoa and Mont Pelee. Basaltic tuffs are also of wide spread occurrence both in districts where volcanoes are now active and in lands where eruptions have long since ended. In the British Isles they are found in Skye, Mull, Antrim and other places, where there are Tertiary volcanic rocks; in Scotland, Derby- shire, Ireland among the carboniferous strata; and among the still older rocks of the lake district, southern uplands of Scotland and Wales. They are black, dark green or red in colour; vary greatly in coarseness, some being full of round spongy bombs a foot or more in diameter, and, being often submarine, may contain shale, sand- stone, grit and other sedimentary material, and are occasionally fossiliferous. Recent basaltic tuffs are found in Iceland, the Faeroes, Jan Mayen, Sicily, Vesuvius, Sandwich Islands, Samoa, &c. When weathered they are filled with calcite, chlorite, serpentine and, especially where the lavas contain nepheline or leucite, are often rich in zeolites, such as analcite, prehnite, natrolite, scolecite, chabazite, heulandite, &c. Ultra-basic tuffs are by no means fre- quent; thein characteristic is the abundance of olivine or serpentine and the scarcity or absence of felspar. In this class the peridotite, breccias or kimberlites of the diamond-fields of South Africa may perhaps be placed (see DIAMOND). The principal rock is a dark bluish green serpentine (blue-ground) which when thoroughly oxidized and weathered becomes a friable brown or yellow mass (the " yellow-ground "). Besides olivine and augite (chrome diopside) there occur crystals of hypersthene, brown mica, garnet (Cape ruby), magnetite, ilmenite and kyanite, together with crystal- line blocks of garnet, augite and olivine (which some petrographers have_called eclogites). Many lumps of shale are embedded in the breccia, and some have supposed that the diamonds are due to the ultra-basic magma dissolving carbon, which subsequently crystal- lized as the rock cooled down. Many of the crystals are broken, and as the rock fragments also are angular, rather than rounded, the kimberlite is more properly an ultra-basic breccia than a tuff. In course of time other changes than weathering may overtake tuff deposits. Sometimes they are involved in folding and become sheared and cleaved. Many of the green slates of the lake district in Cumberland are fine cleaved ashes. In Charnwood forest also the tuffs are slaty and cleaved. The green colour is due to the large development of chlorite. Among the crystalline schists of many regions green beds or green schists occur, which consist of quartz, hornblende, chlorite or biotite, iron oxides, felspar, &c., and are probably recrystallized or metamorphosed tuffs. They often accompany masses of epidiorite and hornblende-schists which are the corresponding lavas and sills. Some chlorite-schists also are probably altered beds of volcanic tuff. The " Schalsteins " of Devon and Germany include many cleaved and partly recrystallized ash-beds, some of which still retain their fragmental structure though their lapilli are flattened and drawn out. Their steam cavities are usually filled with calcite, but sometimes with quartz. The more completely altered forms of these rocks are platy, green chloritic schists ; in these, however, structures indicating their original volcanic nature only sparingly occur. These are intermediate stages between cleaved tuffs and crystalline schists. Tuffs are not of much importance in an economic sense. The peperino, much used at Rome and Naples as a building stone, is a trachyte tuff. _Puzzuolana also is a decomposed tuff, but of basic character, originally obtained near Naples and used as a cement, but this name is now applied to a number of substances not always of identical character. In the Eifel a trachytic, pumiceous tuff called trass (q.v.) has been extensively worked as a hydraulic mortar. (J- S. F.) TUGELA (" Startling "), a river of south-east Africa, the largest in Natal. It drains, with its tributaries, an area of about 8000 sq. m. The river valley is some 190 m. in length, the river, which has an exceedingly sinuous course is fully 300 m. long. It rises, at an altitude of nearly 11,000 ft. in the Drakensberg mountains on the eastern face of the Mont aux Sources, down which it leaps in a nearly perpendicular fall of 1800 ft. The river, which starts its race to the ocean with a north-east course, soon bends more directly east, and, with many windings north and south, maintains this general direction across the table- land of north Natal until its junction with the Buffalo river, when it turns south. On its northern bank in its upper course are the heights of Spion Kop and Vaal Kranz, and on its southern bank, 56 m. east in a direct line from its source, is the village of Colenso, all three places being the scene of ineffectual attempts (Dec. 1899- Feb. 1900) by the British troops under General Sir Redvers Buller to dislodge the Boers who blocked the road to Ladysmith. Below Colenso are more waterfalls, and above the river is Pieter's Hill, the storming of which by the British, on the 27th of February 1900 at length led to the relief of Ladysmith. Six miles lower down the Tugela Deceives the Klip, which rises in the Drakensberg near Van Reenen's Pass and flows by Ladysmith. Another northern tributary is the Sunday's river, which rises in the Biggarsberg. From the south the river is increased by several affluents, the chief being the Mooi (Beautiful) river. The Tugela-Mooi confluence is 44 m. south-east of Colenso at the base of the Biggarsberg. Seven miles farther down the Tugda joins the Buffalo river, the united stream retaining, however, the name Tugela. The Buffalo has its origin in the Drakensberg near Majuba Hill and flows south with, also, a general trend to east. In its course, which is very winding, it receives numerous tributaries, one of them being the Ingogo, a small stream whose name recalls the fight on its banks on the 8th of February 1 88 1, between British and Boers. The chief affluents are the Ingagani (from the south-west) and the Blood (from the north-east), the last-named so called after the defeat of the Zulu king Dingaan, on the l6th of December 1838, by the Boers under Andries Pretorius, when the river ran red with the blood of the Zulus. Eighteen miles in a direct line below the Blood con- fluence is Rorke's Drift, or ford across the river, and some 12 m. south-east of the drift is the hill of Isandhlwana, both places rendered famous in the Zulu War of 1878-79. The junction with the Tugela is 30 m. in a direct line, farther south, the Buffalo river in that distance passing through a wooded and hilly region. Below the confluence of the two streams the Tugela flows south- east in a deep channel between lofty cliffs, or through wild, stone- strewn valleys until it reaches the narrow coast belt. Its mouth is nearly closed by a sand bar, formed by the action of the ocean. The Tugela is thus useless for navigation. About 6 m. above the mouth are two forts, Pearson and Tenedos, built by the British in 1879, during the war with the Zulus, to guard the passage of the river. Generally fordable in the winter months, the Tugela is, after the heavy rains of summer, a deep and rapid river. It is crossed, some 5 m. above the forts, by a railway bridge — the longest bridge in South Africa. From the junction of the Blood river with the Buffalo, that stream and subsequently the Tugela form the boundary between Natal and Zululand. TUGGURT, a town in the Wadi Ghir, Algerian Sahara, 127 m. S. of Biskra. Tuggurt, which has a population (1906) of 2073, was formerly surrounded by a moat, which the French filled up. The town is entered by two gates. Just within the northern gate is the market place, which contains the chief mosque. The surrounding oasis is very fertile. It has about 9000 inhabitants and contains about 200,000 date palms. From Tuggurt a road 75 m. long leads across the desert north-east to El Wad (q.v.). TUG-OF- WAR— TULA 365 Some 1 2 m. south-west at the desert end of the Wadi Ghir is the oasis and town of Temacin (pop. 2120), one of the chief centres of the Mussulman fraternity of Tidianes. TUG-OF-WAR, a contest between two teams composed of one or more persons, each team striving to pull the other in its own direction by means of a rope held by the hands alone. Some rules allow the " anchor-men," who hold the ends of the rope, to fasten it to their persons. A ribbon or handkerchief is tied round the middle of the rope, and others at a distance, usually, of one yard on each side of it. That team loses which allows itself to be pulled more than one yard from its original position. The British army teams are usually composed of ten men each, but the number varies in different parts of the world. The rules of the modern Olympic Games recognize teams of five. When a tug-of-war takes place out of doors the men, or at least the " anchors," are allowed to dig holes in the ground for their feet; when indoors cleats are bolted to the floor as braces. TUGUEGARAO, a town and the capital of the province of Cagayan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Grande de Cagayan River, about 60 m. from its mouth. Pop. (1903), 16,105. Many of Tuguegarao's buildings — government, religious, business and residential — are of stone or brick. There are a Dominican college for boys, a convent school for girls, and good public schools, including a high school. The river is navigable to Tuguegarao for vessels of light draught ; the Cagayan Valley is the great tobacco- producing region of the Philippines; and Tuguegarao is an im- portant shipping point for tobacco. Local business is largely in the hands of Chinese merchants; Spanish and German companies control the exportation of tobacco. The town was settled in 1774, and the old church and bell tower are still standing. The local dialects are Cagayan, and, of less importance, Ilocano and Tagalog. TUKE, the name of an English family, several generations of which were celebrated for their efforts in the cause of philan- thropy. WILLIAM TUKE (1732-1822) was born at York on the 24th of March 1732. His name is connected with the humane treatment of the insane, for whose care he projected in 1792 the Retreat at York, which became famous as an institution in which a bold attempt was made to manage lunatics without the excessive restraints then regarded as essential. The asylum was entirely under the management of the Society of Friends. Its success led to more stringent legislation in the interests of the insane. His son HENRY TUKE (1755-1814) co-operated with his father in the reforms at the York Retreat. He was the author of several moral and theological treatises which ha ve^. been translated into German and French. Henry's son SAMUEL TUKE (1784-1857), born at York on the 3istof July 1784, greatly advanced the cause of the amelioration of the condition of the insane, and devoted himself largely to the York Retreat, the methods of treatment pursued in which he made more widely known by his Description of the Retreat near York, &c. (York, 1813). He also published Practical Hints on the Construction and Economy of Pauper Lunatic Asylums (1815). He died at York on the I4th of October 1857. Samuel's son JAMES HACK TUKE (1810-1896) was born at York on the I3th of September 1819. He was educated at the Friends' school there, and after working for a time in his father's wholesale tea business, became in 1852 a partner in the banking firm of Sharpies and Co., and went to live at Hitchin in Hertford- shire. For eighteen years he was treasurer of the Friends' Foreign Mission Association, and for eight years chairman of the Friends' Central Education Board. But he is chiefly remem- bered for his philanthropic work in Ireland, which was in a great measure the result of a visit to Connaught in 1847, and of the scenes of distress which he there witnessed. In 1880, accompanied by W. E. Forster, he spent two months in the West of Ireland distributing relief which had been privately subscribed by Friends in England. Letters descriptive of the state of things he saw were published in The Times, and in his pamphlet, Irish Distress and its Remedies (1880), he pointed out that Irish distress was due to economic rather than political difficulties, and advocated state-aided land purchase, peasant proprietorship, light railways, government help for the fishing and local industries, and family emigration for the poorest peasants. From 1882 to 1884 he worked continuously in Ireland super- intending the emigration of poor families to the United States and the Colonies. The failure of the potato crop in Ireland in 1885 again called forth Tuke's energy, and on the invita- tion of the government, aided by public subscription, he pur- chased and distributed seed potatoes in order to avert a famine. To his reports of this distribution and his letters to The Times, which were reprinted under the title The Condition of Donegal (1889), were due in a great measure the bill passed for the con- struction of light railways in 1889 and the Irish Land Act which established the Congested Districts Board in 1891. He died on the I3th of January 1896. See Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons (1815- 1816); Dr Conolly, Treatment of the Insane without Mechanical Restraints (1856) ; Dr Hack Tuke, Chapters in the History of the Insane in the British Isles (1882). DANIEL HACK TUKE (1827-1895), younger brother of James Hack Tuke, was born at York on the igth of April 1827. In 1845 he entered the office of a solicitor at Bradford, but in 1847 began work at the York Retreat. Entering St Bartholomew's Hospital in London in 1850, he became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1852, and graduated M.D. at Heidelberg in 1853. In 1858, in collaboration with J. C. Bucknill, he published a Manual of Psychological Medicine, which was for many years regarded as a standard work on lunacy. In 1853 he visited a number of foreign asylums, and later returning to York he became visiting physician to the York Retreat and the York Dispensary, lecturing also to the York School of Medicine on mental diseases. In 1859 ill health obliged him to give up his work, and for the next fourteen years he lived at Falmouth. In 1875 he settled in London as a specialist in mental diseases. In 1880 he became joint editor of the Journal of Mental Science. He died on the 5th of March 1895. Among his works were Illustrations of the Influence of the Mind on the Body (1872); Insanity in Ancient and Modern Life (1878); History of the Insane in the British Isles (1882); Sleepwalking and Hypnotism (1884); Past and Present Provision for the Insane Poor in Yorkshire (1889); Dictionary of Psychological Medicine (1892). TUKULOR (TUCULERS), the name, by some said to be the French tout-couleur, for the negro half-castes of Senegal, who are principally of Fula-Wolof descent. By others the word is identified with Tacurol, an old name of the country, which took the form of Tacurores in the Portuguese writers of the i6th century. The Tukulor are settled chiefly in the Damga, Futa, Toro and Dimar districts of Senegal, and are remarkable for their fanaticism as Mahommedans. An intelligent, energetic and fierce people, they offered strenuous opposition to the conquest of their country by the French in the latter half of the i9th century. TULA, a government of central Russia, bounded by the govern- ments of Moscow on the N., Ryazan on the E., Tambov and Orel on the S., and Kaluga on the W. Area, 11,950 sq. m.; pop. (1906 estimate), 1,662,600. It is intersected from S.W. to N.E. by a gently undulating plateau, 950 to 1020 ft. in altitude, which separates the drainage area of the Oka from that of the Don. The government is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns of which are Tula, Bogoroditsk, Alexin, Byelev, Epifan, Efremov, Kashira, Krapivna, Novosil, Odoyev, Chern and Venev. Only 2.4% of the aggregate area is considered as unavailable for cultiva- tion, the remainder being distributed as follows: peasants, 48!%; nobility, 325%; other private landowners, II %; crown, towns, &c., 2 %. Agriculture is the chief occupation. Petty trades and domestic industries (e.g. the making of tea-urns, brass wares, har- moniums, &c.) have always flourished. The principal factory establishments are machinery works, hardware factories, flour-mills, sugar works and distilleries. Coal is extracted, as also pyrites and iron ore. Metallurgy is a growing industry. Before the Slav immigration the territory of Tula was inhabited by Mordvinians in the north and by Meshcheryaks in the south. The Slavs who occupied the Oka were soon compelled to pay tribute to the Khazars. Subsequently the territory on the Oka belonged to the principality of Chernigov. In the I4th century part fell under the rule of Ryazan and 366 TULA— TULIP Moscow, while the rest was under Lithuanian dominion till the 1 5th century. TULA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 1 20 m. by rail S. of Moscow, in the broad but low, marshy and unhealthy valley of the Upa. Pop. (1882), 63,500; (1901), 109,352. It is an old town of Old Russia, but its growth began only towards the end of the i8th century after the manufacture of arms had commenced. The chief branch of industry is the making of rifles; next in importance comes the manufacture of samovars (tea-urns). Tula is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church. The public buildings include two cathedrals and an industrial museum. The town is first mentioned in 1 147 ; but its former site seems to have been higher up the Tulitsa. Its wooden fort was replaced in 1514-1521 by a stone kreml, or citadel, which still exists. Tsar Boris Godunov founded a gun factory here in 1595, and in 1632 a Dutchman, Winius, established an iron foundry. Tsar Michael Alexis and Peter the Great, especially the last-named, took great interest in the gun factories, and large establishments were built in iyo5'and 1714. TULCEA, or TULTCHA, the capital of the department of Tulcea, Rumania, on the right bank of the Danube, 42 m. from its mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900), 18,800; including many Russians, Turks, Greeks and Jews. There is no railway within 20 m., and the sur- rounding country is barren and desolate. The principal commerce is in fish and grain. Wool is also exported to France, and hides to Turkey. Sheep-farming is carried on among the mountains. TULIP (Tulipaj, a genus of bulbous herbs belonging to the Liliaceae. The species are found wild along the northern shores of the Mediterranean, in the Levant, Armenia, Caucasus, Northern Africa, Persia, and sporadically across North and Central Asia to Japan. The cup-shaped flowers have six regular segments in two rows, as many free stamens, and a three-celled ovary with a sessile stigma, which ripens into a leathery many-seeded capsule. The species are numerous, and are distinguished one from another by the scales of the bulb being woolly or smooth on the inner surface, by the character of the flower-stalks, by the filaments being hairy or otherwise, and by other characters. Owing to the great beauty of the flowers they have been favourites in Euro- pean gardens for two or three centuries, and have been crossed and recrossed till it has become almost impossible to refer the plants to their original types. The early flowering " Van Thol " tulips, the segments of which are mostly scarlet with yellow edges, are derived from T. suaveolens, a native of the Caspian region. T. Gesneriana, a native of Armenia and central Russia, is the origin of some of the later flowering varieties. T. pubes- cens, which is probably a hybrid between the two species just named, is the source of some of the early flowering kinds known as Pottebakker, &c. T. oculus-solis and T. Clusiana are lovely species, natives of southern Europe, and T. silvestris, with elegant yellow flowers, is a doubtful native of England. More recently, owing to the exertions of Russian naturalists, a large number of new species have been discovered in Turkestan, and introduced into Europe. Some of these are very beautiful, and render it probable that by intercrossing with the older species still further difficulties will be presented in the way of identification. These difficulties are further enhanced by the fact that, quite apart from any cross-breeding, the plants, when subjected to cultivation, vary so greatly in the course of two or three years from the original species from which they are directly descended that their parent- age is scarcely recognizable. This innate power of variation has enabled the florist to obtain, and ultimately to " fix," so many remarkable varieties. At the present day tulips of all kinds are much more extensively grown than at any previous period. Not only are millions of bulbs cultivated in Holland for export every year, but thousands are now also grown for the same purpose in the Channel Islands, more particularly in Guernsey. Of late years tulips have become very popular in America, and an extensive trade is now done between the U.S.A. and Europe. The enormous prices once given for rare varieties of tulip bulbs no longer obtain, though, even now, two and three guineas are asked for special bulbs. It must, how- ever, be remembered that the " tulipomania " of the i7th century was really a form of gambling, in which admiration of the flower and interest in its culture were very secondary matters. Tulips were introduced into the Low Countries in the i6th century from Constantinople and the Levant. The florists' varieties of tulips, whkh have sprung from Tulipa Gesneriana, are arranged in separate classes named bizarres, bybloemens and roses, according to their colour and marking. Tulips are readily raised from seeds, and the seedlings when they first flower (after about 7 years cultivation) are of one colour — that is, they are self-coloured. Judged by the florists' rules, they are either good or bad in form, and pure or stained (white or yellow) at the base; the badly formed and stained flowers are thrown away, while the good and pure are grown on, these being known as " breeder " tulips. The breeder bulbs and their offsets may grow on for years producing only self-coloured flowers, but after a time, which is varied and indefinite, some of the progeny " break," that is, produce flowers with the variegation which is so much prized. The flower is then said to be " rectified "; it is a bizarre when it has a yellow ground marked with purple or red, a bybloemen when it has a white ground marked with violet or purple, or a rose when it has a white ground marked with rose colour. One of the most important of the properties of a fine florists' tulip is that the cup should form, when expanded, from half to a third of a hollow ball, the six divisions of the perianth being broad at the ends, and smooth at the edges, so that the divisions may scarcely show on indenture. Another is that the ground colour should be clear and distinct, whether white or yellow. The least stain at the base of the flower, technically called the " bottom," would render a tulip comparatively value- less. What are called " feathered " flowers are those which have an even close feathering, forming an unbroken edging of colour all round, " flamed " flowers being those which have a beam or bold mark down the centre, not reaching to the bottom of the cup. Tulips flourish in any good garden soil that has been deeply dug or trenched and manured the previous season. To secure perfect drainage and greater warmth a fair quantity of sand or grit should be present. Fresh manure should be avoided, but the remains from an old hot-bed or mushroom bed may be incorporated. The best time to plant is in September and October, the bulbs being buried about 6 in. deep and the same distance apart. The best effects are produced in formal beds by planting the same variety in each, to secure the plants being of the same height and in flower simul- taneously. In mixed flower borders, mixed varieties may be planted. After planting the space between the rows of tulips may be planted with such plants as forget-me-nots, wallflowers, silenes, violas, double white arabis, polyanthuses, &c., to obtain beautiful colour combinations in spring. Propagation. — Tulips are usually increased by offsets, which most varieties produce in fairly large numbers. These are taken off and sown in drills, like seed. They are usually strong enough to flower the third year from this sowing. Some varieties produce offsets sparingly and must be increased by seed — a slow and uncertain method. New varieties are raised from seed. (The colour variation in the flowers of seedlings is discussed above.) Seeds are sown in boxes or cold frames, in light sandy soil, and the young plants are allowed to remain undisturbed until the second year. They are then lifted and treated like offsets, being sown thinly in beds out of doors. They usually flower in about the seventh year. The soil in which tulips are propagated should be sandy, free working and thoroughly drained. A warm sheltered position is a necessity. Cultivation Out of Doors. — Planting is best effected during Sep- tember, October and early November. It is usual thoroughly to dig and manure the ground in preparation. Holes 6 to 8 in. apart and 5 in. deep are then made with a dibber. Sometimes a little loose earth or sand is put in to the depth of about I in., and the bulbs laid singly thereon, the holes being closed by the dibber and the whole raked over. Valuable varieties are planted at about the same depth, with a trowel, a little sand being placed around them. Unless seed is required, the young capsules should be removed as soon as the perianth has withered, to conserve the strength of the bulb. The plants should be left until the leaves begin to wither, unless it becomes necessary to lift them to make way for other plants. When lifted they should be laid thinly in a well shaded, airy spot to dry. The tops can then be removed and the bulbs sorted and stored thinly in trays in a cool dry place. Rare bulbs may be wrapped singly in tissue paper for storing. In Pots and Forcing. — The early flowering varieties should be potted _ as early in September as practicable, later batches for succession being potted during October. Pots 5 and 6 in. in diameter TULIP-TREE—TULLE 367 are the most convenient. The tops should be covered with J in. of soil, and about half an inch left for water. The soil should be a light and fairly rich compost, comprising about 2 parts loam, I part decayed manure or horse droppings that have been thoroughly sweetened, I part leaf mould and half a part of sand. Pot firmly, and plunge the pots in several inches of ashes out of doors, to protect the bulbs from frost. As soon as growth commences at the top and a fair amount of roots are formed they may be introduced into gentle heat, in batches according to the need and the amount of stock available. For market a slightly different method is adopted. The bulbs are placed in long shallow boxes, plunged in soij or ashes in the open air, and are later introduced as required into heat in semi-darkness, and are afterwards transferred to benches in the forcing houses where they flower. Bulbs which have been forced are of no further value for that particular purpose. If planted in borders and shrubberies, however, they will continue to bear fairly good blossoms in the open air for several seasons. Varieties. — The following varieties are among the most useful for bedding and pot culture. Early Single Flowering Kinds: — Name. Colour. Height. Due van Thol Various 6 in. Adelaine Rose Carmine 7 Artus Dark Scarlet 8 Bacchus Dark Crimson 7 Belle Alliance Crimson Scarlet .... 8 Canary Bird Yellow IO-I2 Chrysolora . Yellow q Cottage Maid Pink and White .... 7 12 Duchess de Parma . Orange Crimson .... IO Gold Finch .... Golden Yellow .... 12 Joost van Vondel Crimson, flaked White . 9 Keisers Kroon . Scarlet and Yellow, superb flower 10 La Reine .... White (when forced) and Pink. 9 Lac van Rhijn . Rosy Violet 9 Ophir d'Or .... Golden Yellow 8 Pottebakker . . . Scarlet, White, Yellow vars. . 12 Primrose Queen Primrose 9 Proserpine . . . . Rosy Carmine, superb flower . 9 Rose Gris de lin White and Pink 9 Thomas Moore . Terra-cotta 9 White Hawk . . . Pure White IO Yellow Prince Yellow 8 Early Double Flowering Kinds: — Name. Colour. Height. Due van Thol Alba Maxima Couronne d'Or . Gloria Soils . Imperator rubrorum La Candeur .... Leonardo da Vinci . Tournesol . . . . Red, edged Yellow Pure White . Yellow and Orange Orange Crimson . Crimson Scarlet Pure White . 6ii 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 i. Crimson and Gold . Scarlet and Yellow . Late Single Flowering Kinds: — These are tall-growing hardy kinds, suitable for herbaceous borders where they can be left undisturbed. With them may be associated what are now popularly known as " Darwin " tulips, beautiful long-stemmed kinds with self colours, and the " Cottage " or " May-flowering " tulips, all easily grown in ordinary garden soil. Name. Colour. Name. Colour. Bouton d'Or Caledonia . Columbus . Fulgens . Golden Yellow. Orange Scarlet. Yellow and Vermilion. Violet Crimson. Gesneriana Gesneriana lutea Picotee The Fawn. Bright Scarlet. Yellow. White.edgedPink. Dove Colour. Parrot Tulips. — This late flowering group is supposed to be derived from the curious green and yellow striped T. mridiftora. The flowers are mostly heavy and drooping, petals brightly coloured, the edges being curiously notched and waved. Name. Colour. Name. Colour. Rubra Major MarkGraaf . Perfecta . . Dark Red. Yellow, striped Scarlet. Yellow, Scarlet and Green. Lutea Major . MonstreRouge Yellow, Crimson and Green. Crimson. TULIP-TREE, Liriodendron lulipifera (Nat. Ord. Magno- liaceae), a North American tree of great beauty, with peculiarly four-lobed, truncate leaves and solitary tulip-like sweet-scented flowers, variegated with green, yellow and orange. It is hardy in England, but while young it requires protection from cold, cutting winds. In habit it resembles a somewhat stiff-growing plane tree, and becomes fully as large. It does not flourish in the atmo- sphere of towns. It thrives best in deep sandy loam, and is propagated by seeds. TULL, JETHRO (1674-1741), English agricultural writer and farmer, was born at Basildon, Berkshire, in 1674, probably in March. He entered St John's College, Oxford, in 1691, and was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1699 but never practised. In that year he married and began farming on his father's land at Howberry, near Wallingford, and here about 1701 he invented and perfected his machine drill and began experiments in his new ' system of sowing in drills or rows sufficiently wide apart to allow for tillage by plough and hoe during almost the whole period of growth. In 1709 he moved to a farm near Hungerford and from 1711 to 1714 travelled in France and Italy, making careful observations of the "methods of agriculture in those countries which aided and confirmed his theories as to the true use of manure and the importance of " pulverizing " the soil. He did not publish any account of his agricultural experiments or theories until 1731, when his Horse-hoeing Husbandry appeared. This was followed by The Horse-hoeing Husbandry, or an Essay on the Principles of Tillage and Vegetation, by J. T., in 1733. He was attacked in the agricultural periodical The Practical Husbandman and Farmer and accused of plagiarizing from such earlier writers as Sir A. Fitzherbert, Sir Hugh Plat (1552-1611?), Gabriel Plattes (fl. 1638) and John Worlidge (fl. 1669-1698). Tull answered in various smaller works forming additions to his main work. He died on the 2ist of February 1741. Many editions of his Horse-hoeing Husbandry were published sub- sequently, and in 1822 William Cobbett edited it. It was translated into French, notably by H. L. Duhamel Dumonceau (1700-1782), the naturalist and agriculturalist, in 1753-1757 (see AGRICULTURE). TULLAMORE, a market town and the county town of King's County, Ireland, on the Grand Canal and a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway, by which it is 58 m. W. by S. of Dublin. Pop. (1901), 4639. The town is the seat of the county assizes, has a court house and other county buildings, and is governed by an urban district council. There is con- siderable trade in agricultural produce, and brewing and distilling are carried on. Charleville park is a fine demesne, and there are several small ruined castles in the neighbourhood, notably Shragh Castle, dating from 1588. TULLE, a town of central France, capital of the department of Correze, 58 m. S.S.E. of Limoges by rail. Pop. (1906), of the town, 11,741; of the commune, 17,245. The town extends along the narrow valley of the Correze, its streets here and there ascending the hill-slopes on either side by means of stairways. Tulle is the seat of a bishop. Of its 12th-century cathedral, once attached to an abbey, only the porch and nave remain, the choir and transept having been destroyed in 1793, but there is a tower of the 1 3th century with a fine stone steeple of the I4th century. The neighbouring cloister (i2th and I3th century) has been restored. The abbot's house (isth century) has a carved door- way and well-preserved windows. Other curious old houses are to be seen in the vicinity of the cathedral. The prefecture of Tulle is a sumptuous building of 1869 surrounded by gardens. The town has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a Iyc6e for boys, training colleges for both sexes, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its principal industry is the manufacture of small-arms, established in 1690, and now carried on by the state under the direction of the artillery authorities. At its busiest times the factory has employed 3000 hands. The well-known cascades of Gimel formed by the Montane are near Tulle. Tulle (Tutela) owed its importance in the middle ages to the abbey of St Martin, founded in the 7th or 8th century. The 368 TULLE— TULSI DAS abbacy was raised to the rank of bishopric in 1317. The town was taken by the English in 1346 and was subsequently ravaged by the Black Death. It was again conquered by the English in 1369; but, when the inhabitants succeeded in freeing them- selves, they were exempted from all imposts by Charles V. The Protestants tried in vain to seize Tulle in 1577, but were successful in 1585. TULLE, a term restricted in England to a fine bobbin-net of silk, used for veils, scarves, millinery purposes, and trimmings of ladies' dresses, &c. The French used the word to mean all machine-made lace the basis of which is the intertwisted net- work made on the bobbin-net machine. The word is derived from the town of Tulle in France. TULLOCH, JOHN (1823-1886), Scottish theologian, was born at Bridge of Earn, Perthshire, in 1823, and received his university education at St Andrews and Edinburgh. In 1845 he became minister of St Paul's, Dundee, and in i849of Kettins,jin Strath- more, where he remained for six years. In 1854 he was appointed principal of St Mary's College, St Andrews. The appointment was immediately followed by the appearance of his Burnet prize essay on Theism. At St Andrews, where he held also the post of professor of systematic theology and apologetics, his work as a teacher was distinguished by several features which at that time were new. He lectured on comparative religion and treated doctrine historically, as being not a fixed product but a growth. From the first he secured the attachment and admiration of his students. In 1862 he was appointed one of the clerks of the General Assembly, and from that time forward he took a leading part in the councils of the Church of Scotland. In 1878 he was chosen moderator of the Assembly. He did much to widen the national church. Two positions on which he repeatedly insisted have taken a firm hold — first, that it is of the essence of a church to be comprehensive of various views and tendencies, and that a national church especially should seek to represent all the elements of the life of the nation; secondly, that sub- scription to a creed can bind no one to all its details, but only to the sum and substance, or the spirit, of the symbol. For three years before his death he was convener of the church interests committee of the Church of Scotland, which had to deal with a great agitation for disestablishment. He was also deeply interested in the reorganization of education in Scotland, both in school and university, and acted as one of the temporary board which settled the primary school system under the Educa- tion Act of 1872. He died at Torquay on the i3th of February 1886. Tulloch's best-known works are collections of biographical sketches of the leaders of great movements in church history, such as the Reformation and Puritanism. His most important book, Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy (1872), is one in which the Cambridge Platonists and other leaders of dispassionate thought in the I7th century are similarly treated. He delivered the second series of the Croall lectures, on the Doctrine of Sin, which were afterwards published. He also published a small work, The Christ of the Gospels and the Christ of History, in which the views of Renan on the gospel history were dealt with; a monograph on Pascal for Blackwood s Foreign Classics series ; and a little work, Beginning Life, addressed to young men, written at an earlier period. See the Life by Mrs Oliphant. TULLUS HOSTILIUS, third legendary king of Rome (672- 640 B.C.). His successful wars with Alba, Fidenae and Veii shadow forth the earlier conquests of Latian territory and the first extension of the Roman domain beyond the walls of Rome. It was during his reign that the combat between the Horatii and Curiatii, the representatives of Rome and Alba, took place. He is said to have been struck dead by lightning as the punish- ment of his pride. Tullus Hostilius is simply the duplicate of Romulus. Both are brought up among shepherds, carry on war against Fidenae and Veii, double the number of citizens, organize the army, and disappear from earth in a storm. As Romulus and Numa represent the Ramnes and Tities, so, in order to complete the list of the four traditional elements of the nation, Tullus was made the representative of the Luceres, and Ancus the founder of the Plebs. The distinctive event of this reign is the destruc- tion of Alba, which may be regarded as an historical fact. But when and by whom it was destroyed is uncertain — probably at a later date, by the Latins, and not by the Romans, who would have regarded as impious the destruction of their traditional mother-country. See Livy i. 22-31; Dion. Halic. Hi. 1-35; Cicero, de Republica, ii. ly. For a critical examination of the story see Schwegler, Romische Geschichte, bk. xii. ; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of early Roman History, ch. n; W. Ihne, Hist, of Rome, vol. i.; E. Pais, Storia di Roma, vol. i. (1898) ; O. Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographic der Stadt Rom im Altertum, ii. (1885); G. F. Schomann, " De Tullo Hostilio rege romano " in his Opuscula, i. 18-49; a'30 ROME: Ancient History. TULSA, a city (and co-extensive township) and the county- seat of Tulsa county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., on the Arkansas river, about no m. N.E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900), 1390; (1907), 7298 (638 negroes) ; (1910) 18,182. Tulsa is served by the Atchi- son, Topeka & Santa Fe, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Midland Valley, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Arkansas Valley & Western railways. The city is situated on the old boundary line between Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory, where the boundaries of the Cherokee, Creek and Osage nations intersected. It is on an elevation from the rolling prairie, which commands a fine view over the valley of the Arkansas. Tulsa is the'seat of Henry Kendall College (Presbyterian , 1 894) , removed hither from Muskogee in 1907; it was named in honour of Henry Kendall (1815-1892), who from 1861 until his death was secre- tary of the board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church. The city is a trading centre for a rich oil, gas and coal region and a grain, cotton and live-stock country. Natural gas is used for manufacturing purposes; among the manufactures are glass and cotton-seed oil products. Tulsa was founded in 1887, was first chartered as a city in 1902, and in 1908 adopted a commission form of government. TULSl DAS (1532-1623), the greatest and most famous of Hindi poets, was a Sarwariya Brahman, born, according to tradition, in A.D. 1532, during the reign of Humayun, most probably at Rajapur in the Banda District south of the Jumna. His father's name was Atma Ram Sukal Dube; that of his mother is said to have been Hulasi. A legend relates that, having been born under an unlucky conjunction of the stars, he was aban- doned in infancy by his parents, and was adopted by a wandering sadhu or ascetic, with whom he visited many holy places in the length and breadth of India; and the story is in part supported by passages in his poems. He studied, apparently after having rejoined his family, at Sukarkhet, a place generally identified with Sorori in the Etah district of the United Provinces, but more probably the same as Varahakshetra1 on the Gogra River, 30 m. W. of Ajodhya (Ayodhya). He married in his father's lifetime, and begat a son. His wife's name was Ratnawali, daughter of Dinabandhu Pathak, and his son's Tarak. The latter died at an early age, and Tulsl's wife, who was devoted to the worship of Rama, left her husband and returned to her father's house to occupy herself with religion. Tulsi Das followed her, and endeavoured to induce her to return to him, but in vain; she reproached him (in verses which have been preserved) with want of faith in Rama, and so moved him that he renounced the world, and entered upon an ascetic life, much of which was spent in wandering as a preacher of the necessity of a loving faith in Rama. He first made Ajodhya (the capital of Rama and near the modern Fyzabad) his headquarters, frequently visiting dis- tant places of pilgrimage in different parts of India. During his residence at Ajodhya the Lord Rama is said to have appeared to him in a dream, and to have commanded him to write a Ramayana in the language used by the common people. He began this work in the year 1574, and had finished the third book (Aranya-kand), when differences with the VairagI Vaish- navas at Ajodhya, to whom he had attached himself, led him to migrate to Benares, where he settled at Asl-gha^. Here he died * This is the view of Baijnath Das, author of the best life of Tulsi Das. At Soron there is no tradition connecting it with the poet. Varahakshetra and Sukar-khet have the same meaning (Varaha = Sukara, a wild boar). TULSI DAS 369 in 1623, during the reign of the emperor Jahangir, at the great age of 91. The period of his greatest activity as an author synchronized with the latter half of the reign of Akbar (1556-1605), and the first portion of that of Jahangir, his dated works being as follows: commencement of the Ramayan, 1574; Ram-satsai, 1584; Pdrbati-mangal, 1586; Ramagya, 1598; Kabitta Ramayan, between 1612 and 1614. A deed of arbitration in his hand, dated 1612, relating to the settlement of a dispute between the sons of a land-owner named Todar, who possessed some villages adjacent to Benares, has been preserved, and is reproduced in facsimile in Dr Grierson's Modern Vernacular Literature of Hindustan, p. 51. Todar (who was not, as formerly supposed, Akbar's finance minister, the celebrated Raja Todar Mall) was his attached friend, and a beautiful and pathetic poem1 by Tulsi on his death is extant. He is said to have_been resorted to, as a venerated teacher, by Maharaja Man Singh of Jaipur (d. 1618), his brother Jagat Singh, and other powerful princes; and it appears to be certain that his great fame and influence as a religious leader, which remain pre-eminent to this day, were fully established during his lifetime. Tulsi's great poem, popularly called Tulsi-krii Ramayan, but named by its author Rdm-charit-mdnas, "_the Lake of Rama's deeds," is perhaps better known among Hindus in upper India than the Bible among the rustic population in England. Its verses are everywhere, in this region, popular proverbs; an apt quotation from them by a stranger has an immediate effect in producing interest and confidence in the hearers. As with the Bible and Shakespeare, his phrases have passed into the common speech, and are used by every one (even m Urdu) without being conscious of their origin. Not only are his sayings proverbial: his doctrine actually forms the most powerful religious influence in present-day Hinduism; and, though he founded no school and was never known as a guru or master, but professed himself the humble follower of his teacher, Narhari-Das,2 from whom as a boy in Sukar-khet he heard the tale of Rama's doings, he is everywhere accepted as an inspired and authoritative guide in religion and conduct of life. The poem is a rehandling of the great theme of Valmiki, but is m no sense a translation of the Sanskrit epic. The succession of events is of course generally the same, but the treatment is entirely different. The episodes introduced in the course of the story are for the most part dissimilar. Wherever Valmiki has condensed, Tulsi Das has expanded, and wherever the elder poet has lingered longest, there his successor has hastened on most rapidly. It consists of seven books, of which the first two, entitled " Childhood " (Bdl-kand) and " Ayodhya " (Ayddhya-kand), make up more than half the work. The second book is that most admired. The tale tells of King Dasarath's court, the birth and boyhood of Rama and his brethren, his marriage with Sita, daughter of Janak king of Bideha, his volun- tary exile, the result of Kaikeyi's guile and Dasarath's rash vow, the dwelling together of Rama and Sita in the great central Indian forest, her abduction by Ravan, the expedition to Lanka and the overthrow of the ravisher, and the life at Ajodhya after the return of the reunited pair. It is written in pure Baiswari or Eastern Hindi, in stanzas called chaup&is, broken by dohas or couplets, with an occasional sorafha and chhand—the latter a hurrying metre of many rhymes and alliterations. Dr Grierson well describes its movement: — . . . " As a work of art, it has for European readers prolixities and episodes which grate against occidental tastes, but no one can read it in the original without being impressed by it as the work of a great genius. Its style varies with each subject. There is the deep pathos of the scene in which is described Rama's farewell to his mother: the rugged language depicting the horrors of the battle- field— a torrent of harsh sounds clashing against each other and reverberating from phrase to phrase; and, as occasion requires, a sententious, aphoristic method of narrative, teeming with similes drawn from nature herself, and not from the traditions of the schools. His characters, too, live and move with all the dignity of an heroic age. Each is a real being, with a well-defined personality. Rama, perhaps too perfect to enlist all our sympathies; his impetuous and loving brother Lakshman; the tender, constant Bharat; Sita, the ideal of an Indian wife and mother; Ravan, destined to failure, and fighting with all his demon force against his destiny— the Satan of the epic — all these are characters as lifelike and distinct as any in occidental literature." A manuscript of the Ayodhyd-kdnd, said to be in the poet s own hand, exists at Rajapur in Banda, his reputed birthplace. One of the Bal-kdnd, dated Sambat 1661, nineteen years before the poet s 1 See Indian Antiquary, xxii. 272 (1893). 2 Narhari-Das was the sixth in spiritual descent from Ramanand, the founder of popular Vaishnavism in northern India (see article HINDOSTANI LITERATURE). death, and carefully corrected, it is alleged by Tulsi Das himself, is at Ajodhya. Another autograph is reported to be preserved at Malihabad in the Lucknow district, but has not, so far as known, been seen by a European. Other ancient MSS. are to be found at Benares, and the materials for a correct text of the Ramayan are thus available. Good editions have been published by the Khadga Bilas press at Bankipur (with a valuable life of the poet by Baijnath Das), and by the Ndgarl Pracharini Sabhd at Allahabad (1903). The ordinary bazar copies of the poem, repeatedly reproduced by lithography, teem with interpolations and variations from the poet s language. An excellent translation of the whole into English was made by the late Mr F. S. Growse, of the Indian Civil Service (sth edition, Cawnpore, 1891). Besides the " Lake of Rama's deeds," Tulsi Das was the author of five longer and six shorter works, most of them dealing with the theme of Rama, his doings, and devotion to him. The former are (i) the DdhdbaK, consisting of 573 miscellaneous doha and sora(ha verses; of this there is a duplicate in the Ram-satsai, an arrange- ment of seven centuries of verses, the great majority of which occur also in the DohabaK and in other works of Tulsi; (2) the Kabitta Ramayan or Kabittabafi, which is a history of Rama in the kabitta, ghanaksharl, chhappal and sawaiya metres; like the Ram-charit- mdnas, it is divided into seven kaifds or cantos, and is devoted to setting forth the majestic side of Rama's character; (3) the Gtt- Rdmayan, or Gitabatl, also in seven kdyds, aiming at the illustration of the tender aspect of the Lord's life; the metres are adapted for singing; (4) the Krishndwali or Krishna gltabaK, a collection of 6 1 songs in honour of Krishna, in the Kanauji dialect : the authenticity of this is doubtful ; and (5) the Binay Pattrikd, or " Book of petitions, ' a series of hymns and prayers of which the first 43 are addressed to the lower gods, forming Rama's court and attendants, and the remainder, Nos. 44 to 279, to Rama himself. Of the smaller com- positions the most interesting is the Vairagya Sandtpani, or " Kind- ling of continence," a poem describing the nature and greatness of a holy man, and the true peace to which he attains. This work has been translated by Dr Grierson in the Indian Antiquary, xxii. 198-201. Tulsi's doctrine is derived from Ramanuja through Ramanand. Like the former, he believes in a supreme personal God, possessing all gracious qualities (saguna), not in the quality-less (nirguna) neuter impersonal Brahman of Sankaracharya ; this Lord Himself once took the human form, and became incarnate, for the blessing of mankind, as Rama. The body is therefore to be honoured, not despised. The Lord is to be approached by faith (bhakti)-—dis- interested devotion and surrender of self in perfect love, and all actions are to be purified of self-interest in contemplation of Him. " Show love to all creatures, and thou wilt be happy; for when thou lovest all things, thou lovest the Lord, for He is all in all." The soul is from the Lord, and is submitted in this life to the bondage of works (karma) ; " Mankind, in their obstinacy, keep binding them- selves in the net of actions, and though they know and hear of the bliss of those who have faith in the Lord, they attempt not the only means of release. Works are a spider's thread, up and down which she continually travels, and which is never broken; so works lead a soul downwards to the Earth, and upwards to the Lord." The bliss to which the soul attains, by the extinction of desire, in the supreme home, is not absorption in the Lord, but union with Him in abiding individuality. This is emancipation (muklf) from the burthen of birth and rebirth, and the highest happiness.3 Tulsi, as a Smarta Vaishnava and a Brahman, venerates the whole Hindu pantheon, and is especially careful to give Siva or Mahadeva, the special deity of the Brahmans, his due, and to point out that there is no inconsistency between devotion to Rama and attachment to Siva (Ramayan, Lankdkdnd, Doha 3). But the practical end of all his writings is to inculcate bhakfi addressed to Rama as the great means of salvation — emancipation from the chain of births and deaths — a salvation which is as free and open to men of the lowest caste as to Brahmans. The best account of Tulsi Das and his works-is contained in the papers contributed by Dr Grierson to vol. xxii. of the Indian Anti- quary (1893). In Mr Growse's translation of the Ram-charit- Manas will be found the text and translation of the passages in the Bhakta- mdla of Nabhaji and its commentary, which are the main original authority for the traditions relating to the poet. Nabhaji had himself met Tulsi Das ; but the stanza in praise of the poet gives no_ facts relating to his life.; these are stated in the fikd or gloss of Priya Das, who wrote in A.D. 1712, and much of the material is legendary and untrustworthy. Unfortunately, the biography of the poet, called GSsaln-charitra, by Benimadhab Das, who was a personal follower and constant companion of the Master, and died in 1642, has disappeared, and no copy of it is known to exist. In the introduction to the edition of the Ramayan by the Nagari Pracharini Sabha all the known facts of Tulsi's life are brought together and critically discussed. For an exposition of his religious position, 3 The summary given above is condensed from the translation by Dr Grierson, at pp. 229-236 of the Indian Antiquary, vol. xxii., of the fifth sarga of the Satsat, in which work Tulsl unfolds his system of doctrine. 37° TULU— TUMOUR and this place in the popular religion of northern India, see Dr Grier- son's paper in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Jul; pp. 447-466- , July 1903, .L.) TULU, or TULUVA, a language of the Dravidian family, found chiefly in the South Kanara district of Madras. It has no litera- ture, nor has it been adopted for official use even where it is spoken by the majority of the population. In 1901 the total number of speakers of Tulu exceeded half a million. TUMBLER, that which " tumbles," i.e. falls or rolls over or down. The O. Eng. tumbiare, of which Mid. Eng. tumblere is a frequentative form, appears also in Du. tuimelen, Ger. taumeln, to stagger, tumble about; Fr. tomber, to fall, is Teutonic in origin. As applied to a person, "'tumbler " is another word for an acrobat, one who shows his agility by turning somer- saults, standing on his head, walking or dancing on his hands, &c. It is interesting to note that Herodias' daughter Salome is described as a tumbestere in Harl. MS., 1701, f. 8, quoted by Halliwell (Diet, of Archaic Words), and in the margin of Wycliffe's Bible (Matt. xiv. 6) tumblide is given as a variant of daunside (danced). Similarly, in early pictures of her dancing before Herod, she is represented sometimes -as stand- ing on her head. The common drinking-glass known as a " tumbler," which now is the name given to a plain cylindrical glass without a stem or foot, was originally a glass with a rounded or pointed base, which could only stand on being emptied and inverted (see DRINKING VESSELS, Plate I., fig. 3). TUMBLE-WEED, a botanical term for a plant which breaks loose when dry, and is blown about, scattering its seeds by the way. TUMKUR, or TOOMKOOR, a town and district of southern India, in the west of Mysore state. The town has a station on the Madras & Southern Mahratta railway, 43 m. N.W. from Bangalore. The area of the district is 4158 sq. m. It consists chiefly of elevated land intersected by river valleys. A range of hills rising to nearly 4000 feet crosses it from north to south, forming the waterparting between the systems of the Krishna and the Cauvery. The principal streams are the Jayamangala and the Shimsha. The mineral wealth of Tumkur is consider- able; iron is obtained in large quantities from the hill-sides; and excellent building-stone is quarried. The slopes of the Devaray-durga hills, a tract of 18 sq. m., are clothed with forests, in which large game abounds, including tigers, leopards, bears and wild hog. The climate of Tumkur is equable and healthy; the annual rainfall averages 39 in. The population in 1901 was 679,162, showing an increase of 17% in the decade. The cultivated products consist chiefly of millets, rice, pulses and oil seeds. The chief industries are the making of coarse cotton cloths, woollen blankets and ropes. TUMMEL, a river of Perthshire, Scotland. Discharging from Loch Rannoch, it flows eastward to a point near the Falls of Tummel, where it bends to the S.E., a direction which it maintains until it falls into the Tay, just below Logierait, after a course of 58 m. from its source in Stob Ghabbar (3565 ft.). Its only considerable affluent is the Garry, 24 m. long, an impetuous river which issues from Loch Garry (25 m. long, \ m. wide, and 1334 ft. above the sea). About midway in its course the Tum- mel expands into Loch Tummel (2$ m. long, ^ m. wide, 128 ft. deep, and 500 ft. above the sea), between which and the con- fluence with the Garry occur the Pass and Falls of the Tummel, which are rather in the nature of rapids, the descent altogether amounting to 15 ft. The scenery throughout this reach is most picturesque, culminating at the point above the eastern extremity of the loch, known as Queen Victoria's View. The chief places of interest on the river are Kinloch Rannoch; Dunalastair, a rocky hill in well-wooded grounds, the embellishment of which was largely due to Alexander Robertson of Struan (1670-1749), the Jacobite and poet, from whom the spot takes its name ("the stronghold of Alexander"); Foss; Faskally House (beautifully situated on the left bank); Pitlochry; and Ballin- luig. TUMOUR (Lat. tumor, a swelling), a term applied, from the earliest period of medical literature, to any swelling of which the nature and origin were unknown. Thus used in its most literal sense, the word is of purely clinical derivation and has no pathological significance of any kind. Consequently a very heterogeneous collection of swellings have been described as tumours, including such diverse conditions as an abscess, a tuber- cular gland, the enlarged spleen of malaria or a cancer. With the progress of bacteriology and the improved technique of histology it has been found possible, however, to separate these various " swellings " into certain groups: (i) Inflammatory or Infective Tumours; (2) Tumours due to Hypertrophy; (3) Cysts; (4) Spontaneous Tumours, or Tumours proper. The tendency of modern convention is to restrict the use of the term " tumour " to the last group, but for the sake of completeness it is necessary to touch briefly on the distinguishing features of the first three groups. i. Inflammatory or laracteristics which or Infective Tumours. — These have certain characteristics which separate them sharply from other classes of tumour. In the first place all of them are due to the irritative action of some micro-organism (see PATHOLOGY). Inflammation due to microbial action always follows a typical course. First, a number of wandering cells derived from the blood, the lymph or the connective tissues make their way to the site of irritation, and thus produce the red, painful swelling with which every one is familiar. A struggle now ensues between these cells and the invading bacteria; if the victory rests with the former, the inflammation gradually subsides, and the swelling disappears in course of time. But if the bacteria gain the upper hand a number of the cells are killed, undergo lique- faction and are converted into pus, so that an abscess results. Thus an inflammatory swelling may be solid or fluid according to the severity of the irritant. The common inflammatory bacteria — staphylococcus and streptococcus — cause suppuration in the majority ot cases, but there area few organisms such as streptothrix, spirochaeta pallida, and in many instances the tubercle bacillus, which set up an inflammation of an extremely chronic type, rarely progressing to the formation of pus, but leading rather to the develop- ment of a hard, solid mass of very slow growth, that may persist for months or even years. To the naked eye these solid inflammatory swellings may closely simulate the spontaneous tumours with which they have been often confused, but a microscopical examination will correct the mistake in nearly every case. For the minute structure of the infective tumours, whatever their situation, is almost identical; they consist merely of an irregular collection of inflammatory cells; and this of itself is sufficient to mark them off quite distinctly from the group of tumours proper, which, as will presently be seen, vary widely in structure according to the tissue from which they spring, and show a resemblance to the parent type at once characteristic and peculiar. To this statement there is one exception, for a form of malignant tumour, known as a sarcoma, may bear a very deceptive likeness to an inflammatory swelling. 2. Hypertrophic Tumours. — A tissue or organ is said to be hyper- trophied when it is increased in size but remains normal in structure. The most familiar example is the hypertrophy of the skeletal muscles that follows increased use, or the hypertrophy of the heart muscle which helps to compensate the faulty action of the valves. But neither of these constitutes a hypertrophic tumour. For an instance of this we must turn to the enlargement of the spleen that occurs in malaria and certain forms of anaemia, of the thyroid gland in goitre, and of the lymphatic glands in Hodgkin's disease. In each of these conditions there is merely an increase of apparently normal tissue, and from a microscopical examination of the hypertrophied organ it would be impossible to say that it was other than healthy. The enlargement of the spleen and of the thyroid in these cases are overshadowed by certain changes in the blood and in the nervous system which constitute a distinct disease; but in Hodgkin's disease there are no specific symptoms apart from the swelling of the glands, and it has been suggested that this may be due either to the action of some micro-organism which has hitherto escaped detection, or to a widely diffused growth of a sarcomatous type. If the former supposition be correct these glandular swellings must be classed with the infective tumours; if the latter they should be regarded as spontaneous tumours. There is, at present, no agreement on this point, and they have, therefore, been described here as hyper- trophic tumours. 3. Cysts. — A cyst may be defined as a collection of fluid sur- rounded by a wall or capsule. The nature of the fluid varies accord- ing to the site and origin of the cyst; the cyst-wall is usually composed of a tough layer offibrous tissue. Cysts arise by the dilatation of a pre-existing space with fluid ; and when, as often happens, the cyst- wall is tensely stretched by the pressure of the fluid within, they may easily be mistaken for solid tumours. The number and variety of cysts are very great, and they are only mentioned here on account of the errors in diagnosis for which they are often responsible. For further details the reader should consult the special textbooks. TUMOUR 371 4. Spontaneous Tumours, or Tumours Proper (synonyms: Neoplasm, New Growth). — The following definition of a spontaneous tumour suggested by Ziegler is perhaps the most satisfactory: "A neo- plasm or tumour is a new formation of tissue, which is atypical in structure, serves no useful purpose to the whole economy, and the growth of which has no typical termination. " In this definition the words " new formation of tissue " exclude the cystic swellings; the attribute " atypical in structure " excludes hypertrophies; and the final clause " the growth of which has no typical termina- tion " excludes all swellings of an inflammatory nature which pro- gress, however slowly, towards either suppuration or resolution and recovery. These tumours arise by the exaggerated and abnormal prolifera- tion of a single cell, or a group of cells. They increase in size solely by the multiplication of their own cells, and the only contribution which the surrounding tissues make to the progress is the formation of a " stroma, " or supporting framework of fibrous tissue; and even that is wanting in many cases. Inasmuch as the newly-formed cells of the tumour take on the likeness of the parent from which they are sprung, it follows that the minute structure of such a tumour, whatever its situation, will be a more or less exact copy of that of the tissue whence it originated. A tumour growing from the skin will therefore imitate the cell-structure of the normal skin; the resemblance of a breast tumour to the healthy breast is often so close as to make it a hard task to distinguish the one from the other; whilst the similarity of bony and cartilaginous tumours to true bone and cartilage is evident to all. This imitation of the parent type by the spontaneous tumours is one of their most remarkable characteristics, and provides a reliable criterion by which they may be separated from the inflamma- tory new growths, which are all built up on the same general plan. Consequently it is almost always possible to determine the origin of a tumour from an examination of its histological appearances; and conversely we know that an epithelial tumour will never spring from a connective tissue nor a connective tissue tumour from an epithelium. Another outstanding feature of the neoplastic tumours is that they lead an entirely independent existence subject to none of the restraints to which the normal cell must needs submit. These normal cells are, indeed, possessed of certain limited powers of multiplication, by which they are enabled to replace the slight loss of tissue which the wear and tear of life perpetually entails; or, again, they can on occasion make good a greater loss of substance, as in the healing of an ulcer, or the regeneration of a skin wound. But these powers are confined within certain well-marked bounds, which may not be transgressed. Contrast with this the tumour cell, emancipated from all control and owning to no restraint. It is true that the simple tumours often remain stationary after attain- ing a certain size, but the general tendency of all tumours is towards persistent and unlimited growth, and the cancer cell continues its career unchecked by everything save death. The spontaneous tumours are seen in every tissue and organ of the body, though in some they are relatively infrequent. Nor are they confined to man, for they have been found throughout the vertebrate kingdom. It is often stated that a higher state of civilization has inflicted on European races a greater susceptibility to tumour formation. As to this, reliable evidence is hard to obtain, but such a statement would seem to be only partially true, and the apparent immunity of certain native races is to some extent due to lack of sufficient observations. It is usual to separate these tumours into two groups: the Non- malignant, Innocent or Benign, and the Malignant or Cancerous. Of these two groups the latter are the more familiar and have attracted much more attention and study than the former, on account of the danger to life which they involve, but in point of numbers they are greatly outweighed by the first group. Two or more non- malignant tumours, of the same or different varieties, are often found in the same individual; but with the cancers this is a rare occurrence, and such growths are usually single. The non-malignant tumours are usually rounded in shape. In size they vary enormously; a fibroid tumour may be as small as a pea; a fatty tumour may weigh forty pounds. Often they cease growing after attaining a certain size, but there are very many exceptions to this, and it is seldom possible to predict the subsequent course of one of these growths. They possess, however, four con- stant characteristics by which they may be distinguished from the malignant variety. 1. A non-malignant tumour, whatever its size, remains localized to the part from which it originates. It is not an " infiltrating " growth, that is to say it does not eat its way into the surrounding tissues, but rather pushes them aside, and so may be called "expan- sive. " Moreover, it is separated from them by a thin but usually well-marked layer of fibrous tissue known as the " capsule " of the tumour, which seems to be formed as the result of a slight inflamma- tion that the presence of the tumour always causes among the healthy tissues surrounding it, and may be regarded as a protest on their part against the invasion of the tumour. 2. Non-malignant tumours are not of themselves dangerous to life. They may, however, cause a great deal of pain and even death, when situated in some sensitive or delicate organ. For instance, a small tumour may cause intense pain by pressing on a nerve, or dropsical swelling of a limb by obstructing a vein, or death from suffocation by blocking the larynx. Nevertheless it remains true that any evil effects are due not to the nature of the tumour, but to its situation, whereas a cancer causes death whatever its position. 3. These tumours never reproduce themselves in distant parts of the body. More than one may be present in the same individual, but each arises independently, and the widespread dissemination so typical of a cancerous growth is never seen. 4. An innocent growth never recurs after operation. The boundaries of the growth are so well defined that complete removal is usually easy, and the operation is a simple and satisfactory proceeding. Malignant Tumours, or Cancers. — There are two varieties of malignant tumour: the Sarcomata, arising from the connective tissues; the Carcinpmata, arising from epithelial tissues. It is customary to describe them both as cancers. The main features of these tumours are as follows : — 1. The Infiltrating Nature of a Malignant Tumour. — A cancer follows a course very different from that of an innocent tumour. Its growth has no appointed termination, but continues with unabated vigour until death ; moreover, it is more rapid than that of the innocent tumours, and so does not permit of the formation of a capsule by the neighbouring tissues. In consequence such a tumour shows no well-defined boundary, but from its margin fine tendrils of cancer cells make their way in all directions into the surrounding parts, which gradually become more and more involved in the process. Thus a cancer of the breast will attack both the skin covering it and the underlying muscle and bone ; a cancer of the intestine will eat its way into the liver, spleen and kidney, until these organs become to a great extent replaced by cancer cells, and can no longer perform their proper functions. 2. Formation of Secondary Growths, or Metastases. — In addition to this spread of growth by direct extension, another characteristic of malignant tumours is a tendency to dissemination, that is, to reproduce themselves in various parts of the body far removed from the original site; so that it is not unusual to find after death that a cancer of the breast has given rise to secondary, or metastatic, deposits in the lymphatic glands, the lungs, the ribs and other bones, the brain and the abdominal organs. These secondary deposits are due to the tumour cells making their way through the walls of the small lymph and blood vessels and becoming detached by the force of the circulation, by which they are carried to some distant part of the body, there to continue their career of uncon- trolled growth. The sarcomata and carcinomata differ somewhat as regards the path of dissemination. The former are vascular tumours, well supplied with blood-vessels ; consequently dissemination usually occurs by way of the blood-stream rather than by the lymphatic circulation, and the commonest site for the secondary deposits of sarcoma is the lung. The carcinomata are less vascular, and the tendency of the growth is to invade the small lymph channels, so that the first signs of metastases are to be looked for in the lymphatic glands; at a later date these deposits may be spread throughout the body, particularly in the liver and other abdominal organs, the lungs and the bones. The formation of metastases is of the utmost importance from a clinical point of view, as the success of an operation depends on the removal of all the secondary deposits as well as of the original growth. For instance, a few months after the first appearance of a cancer of the breast the axillary lymph glands will be found to be hard and enlarged. This means that some of the cells of the primary growth have been carried in the lymph stream to these glands, and have begun to grow there; consequently any operation for the removal of the cancer of the breast must include the removal of these glands. If the breast tumour only be taken away the growth will continue unchecked in the glands. It is a matter of great difficulty to determine by the naked eye or the touch whether a gland is infected or not. In many cases where there is no evident enlargement the microscope will show the presence of cancer cells; and a certain opinion can only be given after a microscopical examination. In operations for cancer of the breast or tongue the modern practice is to regard the lymphatic glands of the axilla or neck respectively as infected in every case, however early it be, and to remove them accordingly. In other parts of the body where the glands are inaccessible, the only solution of the difficulty is to urge the removal of the tumour at the earliest possible moment, before lymphatic infection has had time to occur. The frequency and rapidity of metastasis formation varies greatly. As a general rule cancer of the breast is more liable than other forms of growth to be followed by widespread secondary deposits. On the other hand, in cases of cancer of the skin secondary infection is usually confined to the neighbouring lymphatic glands, and seldom occurs in any of the internal organs. 3. Termination of Malignant Tumours. — In one or two well authenticated cases a malignant tumour has disappeared of its 372 TUMOUR own accord without any treatment, and a natural cure may be said to have occurred. But these form such an infinitesimal proportion of the whole that they do not affect the general truth of the statement that the universal tendency of a malignant tumour is to cause death. Although the separation of the new growths into two groups is supported by certain fairly definite characteristics, both clinical and histological, yet it seems likely that the difference between them is one of degree rather than of kind. There is every reason to believe that the same perverted impulse may give rise either to an innocent or a cancerous growth, the issue depending in part on the intensity of the impulse, and in part on the resisting powers of the tissues in which the incipient tumour cells lie. Such a hypothesis is supported by the analogy of the microbial infections, where the final outcome of life or death depends no less on the defensive mechanism of the individual than on the virulence of the infecting organism. Again, it is beyond doubt that occasionally a tumour, which for years has been void of the least taint of malignancy, may become converted into an active cancer. Moreover, certain tumours seem to lie on the border line, for example, rodent ulcers and cancers of the parotid gland. These are malignant in that they are undoubtedly infiltrating tumours, they are innocent in that they never form metastatic deposits. Therefore it seems that malignancy or the reverse is not to be regarded as an absolute and constant attribute of any par- ticular tumour or class of tumours, but rather as an expression of the balance struck in the conflict between the opposing forces of the tumour and its host. Histology of Tumours— ^On examining a microscopical preparation of an epithelial tumour it is found to be built up of two distinct elements. There are the epithelial cells, which form the essential part of the tumour; there is a network of fibrous connective-tissue cells, which acts as a supporting framework to the epithelial elements, and is known as the stroma of the tumour. This twofold structure is seen in all the epithelial tumours, both non-malignant and malignant, and in the case of the latter it is a general rule that the greater the proportion of epithelial to connective-tissue elements the faster will the tumour grow. On the other hand in the connective- tissue tumours (with the exception of the sarcomata) this compound structure is absent and there is only one type of cell present ; thus a fatty tumour consists merely of fat cells ; a bony tumour of bone cells, and so on. To understand clearly the differences and likenesses that obtain between the malignant and the non-malignant new growths it is necessary to compare the histology of the two groups. Figs, la, ib represent an innocent tumour (adenoma) of the breast. Figs. 2d, 2& a cancer (spheroidal-celled carcinoma) of the breast. Fig. 3 an innocent tumour (papilloma) of the skin. Fig. 4 a cancer of the skin. FIG. la. — Diagram to show the relations of an innocent tumour (adenoma) of the breast. a, Tumour; 6, normal breast tissue; c, underlying muscular tissue. FIG. 16.— Microscopical appearances of an adenoma of the breast. (Drawn from an actual specimen. X 200). a, Tumour cells ; 6, fibrous connective tissue. In the adenoma the individual cells bear the closest resemblance to the glandular cells of the normal breast from which they are derived. In addition they tend to follow the normal very closely in their arrangement, so that at times it is difficult or impossible to decidt which is tumour and which is healthy breast substance. Finally the growth is surrounded by a well defined capsule of fibrous tissue. FIG. 2a. — Diagram to show the relations of a malignant tumour (spheroidal cell carcinoma) of the breast. Note the indrawing of the nipple by the growth and the infiltration of the underlying muscle. a, Tumour ; b, normal breast tissue ; c, muscle. FIG. 26. — Microscopical appearances of a carcinoma of the breast. (Drawn from an actual specimen. X 200). a, Tumcur cells; b, stroma. In the carcinoma, the individual resemblance is present, though less conspicuous, as many of the cells are irregular in size and shape. But the similarity of the arrangement is very hard to make out or even absent. The cells are arranged in disorderly masses ; they are not enclosed by any semblance of a capsule, but tend to transgress their proper boundaries and invade the underlying muscles. Figs. 3 and 4 show analogous changes in an innocent and in a malignant tumour of the skin. FIG. 3. — Non-malignant tumour (papilloma) of the skin. The tumour is formed by an outward proliferation of the cells of the epidermis, but these cells show no tendency to invade the underlying connective tissue or muscle. (Semidiagrammatic. X 150.) a, Normal skin. d, Muscular tissue. b, Epithelium or epidermis. e, Papilloma. c, Connective tissue. Speaking generally it may be said that the cells of an adenoma are fully differentiated and typical of the normal, whereas the cells ot a carcinoma show less perfect differentiation, are in some degree atypical and resemble rather the actively growing cells found at an any stage of embryonic life. But it is in the cells of a sarcoma that the widest departure from type is seen. A sarcoma is a malignant growth arising from connective tissue, but the resemblance to adult TUMOUR 373 connective tissue is almost non-existent and the cells are essen- tially of an embryonic type. These differences between the innocent and the malignant cell bear out the well-established phy- siological rule that the less the functional development of a cell or tissue the greater its power of growth. The primitive impulse is growth, which gives place at a later stage to the development of function. FIG. 4. — Malignant tumour (epithelioma, squampus-celled carcinoma) of the skin. The cells of the epidermis have proli- ferated both outwardly and inwardly and have invaded and re- placed the underlying tissues. An ulcer has been formed on the surface by the necrosis of the superficial cells. (Semidiagrammatic. X 150.) In theory it is always possible to distinguish with certainty between an innocent tumour and a cancer by means of the microscope. In practice this is, unfortunately, not the case. There are some tumours whose histological appearances seem to be on the border- line between the two conditions, and often these are the very cases in which the clinical features give no direct clue to their nature. In such circumstances it is only by taking into consideration every detail, both clinical and pathological, that an opinion can be formu- lated, and even then it remains to some extent a matter of guess- work. The Causation of Tumours. — An enormous number of suggestions as to the causation of tumours have been put forward from time to time. Many of these were at the outset quite untenable, and reference can only be made here to the more important. First in point of time came Virchow's hypothesis that tumours arise as the direct result of irritation or injury. Many examples of such a sequence of events are familiar to everybody. A cancer of the lip or tongue will often follow the irritation of a clay pipe or a jagged tooth ; a tumour of the breast is often attributed to a blow. But, on the other hand, there must be innumerable instances in which such a cause of irritation has not been followed by a tumour; and it is necessary to discount the natural anxiety of mankind to seek a cause for every unexplained occurrence, so that a slight injury which under ordinary circumstances would be forgotten is branded as the undoubted cause of any tumour that may subsequently make its appearance. As a complete explanation Virchow's hypothesis is insufficient, but it is quite probable that irritation may have an accessory or predisposing influence in tumour formation, and that it may be enough finally to upset the balance of a group of cells, which for some other reason were already hovering on the brink of abnormal growth. There is one peculiar form or irritation that demands special attention, that is exposure to the X rays. It is beyond doubt that exposure to these rays will cause cancerous ulceration of the skin; though what is the constituent of the rays that produces this effect is not known. Fortunately the danger can be obviated by the use of rubber gloves. Cohnheim's Hypothesis of Embryonic Remnants. — According to Cohnheim more cells are produced in embryonic life than are required for the development of the body, and a remnant is left unappro- priated. Owing to their embryonic nature, these cells possess an exaggerated power of proliferation, and if at a later period of life this should be roused into activity by some mechanical or other form of stimulus, their rate of growth will outstrip that of the adult cells and a tumour will develop. As with Virchow's so with Cohnheim's hypothesis. It is at best only a partial explanation which may be applicable to a small proportion of tumours; and it could never account for X-ray cancer, or the inoculability of mouse cancer. The Parasitic hypothesis is still a matter of keen debate. In some degree cancel with its localized primary growth and widespread secondary deposits resembles certain infective diseases of microbial origin, such as pyaemia, where from a small primary site of infection the bacteria become disseminated throughout the body. From this analogy it was argued that tumour formation was due to the activity of some parasite. But if the mode of dissemination of a cancer and of a micro-organism be carefully examined this analogy is found to be false. When a micro-organism lodges in a gland or other part of the body, by its irritative action it stimulates the cells of that gland to increased activity, and any swelling that occurs is produced by the proliferation of those cells. But when a group of cancer-cells is deposited in a glar.d the subsequent growth arises entirely from the multiplication of those cancer-cells, and the gland cells take no part whatever in its formation. A very large number of organisms both animal and vegetable have been described as occurring in tumours ; and some of these have been cultivated on artificial media outside the body; but to none of them can any direct causal relationship with cancer be attributed. One of the best authenticated, a small coccus, known as Micrococcus neoformans can certainly be cultivated from many tumours malig- nant and innocent, and it has been suggested that it may be respon- sible for the slight inflammatory changes that occur in the neighbour- hood of most new growths. The final and critical test of the con- nexion of an organism with some diseased condition is the production of a similar condition in animals by inoculation of that organism, and this experiment has signally failed with all the suggested cancer parasites. Another very cogent argument against the infective hypothesis is the fact that although tumours of identical structure are found throughout the vertebrate king'dom, it has never yet been found possible artificially to transmit these tumours from one species to another. If they were of an infective nature it is almost incon- ceivable that the gap between two allied species should be such an insuperable bar to transmission. Quite recently Borrel of the Pasteur Institute has stated that certain animal parasites from the skin are often to be found buried in the cell masses of cancers of the skin and breast, and he thinks that these parasites may be the carriers of some as yet unknown cancer virus, just as the mosquito is the carrier of malaria. Ribbert has suggested that tumour formation may be due to " alteration of tissue tension." In his opinion the various cells of the body are normally held in a state of equilibrium by some con- dition of mutual interdependence amongst themselves. Should this equilibrium be disturbed some of these cells may escape from the controlling influence usually exercised upon them by their neighbours, and become endowed with greatly enhanced powers of growth. Adami considers that every cell possesses two distinct properties, a property of function and a property of growth, and he regards these as incompatible, that is to say, a cell cannot at the same time be carrying out a specific function and also undergoing active growth. He believes that on occasion some of these cells may abandon their " habit of work " and assume a " habit of growth," and this will lead to the development of a tumour. Neither of the two latter explanations brings us very much nearer the solution of the question — they merely place the unknown factor one step farther back; but they serve to emphasize the biological aspect of the problem. At the present time the general weight of evidence seems to favour the idea that tumour formation is due to some intrinsic cause, whereby the normal processes of growth are disturbed, rather than to any extrinsic cause such as microbial infection. Therefore it is from a careful study of the laws of growth, and from research directed along broad biological lines that the best results are to be looked for in the future. Classification of Spontaneous Tumours. — So little is known as to the nature of these tumours that a satisfactory classification on a scientific basis is not yet within reach. The following is merely suggested as convenient : — I. — Connective-tissue Tumours. Innocent. Malignant. Lipoma (fatty tumour). Fibroma (fibrous tumour). Sarcoma. Myoma (muscular tumour). Endothelioma. Osteoma (bony tumour). Chondroma (cartilaginous tumour). Odontoma (tumour in connexion with teeth). Myxoma (mucoid tumour). Neuroma (tumour in connexion with nerves). Glioma (neuroglial tumour). Endothelioma (endothelial tumour). Angioma (tumour composed of blood vessels). II. — Epithelial Tumours. Innocent. Papilloma. Adenoma. Malignant. Carcinoma. Rodent Ulcer. I. Connective-tissue Tumours} — Lipoma (fig. 5). — Of the connec- tive-tissue group the fatty tumours are the most common. They often .arise from the layer of fat beneath the skin, and a usual site for these subcutaneous lipomata is the back of the trunk, though at times they are found on the limbs and elsewhere. They 1 Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14, 15 and 17 have been redrawn from Bland Sutton's Tumours, by permission; figs. IO, II, 12 and 13 are from Rose & Carless, Surgery, by permission. 374 TUMOUR are soft, painless swellings, sometimes of great size; though usually single, as many as a dozen may be present in the same individual. Lipomata are also found in the abdominal cavity, growing from the subperitoneal layer of fat. FIG. 5. — Lipoma of the palm. What is known as a diffuse lipoma (fig. 6) consists of a generalized overgrowth of the subcutaneous fat of the neck, and this may be so extensive as to obliterate the outline of the jaw. FIG. 6. — Diffuse lipoma of the neck. Fibroma (fig. 7). — Of tumours containing fibrous tissue, by far the most important are the fibroids of the uterus. A better name for these tumours would be Fibromyomata, as they always contain a varying proportion of muscle fibres. They origi- nate in the wall of the uterus, but generally come to project either internally into the cavity of the uterus, or ex- ternally into the peritoneal cavity; and often their sole connexion with the uterine wall is a stalk or pedicle formed from the capsule of the tumour. Fibromyomata of the uterus are most com- mon from 35 to 45 years of age; in girls under 20 they are almost unknown. They may attain a great size and are often multiple. They seem to be equally common in married and unmarried FIG. 7. — Uterus in sagittal section women. Not every fibroid is showing interstitial and submucous a source of danger or discom- fibroids. fort, for in the majority of cases they are discovered by chance or not until after death. On the other hand they may give rise to severe symptoms, and that in many different ways. First, they may cause haemorrhage prolonged over years so that the health is entirely ruined. Secondly, they may become inflamed and septic, and lead to severe blood-poisoning. Next, for some unknown reason, a fibroid tends to prevent conception, whilst, should pregnancy occur, labour is greatly impeded. Finally, it seems to be established that a fibroid may occasionally become converted into a sarcoma. Examples of pure fibrous tissue tumours are the small multiple growths of the subcutaneous tissue, known as Painful subcutaneous nodule, and the irregular outgrowth from the gum known as Epulis. A Myoma is composed of unstriped muscle fibres. It is a rare tumour sometimes found in the oesophagus, stomach and bladder. Osteoma (fig. 8). — Bony tumours not infrequently arise from the bones of the head or face. They grow very slowly, and are so hard FIG. 8. — Osteoma of the left frontal sinus (seen from below). that surgical removal may be very difficult. They also occur as irregular outgrowths from the bones of the limbs, and are then known as Exostoses (fig. 9). A common site for these is the inner and lower end of the femur, at the point of attachment of the adductor muscle, and such a tumour seems to originate from an ossification of the tendon of this muscle. FIG. 9. — Exostosis of the femur produced by the ossification of the FIG. 10.— Multiple chondromata tendon of the adductor magnus. Of the fingers. Chondroma (fig. 10). — Cartilaginous tumours are often found in children and young people growing from the bones of the limbs in the neighbourhood of the joints. They are frequently multiple, especially in the hands and feet. These tumours grow slowly and are quite painless. Should removal be necessary, it is usually an easy matter. Odontoma. — Several varieties of this tumour have been described arising in connexion with the teeth and due to delayed or faulty development. They may cause great deformity of the jaw. A Myzoma is composed of loose, gelatinous connective tissue similar to that found in the umbilical cord. Some nasal polypi seem to be of this nature, but true myxomatous tumours are rare. It is, however, not uncommon for a fibroma or a sarcoma to be converted by degeneration into myxomatous-like tissue. Neuroma, — A pure neuroma is very_ uncommon, but a tumour known as a Pseudo-neuroma (fig. n) is often found in the course of a nerve. This is formed by a localized overgrowth of the fibrous tissue of the nerve sheath. Glioma. — This variety of tumour arises from the neuroglia, the TUMOUR 375 supporting tissue of the brain and spinal cord. Consequently gliomata are only found in these two structures. Endothelioma. — Of late years a small class of tumour has been described as originating apparently from the endothelium lining the lesser blood and lymph channels. Many of the recorded examples have been connected with the mouth, the tongue, the palate or the parotid gland. Some of these tumours are quite innocent, others are typically malignant. An Angeioma consists of a mesh- work ot Dlood-vessels bound to- gether by a small amount of fat and fibrous tissue.. Two varieties are described: (a) The simple naevus, or port-wine stain, scarcely deserves to be called a tumour. It appears as a reddish-blue discolour- ation of the skin due to over FIG. II. — Pseudo-neuroma : growth and dilatation of the under- fibrous tumour growing from lying blood-vessels. This condition nerve sheath, and causing the js most commonly found on the fibres to be stretched over it. {ace or scalp, and may be of congenital origin. (b) In the cavernous naevus the vascular hypertrophy is on a larger scale, and may produce a definite pulsating tumour. Here, again, the head is the usual situation. Sarcoma. — This is the malignant type of the connective-tissue tumour. The general arrangement of a sarcoma shows a mass of atypical cells loosely bound to- gether by a small amount of connective tissue. The cells vary greatly in size and shape in different tumours, and in accordance with the prevailing type the following varieties of sarcoma have been described: (i.) round-cell sarcoma, ({{.) spindle-cell sarcoma, (iii.) mela- notic sarcoma, (iv.) myeloid sar- coma. The first two groups contain the great majority of all sarcomata, and may occur in almost any part of the body, but they are especially liable to attack the bones (fig. 12). A sarcoma of bone may be either periosteal when it grows from the periosteum covering the outer surface of the bone, or endosteal when it lies in the medullary cavity. A peculiar form of sarcoma is found in the parotid and other salivary glands. The cells are usually spindle - shaped, and among them lie scattered masses of cartilage and fibrous tissue. FlG. 12. — Ossifying periosteal sarcoma of fibula. These tumours are seldom very malignant, and dissemination is rare (fig. 13). The melanotic sarcoma is of a brown or black colour owing to the presence of granules of pigment (melanin) in and among the tumour cells. A melanotic sarcoma may arise from a pigmented wart or mole, or FIG. 13. — Malignant tumour of the parotid gland. from the pigmented layers of the retina. The primary growth is usually small, but dissemination occurs with great rapidity throughout the body. The myeloid sarcoma, or myeloma (fig. 14), is composed of very large cells like those of bone-marrow from which it is probably derived. It is only found in the interior of bones, chiefly in those of the arm and leg. The degree of malignancy is low, dissemination never occurs, and recurrence after operation is rare. FIG. 14. — Lower end of a femur in longitudinal section, showing a myeloma. II. — Epithelial Tumours. Papilloma. — The familiar example of a papilloma is the simple wart, which is formed by a proliferation of the squamous epithelium of the skin (fig. 3). It ^— ^-.,. ^r ^ seems probable that some warts are of an infective nature, for instances of direct contagion are not uncommon. Occasionally warts are pigmented, and are then liable to be the seat of a melanotic sar- coma. Papillomata are also found in the bladder (fig. 15), as long delicate filaments growing from the bladder wall. These consist of a connective- tissue core covered by a thin layer of epithelium. A denoma. — (Figs, i a and 1 6). The glandular tumours are of very com- mon occurrence in the breast, the ovary and the intestinal canal. The structure -of an adenoma of the breast has already been described (vide supra), and the structure of other adenomata is on the same general plan. The main features of an innocent glandular tumour are: (a) the presence of a rounded, painless swelling with a well-defined margin; (b) the swelling is freely movable in the surrounding tissues, and if it lies close beneath the skin it is not attached thereto; (c) there is no enlargement of the neighbouring lymphatic glands. Carcinoma. — The following varieties of carcinoma are described : — i. Squamous-cell carcinoma (fie. 4), arising from those parts of the body covered by squamous epithelium, namely the skin, the mouth, the pharynx, the upper part of the oesophagus and the bladder. ii. Spheroidal-cell carcinoma (figs. 20 and 26), arising from spheroidal epithelium, as in the breast, the pylorus, the pancreas, the kidney and the prostrate. iii. Columnar-cell carcinoma (figs. 16 and 17), arising from columnar epithelium, as in the intestine. The general histology of these tumours corresponds to that of a spheroidal-cell carcinoma already described (vide supra), the only variation between the three groups being in the shape of the cells. The clinical characteristics of a carcinoma, whatever its situation, are: (a) the presence of a swelling which has no well defined margin, but fades away into the surrounding tissues to which it is fixed; (b) when the tumour lies near the skin (e.g. a carcinoma FIG. 15. — Villous papilloma of the bladder. 376 TUMULUS— TUNDRA of the breast) it becomes fixed to this at an early date; (c) the tumour is painful and tender, the degree of pain varies widely, FIG. 17. — Cancer of (Redrawn from Ziegler's Pathological Anatomy, by permission of Macmfllan & Co.) FIG. 16. — Section through advancing margin of columnar; cancer of stomach. and in the early stages there may be none ; (d) the neighbouring lymphatic glands soon become enlarged and tender, show- ing that they are the seat of metastatic deposits; (e) in squamous carcinoma of the skin, ulceration speedily occurs. Rodent Ulcer. — This shows itself as a slowly progressing ulceration of the skin, and is especially common on the face near the eye or ear. The condition is one of purely local malignancy, and dissemination does not occur. It is believed to be a carcinoma of the sebaceous glands of the skin. (L. C.*) TUMULUS, a Latin word meaning a heap or mound, also used in classical writings in the secondary sense of a grave. In Roman epitaphs we meet with the formula tumulum faciendum curairit, meaning the grave and its . monument; and on the inscribed thlcofoT monumental stones placed over the early Christian graves of Gaul and Britain the phrase in hoc lumido jacet expresses the same idea. But among archaeologists the word is usually restricted in its technical modern application to a sepulchral mound of greater or less magnitude. The mound may be of earth, or of stones with a covering of earth, or may be entirely composed of stones. In the latter case, if the tumulus of stones covers a megalithic cist or a sepulchral chamber with a passage leading into it from the outside, it is often called a dolmen. (See STONE MONUMENTS, BARROW and CAIRN.) The custom of constructing sepulchral tumuli was widely prevalent throughout the prehistoric ages and is referred to in the early literature of various races as a fitting commemoration of the illustrious dead. Prehistoric tumuli are found abundantly in almost all parts of Europe and Asia from Britain to Japan. They occur with frequency also in northern Africa, and in many parts of North and South America the aboriginal populations have practised similar customs. Sepulchral tumuli, however, vary so^ much in shape and size that the external appearance is no criterion of age or origin. In North America, especially in the Wisconsin region, there are numerous mounds made in shapes resembling the figures of animals, birds or even human forms. These have not been often found to be sepulchral, but they are associated with sepulchral mounds of the ordinary form, some of which are as much as 300 ft. in diameter and oo ft. in height. Perhaps the largest tumulus on record is the tomb of Alyattes, king of Lydia, situated near Sardis, constructed in his own life- time, before 560 B.C. It is a huge mound, 1180 ft. in diameter and 200 ft. high. In south-eastern Europe, and especially in southern Russia, the sepulchral tumuli are very numerous and often of great size, reaching occasionally to 400 ft. in cir- cumference and over 100 ft. in height. These are mostly of the period of the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonese, dating from about the sth century B.C. to about the 2nd century A.D., and their contents bear striking testimony to the wealth and culture of the people who reared them. AUTHORITIES. — Dunca.nMcPherson,M.D.,AntiquitiesofKerlchand Researches in the Cimmerian Bosphorus (London, 1857) ; CyrusThomas, " Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections of the United States," Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, 1887); Kondakoff, Tolstoi and Reinach, Antiquitis de la Russie meridionale (Paris, 1891). (J. AN.) TUN, a town in the province of Khorasan, Persia, situated about 150 m. S. of Nishapur in 34° N., 58° 7' E., at an elevation of 1 200 ft. The town, which has a population of 70x30, is sur- rounded by a wall, 20 ft. in height, raised on a high rampart of mud. It has three gates, handsome bazaars, good caravan- serais and numerous large gardens and fields producing opium, tobacco and cotton. Some silk is also grown. TUNBRIDGE WELLS, a municipal borough and inland watering-place of England, chiefly in the Tonbridge parliamen- tary division of Kent, but extending into the eastern division of Sussex, 345 m. S.E. by S. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham railway, served also by a branch of the London Brighton & South Coast line. Pop. (1891), 29,296; (1901), 33)373- It owes its popularity to its chalybeate spring and its beautiful situation in a hilly wooded district. The wells are situated by the Parade (or Pantiles), a walk associated with fashion since the time of their discovery. It was paved with pantiles in the reign of Queen Anne. Reading and assembly rooms adjoin the pump-room. The town is built in a picturesquely irregular manner, and a large part of it consists of districts called " parks " occupied by villas and mansions. On Rusthall Common about a mile from the town is the curiously shaped mass of sandstone known as the Toad Rock, and a mile and a half south-west is the striking group called the High Rocks. The Tunbridge Wells sanatorium is situated in grounds sixty acres in extent. Five miles south-east of Tunbridge Wells is Bayham Abbey, founded in 1200, where ruins of a church, a gateway, and dependent buildings adjoin the modern Tudor mansion. Three miles south, in Sussex, the village of Frant stands on a hill which is perhaps the finest of the many view-points in this district, commanding a wide prospect over some of the richest woodland scenery in England. The vicinity of Tun- bridge Wells is largely residential. To the north lies the urban district of SOUTHBOROUGH (pop. 6977). There is a large trade in Tunbridge ware, which includes work-tables, boxes, toys, &c., made of hard woods, such as beech, sycamore, holly, and cherry, and inlaid with mosaic. Tunbridge Wells was incorporated in 1889, and is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 coun- cillors. Area, 3991 acres. The town owes its rise to the discovery of the medicinal springs by Dudley, Lord North, in 1606. Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., retired to drink the waters at Tunbridge Wells after the birth of her eldest son Charles. Soon after the Restoration it was visited by Charles II. and Catherine of Braganza. It was a favourite residence of the princess Anne previous to her accession to the throne, and from that time became one of the chief resorts of London fashionable society. In this respect it reached its height in the second half of the i8th century, and is specially associated with Colley Gibber, Samuel Johnson, Cumberland the dramatist, David Garrick, Samuel Richardson, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Beau Nash, Miss Chudleigh and Mrs Thrale. The Tunbridge Wells of that period is sketched with much graphic humour in Thackeray's Virginians. TUNDRA (a Russian word, signifying a marshy plain), in physical geography, the name applied to the treeless and often marshy plains which border the arctic coasts of Europe, Asia TUNGABHADRA— TUNGSTEN 377 and North America. The Russian tundra, apart from the arctic conditions of climate and flora, may be compared with the steppes farther south. TUNGABHADRA, a river of southern India, the chief tributary of the Kistna. It is formed by the junction of two streams, the Tunga and the Bhadra, which both rise in Mysore in the Western Ghats. The united river for nearly all its course forms the boundary between Madras and the dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad. On its right bank stood the capital of the ancient Hindu dynasty of Vijayanagar, now a wilderness of ruins. From of old its waters have been utilized for irrigation. Near its confluence with the Kistna it supplies the Kurnool- Cuddapah Canal. A project has been recently under con- sideration to dam the river higher up, and there construct an artificial lake that would have an area of 160 sq. m., the cost of this scheme being roughly estimated at nearly £6,000,000. T'UNG-CHOW, a sub-prefectural city in Chih-li, the metro- politan province of China, on the banks of the Peiho in 39° 54' N. 116° 41' E., 12 m. E. of Peking. Its population is estimated at about 50,000. T'ung-Chow marks the highest point at which the Peiho is navi- gable, and here merchandise for Peking is transferred to a canal. The city, which is faced on its eastern side by the river, and on its other three sides is surrounded by populous suburbs, is upwards of 3 m. in circumference. The walls are about 45 ft. in height and about 24 ft. wide at the top. They are being allowed to fall into decay. Two main thoroughfares connect the north and south gates and the east and west gates. The place derives its importance from the fact that it is the port of Peking. Like most Chinese cities, T'ung-Chow has appeared in history under various names. By the founder of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.) it was called Lu-Hien; with the rise of the T'ang dynasty (618 A.D.) its name was changed to Huan-Chow; and at the beginning of the i2th century, with the advent of the Kin dynasty to power, Huan-Chow became T'ung-Chow. It was at T'ung-Chow that Sir Harry Parkes, Sir Henry Loch and their escort were treacherously taken prisoners by the Chinese when they were sent forward by Lord Elgin to negotiate terms of peaee after the troubles of 1860. During the Boxer outbreak in 1900 T'ung-Chow was occupied by the allied armies, and a light railway connecting the city with Peking was constructed by German military engineers. TUNGSTEN [symbol W, atomic weight 184-0 (O=i6)], a metallic chemical element found in the minerals wolfram, an iron and manganese tungstate, scheelite, a calcium tungstate, stol- zite, a lead tungstate, and in some rarer minerals. Its presence in scheelite was detected by Scheele and Bergman in 1781, and in 1783 Juan, Jose and d'Elhuyar showed the same substance occurred in wolfram; they also obtained the metal. Tungsten may be prepared from wolfram by heating the powdered ore with sodium carbonate, extracting the sodium carbonate with water, filtering and adding an acid to precipitate tungstic acid, H2WO4. This is washed and dried and the oxide so obtained reduced to the metal by heating with carbon to a high tempera- ture (Hadfield, Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., 1903, ii. 38). On a small scale it is obtained by reducing the trioxide in a current of hydrogen, or the chloride by sodium vapour, or the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace; in the last case the product is porous and can be welded like iron. In the form of a powder, it is obtained by reducing the oxide with zinc and extracting with soda, or by dissolving out the manganese from its alloys with tungsten. The metal may be used uncombined, but large quantities of ferrotungsten are made in the electric furnace; other alloys are prepared by acting on a mixture of the oxides with aluminium. Tungsten has been applied in the manufacture of filament electric lamps. The metal has a crystalline structure, and melts at about 2800°. The powdered metal burns at a red heat to form the trioxide; it is very slowly attacked by moist air. It combines with fluorine with incandescence at ordinary temperatures, and with chlorine at 250-300°; carbon, silicon, and boron, when heated with it in the electric furnace, give crystals harder than the ruby. It is soluble in a mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric acids, and the powdered metal, in aqua regia, but slowly attacked by sulphuric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids separately; it is also soluble in boiling potash solution, giving a tuastate and hydrogen. Tungsten dioxide, WO2, formed on reducing the trioxide by hydro- gen at a red heat or a mixture of the trioxide and hydrochloric acid with zinc, or by decomposing the tetrachloride with water, is a brown strongly pyrophoric powder, which must be cooled in hydrogen before being brought into contact with air. It is slightly soluble in hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, giving purple solutions. It dissolves in potash, giving potassium tungstate and hydrogen, and is readily oxidized to the trioxide. Tungsten trioxide, WO3, occurs in nature as wolframine, a yellow mineral found in Cumberland, Limoges, Connecticut and in North Carolina. It is prepared as shown above, or by other methods. It is a canary-yellow powder, which becomes a dark orange on heating; the original colour is regained on cooling. On exposure to light it assumes a greenish tinge. A crystalline form was obtained by Debray as olive-green prisms by igniting a mixture of sodium tungstate and carbonate in a current of hydrochloric acid gas, and by Nordenskjold by heating hydrated tungstic acid with borax. Partial reduction of tungsten trioxide gives blue or purple-red products which are intermediate in composition between the dioxide and trioxide. Tungsten trioxide forms two acids, tungstic acid, H2WO4, and metatungstic acid, H2W4Oi3; it also gives origin to several series of salts, to which the acids corresponding are unknown. Thus we have salts of the following types MjO(WOs)», where n = i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and also (M2O)m(WO,)n, where M, n = 2, 5; 3, 7; 4, 3; 5, 12; M standing for a monovalent metal. The (M2O)5(WO3)i2 or MioW^Ou salts are called paratungstates. Tungstic acid, H2WO4, is obtained as H2WO4-H2O by precipitating a tungstate with cold acid; this substance has a bitter taste and its aqueous solution reddens litmus. By using hot acid the yellow anhydrous tungstic acid is precipitated, which is insoluble in water and in all acids except hydrofluoric. It may be obtained in a flocculent form by exposing the hexachloride to moist air. Meta- tungstic acid, _ H2W4Oi3-7H2O, is obtained by decomposing the barium salt with sulphuric acid or the lead salt with hydrochloric acid. It forms yellow octahedra, which become anhydrous at 100°, and are converted into the trioxide on ignition. It is readily soluble in water, and on boiling the aqueous solution a white hydrate is first deposited which after a time is converted into the trioxide. Graham obtained a colloidal tungstic acid by dialysing a dilute solution of sodium tungstate and its equivalent of hydrochloric acid; on concentrating in a vacuum a gummy product is obtained, which still remains soluble after heating to 200 , but it is converted into the trioxide on heating to redness. When moistened it becomes adhesive. The solution has a bitter taste and does not gelatinize, even under the influence of boiling acids. Of the salts, the normal tungstates are insoluble in water with the exception of the alkaline tungstates; they are usually amorphous, but some can be obtained in the crystalline form. The meta- tungstates of the alkalis are obtained by boiling normal tungstates with tungstic acid until the addition of hydrochloric acid to the filtrate gives no precipitate. The most important tungstate is the so-called tungstate of soda, which is sodium paratungstate, NaioWi2O«-28H2O. This salt is obtained by roasting wolfram with sodium carbonate, lixiviating, neutralizing the boiling filtrate with hydrochloric acid and crystallizing at ordinary temperatures. The salt forms large monoclinic prisms; molecules containing 25 and 21 H2O separate from solutions crystallized at higher tempera- tures. The salt is used as a mordant in dyeing and calico printing, and also for making textiles non-inflammable. Several other sodium tungstates are known, as well as potassium and ammonium tungstates. Many salts also occur in the mineral kingdom: for example, scheelite is CaWO4, stolzite is PbWO4, farberite is FeWO4, wolfram is (Fe,Mn)WO4, whilst htibnerite is MnWO4. By partial reduction of the tungstates under certain conditions products are obtained which are insoluble in acids and alkalis and present a bronze-like appearance which earned for them the name of tungsten bronzes. The sodium compound was first obtained by Wpihler on reducing sodium tungstate with hydrogen; coal-gas, zinc, iron or tin also effect the reduction. It forms golden cubes which are unattacked by alkalis or by any acid except hydrofluoric. It appears to be a mixture of which the components vary with the materials and methods used in its production (Philipp, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 499). A blue bronze, Na^iWsOis, forming dark blue cubes with a red reflex, is obtained by electrolysing fused sodium para- tungstate; a purple-red variety, Na2W3O9, and a reddish yellow form result when sodium carbonate and sodium tungstate are heated respectively with tungsten trioxide and tinfoil. Similar potassium tungsten bronzes are known. Tungstic acid closely resembles molybdic acid in combining with phosphoric, arsenious, arsenic, boric, vanadic and silicic acids to form highly complex acids of which a great many salts exist. Of the phpsphotungstic acids the most important is phosphoduo- decitungstic acid, H3PWi2O4o-nH2O, obtained in quadratic pyra- mids by crystallizing mixed solutions of orthophosphoric and 378 TUNGUSES metatungstic acids. Two sodium salts, viz. NajHPWijOwnHiO and NaaPWi2O«-rtHjO, are obtained by heating sodium hydrogen phosphate with a tungstate. The most important silicotungstic acids are silicodecitungstic acid HsWioSiOae-sh^O, tungstosilicic acid, HsWuSiO42-2oH2O, and silicoduodecitungstic or silicotungstic acid, H»WijSiO«-29H2O. On boiling gelatinous silica with ammo- nium polytungstate and evaporating with the occasional addition of ammonia, ammonium silicodecitungstate is obtained as short rhombic prisms. On adding silver nitrate and decomposing the precipitated silver salt with hydrochloric acid, a solution is obtained which on evaporation in a vacuum gives the free acid as a glassy mass. If this be dissolved in water and the solution concentrated, some silicic acid separates and the filtrate deposits triclinic prisms of tungstosilicic acid. Silicotungstic acid is obtained as quadratic pyramids from its mercurous salt which is prepared from mercurous nitrate and the salt formed on boiling gelatinous silicic acid with a polytungstate of an alkali metal. Pertungstic Acid, HWO4. — The sodium salt, NaWO4-H2O, is obtained by evaporating in a vacuum the product of boiling a solution of sodium paratungstate with hydrogen peroxide. Its solution liberates chlorine from hydrochloric acid and iodine from potassium iodide. Halogen Compounds. — Although the trioxide is soluble in hydro- fluoric acid, evaporation of the solution leads to the recovery of the oxide unchanged. A double salt of the oxyfluoride, viz. 2KF-WO2F2-H2O, is obtained as crystalline scales by dissolving nor- mal potassium tungstate in hydrofluoric acid and adding potassium hydroxide till a permanent precipitate is just formed. Other oxyfluorides are known. The hexafluoride, WF«, is a very active gaseous compound, which attacks glass and metals, obtained from tungsten hexachloride and hydrofluoric acid (Ruff and Eisner, Ber., 1905, 38, p. 742). Oxyfluorides of the formulae WOF4 and WO2F2 are also known. Tungsten forms four chlorides, viz. WC12, WC1,, WC1S, WC18. The dichloride, WC12> is an amorphous grey powder obtained by reducing the hexachloride at a high temperature in hydrogen, or, better, by heating the tetrachloride in a current of carbon dioxide. It changes on exposure to air and dissolves slightly in water to give a brown solution, the insoluble portion gradually being converted into an oxide with evolution of hydrogen. The tetrachloride, WCU, is obtained by partial reduction of the higher chlorides with hydrogen; a mixture of the penta- and hexa-chloride is distilled in a stream of hydrogen or carbon dioxide, and the pentachloride which volatilizes returned to the flask several times. This gives the tetrachloride as a greyish- brown crystalline powder. It is very hygroscopic and with cold water gives the oxide and hydrochloric acid. On heating it gives the di-and penta-chlorides. At a high temperature hydrogen reduces it to the metal partly in the form of a black pyrophoric powder. The pentachloride, WCU, is obtained as a product in the preparation of the tetrachloride. It forms black lustrous crystals, or when quickly condensed, a dark green crystalline powder. It melts at 248° and boils at 275-6°; the vapour density corresponds to the above formula. It is more hygroscopic than the tetrachloride; and when treated with much water the bulk is at once decomposed into the blue oxide and hydrochloric acid, but an olive-green solution is also produced. The hexachloride, WC1«, is obtained by heating the metal in a current of dry chlorine in the absence of oxygen or moisture, otherwise some oxychloride is formed ; a sublimate of dark violet crystals appear at first, but as the hexachloride increases in quantity it collects as a very dark red liquid. When perfectly pure, the hexachloride is stable even in moist air, but the presence of an oxychloride brings about energetic decomposition; similarly water has no action on the pure compound, but a trace of the oxychloride occasions sudden decomposition into a greenish oxide and hydrochloric acid. It melts at 275° ,and boils at 346-7° (759-5 mm.). Vapour density deter- minations indicate that dissociation occurs when the vapour is heated above the boiling point. Several oxychlorides are known. The monoxychloride, WOC1«, is obtained as red acicular crystals by heating the oxide or dioxy- chloride in a current of the vapour of the hexachloride, or from the trioxide and phosphorus pentachloride. It melts at 210-4° and boils at 227-5° forming a red vapour. Moist air brings about the immediate formation of a yellowish crust of tungstic acid. The dioxychloride, WO2C12, is obtained as a light lemon-yellow sublimate on passing chlorine over the brown oxide. It is unaffected by moist air or cold water, and even when boiled with water the decom- position is incomplete. Tungsten combines directly with bromine to give, when the bromine is in excess, the penta- and not a hexa- bromide. This substance forms crystals resembling iodine, which melt at 276° and boil at 333°. It slowly evolves bromine on stand- ing, and is at once decomposed by water into the blue oxide and hydrobromic acid. The dibromide, WBr2, is a non-volatile bluish- black powder obtained by reducing the pentabromide with hydrogen. By passing bromine vapour over red-hot tungsten dioxide a mixture of WO2Br2 and WOBr, is obtained, from which the latter can be removed by gently heating when it volatilizes. The dioxybromide forms light red crystals or a yellow powder ; it volatilizes at a red heat, and is not acted upon by water. The monoxybromide forms brownish-black needles, which melt at 277° and boil at 327-5; it is decomposed by water. The di-iodide is obtained as green metallic scales on passing iodine over red-hot tungsten. Tungsten disulphide, WSj, is obtained as soft black acicular crystals by the action of sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen or carbon bisulphide on tungsten. The trisulphide, WSs, is obtained by dissolving the trioxide in ammonium sulphide or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of a tungstate and precipitat- ing by an acid in both cases. When dry it is a black mass which yields a liver-coloured powder. It is sparingly soluble in cold water, but is easily dissolved: by potassium carbonate or ammonia. By dissolving it in a hydrosulphide a sulphotungstate is produced; these salts can also be obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of a tungstate. A nitride, WzNa, is obtained as a black powder by acting with ammonia on the oxy tetrachloride or hexachloride; it is insoluble in sodium hydroxide, nitric and dilute sulphuric acids; strong sulphuric acid , however, gives ammonia and tungstic acids. Ammonia does not react with tungsten or the dioxide, but with trioxide at a red heat a substance of the formula WsHeNjOj is obtained, which is insoluble in acids and alkalis and on ignition decomposes, evolving nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia. Phosphorus combines directly with the metal to form WjP<; another phosphide, W2P, results on igniting a mixture of phosphorus pentoxide and tungsten trioxide. The atomic weight has been determined by many investigators; the chief methods employed being the analysis and synthesis of the trioxide and the analysis of the hexachloride. The former was employed by Pennington and Smith and Desi (Zeit. anorg. Ghent., 1895, 8, pp. 198, 205) who obtained the value 183-42. TUNGUSES, a widespread Asiatic people, forming a main branch of the Mongol division of the Mongol-Tatar family. They are the Tung-hu of the Chinese, probably a corrupt form of tonki or donki, that is, " men " or " people." The Russian form Tungus, wrongly supposed to mean " lake people," appears to occur first in the Dutch writer Massa (1612); but the race has been known to the Russians ever since they reached the Yenisei. The Tungus domain, covering many hundred thou- sand square miles in central and east Siberia and in the Amur basin, stretches from the Yenisei eastwards to the Pacific, where it occupies most of the seaboard between Korea and Kamchatka. It also reaches the Arctic Ocean at two points, in the Nisovaya tundra, west of the Khatanga River, and in a comparatively small enclosure in the Yana basin over against the Lyakhov (New Siberia) Archipelago. But the Tunguses proper are chiefly centred in the region watered by the three large eastern tributaries of the Yenisei, which from them take their names of the Upper, Middle or Stony, and Lower Tunguska. Here the Tunguses are known to the Samoyedes by the name of Aiya or " younger brothers," implying a comparatively recent immi- gration (confirmed by other indications) from the Amur basin, which appears to be the original home both of the Tunguses and of the closely allied Manchus. The Amur is still mainly a Tungus river almost from its source to its mouth : the Oroches (Orochus), Daurians, Birars, Golds, Manegrs, Sanagirs, Ngat- kons, Nigidals, and some other aboriginal tribes scattered along the main stream and its affluents — the Shilka, Sungari and Usuri — are all of Tungus stock and speech. On the Pacific the chief subdivisions of the race are the Lamuts, or " sea people," grouped in small isolated hunting communities round the west coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, and farther south the Tazi between the Amur delta and Korea. The whole race, exclusive of Manchus, numbers probably little more than 50,000, of whom some 10,000 are in the Amur basin, the rest in Siberia. The Tungus type is essentially Mongolic, being characterized by broad flat features, small nose, wide mouth, thin lips, small black and somewhat oblique eyes, black lank hair, dark olive or bronze complexion, low stature, averaging not more than 5 ft. 4 in.; they are distinguished from other Mongolic peoples by the square shape of the skull and the slim, wiry, well-proportioned figure. This description applies more especially to the Tunguska tribes, who may be regarded as typical Tunguses, and who, unlike most other Mongols, betray no tendency to obesity. They are classed by the Russians, according to their various pursuits, as Reindeer, Horse, Cattle, Dog, Steppe and Forest Tunguses. A few have become settled agriculturists; but the great bulk of the race are still essentially forest hunters, using the reindeer both as mounts and as pack animals. Nearly all lead nomad lives in pursuit of fur-bearing animals, whose skins they supply to Russian and Yakut traders in exchange for provisions, clothing and other necessaries TUNIC— TUNICATA 379 of life. The picturesque and even elegant national costume shows in its ornamentation and general style decided Japanese influence, due no doubt to long-continued intercourse with that nation at some period previous to the spread of the race from the Amur valley to Siberia. Many of the Tungus tribes have been baptized, and are, therefore, reckoned as " Greek Christians "; but Russian orthodoxy has not penetrated far below the surface, and most of them are still at heart Shamanists and nature-worshippers, secretly keeping the teeth and claws of wild animals as idols or amulets, and observing Christian rites only under compulsion. But, whether Christians or pagans, all alike are distinguished above other Asiatics, perhaps above all other peoples, for their truly noble moral qualities. All observers describe them as "cheerful under the most depressing circumstances, persevering, open-hearted, trustworthy, modest yet self-reliant, a fearless race of hunters, born amidst the gloom of their dense pine forests, exposed from the cradle to every danger from wild beasts, cold and hunger. Want and hardships of every kind they endure with surprising fortitude, and nothing can induce them to take service under the Russians or quit their solitary woodlands " (Keane's Asia, p. 479). Their numbers are steadily decreasing owing to the ravages of small-pox, scarlet fever, and especially famine, their most dreaded enemy. Their domain is also being continually encroached upon by the aggressive Yakuts from the north and east, and from the south by the Slavs, now settled in compact bodies in the province of Irkutsk about the upper course of the Yenisei. It is remarkable that, while the Russians often show a tendency to become assimilated to the Yakuts, the most vigorous and expansive of all the Siberian peoples, the Tunguses everywhere yield before the advance of their more civilized neighbours or become absorbed in the surrounding Slav communities. In the Amur valley the same fate is overtaking the kindred tribes, who are disappearing before the great waves of Chinese migration from the south and Russian encroachments both from the east and west. See L. Adam, Grammaire de la langue toungouse (Paris, 1874); C. Hickisch, Die Tungusen (St Petersburg, 1879); L. Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amurlande (St Petersburg, 1881-1891); Mainov, Niekolorya dannyia (Irkutsk, 1898). TUNIC (0. Eng. lunice, tunical, taken, before the Norman con- quest, directly from Lat. tunica, of which the origin is unknown), properly the name given in Latin to the principal undergarment of men and women, answering to the chiton (x""o)^) of the Greeks, and covered by the outer garment, the palla (Gr. I(MTU>V) , in the case of women, and by the peculiar Roman garment, the toga, in the case of men. The male tunica differed from the Xntav in usually having short sleeves (see further COSTUME: § Ancient Greek and Roman). The term, more often in the form " tunicle " (Lat. dim. tunicula), is applied, in ecclesiastical usage, to a vestment worn over the alb by the sub-deacon in the celebration of the Mass. In general current usage it is used of any loose short garment, girt at the waist and reaching from the neck to some distance above the knee. It is thus the name of the fatigue coat of a soldier of the British army. There are numerous uses of " tunic " or " tunica " in anatomy, zoology and botany in the sense of a covering or integument. TUNICATA. This group of marine animals was formerly regarded as constituting, along with the Polyzoa and the Brachiopoda, the invertebrate class Molluscoidea. It is now known to be a degenerate branch of the Chordata, and to be more nearly related to the Vertebrata than to any group of the Invertebrata. The Tunicata are found in all seas, from the littoral zone down to abyssal depths. They occur either fixed or free, solitary, aggregated or in colonies. The fixed forms are the " simple " and " compound " Ascidians. The colonies are produced by budding and the members are conveniently known as Ascidiozooids. Some Tunicata undergo alternation of genera- tions, and most of them show a retrograde metamorphosis in their life-history. HISTORY ' More than two thousand years ago Aristotle gave a short account of a simple Ascidian under the name of Tethyum. Schlosser and Ellis, in a paper on Botryllus, published in the Philosophical Tran- sactions of the Royal Society for 1756, first brought the compound Ascidians into notice; but it was not until the commencement of the igth century, as a result of the careful anatomical investigations of G. Cuvier (l) upon the simple Ascidians and of J. C. Savigny (2) upon the compound, that the close relationship between these two 1 Only the more important works can be mentioned here. For a more detailed account of the history of the group and a full biblio- graphy see (17) and (35) in the list of works at the end of this article. groups of the Tunicata was conclusively demonstrated. Lamarck (3) in 1816 instituted the class Tunicata, which he placed between the Radiara and the Verities in his system of classification. The Tunicata included at that time, besides the simple and the compound Ascidians, the pelagic forms Pyrosoma, which had been first made known by F. Peronjn 1804, and Salpa, described by P. Forskal in 1775. A. v. Chamisso, in 1819, made the important discovery that Salpa in its life-history passes through the series of changes which were afterwards more fully described by J. J. S. Steenstrup in 1842 as " alternation of generations "; and a few years later Kuhl and Van Hasselt's investigations upon the same animal resulted in the discovery of the alternation in the directions in which the wave of contraction passes along the heart and in which the blood circulates through the body. It has since been found that this observation holds good for all groups of the Tunicata. In 1826 H. Milne- Edwards and Audouin made a series of observations on living compound Ascidians, and amongst other discoveries they found the free-swimming tailed larva, and traced its development into the young Ascidian. In 1845 Carl Schmidt (6) first announced the presence in the test of some Ascidians of " tunicine," a substance very similar to cellu- lose, and in the following year Lowig and A. v. Kolliker (7) confirmed the discovery and made some additional observations upon this substance and upon the structure of the test in general. T. H. Huxley (8), in an important series of papers published in the Transactions of the Royal and Linnean Societies of London from 1851 onwards, discussed the structure, embryology and affinities of the pelagic_ Tunicates Pyrosoma, Salpa, Doliolum and Appendicularia. These important forms were also investigated about the same time by C. Gegenbaur, C. Vogt, H. Muller, A. Krohn and F. S. Leuckart. The most important epoch in the history of the Tunicata is the date of the publication of A. Kowalevsky's celebrated memoir upon the development of a simple Ascidian (9). The tailed larva had been previously investigated; but its minute structure had not been sufficiently examined, and the meaning of what was known of it had not been understood. It was reserved for Kowalevsky in 1866 to demonstrate the striking similarity in structure and in development between the larval Ascidian and the vertebrate embryo. He showed that the relations between the nervous system, the notochord and the alimentary canal are the same in the two forms, and have been brought about by a very similar course of embryonic development. This discovery clearly indicated that the Tunicata are closely allied to Amphioxus and the Vertebrata, and that the tailed larva repre- sents the primitive or ancestral form from which the adult Ascidian has been evolved by degeneration, and this led naturally to the view usually accepted at the present day, that the group is a degenerate side-branch from the lower end of the phylum Chordata, which includes the Tunicata (Urochorda), Balanoglossus, &c. (Hemichorda), Amphioxus (Cephalochorda) and the Vertebrata. Kowalevsky's great discovery has since been confirmed and extended to all other groups of the Tunicata by C. v. Kupffer (12), A. Giard (13 and 15), and others. In 1872 H. Fol (14) added largely to the knowledge of the Appen- diculariidae, and Giard (15) to that of the compound Ascidians. The most important additions which have been made to the latter since have been those described by Von Drasche (16) from the Adriatic and those discovered by the " Challenger " and other expeditions (17). The structure and the systematic arrangement of the simple Ascidians have been mainly discussed of recent years by J. Alder and A. Hancock (18), C. Heller (19), H. de Lacaze-Duthiers (20), M. Traustedt (21), L. Roule, R. Hartmeyer, C. P. Sluiter, W. Michaelsen and W. A. Herdman (17, 22). In 1874 Ussoff (23) investigated the minute structure of the nervous system and of the underlying gland (first discovered by Hancock), and showed that the duct communi- cates with the front of the branchial sac or pharynx by an aperture in the dorsal (or " olfactory ") tubercle. In 1880 C. Julin (24) drew attention to the similarity in structure and relations between this gland and the hypophysis cerebri of the vertebrate brain, and insisted upon their homology. M. M. Metcalf has since added to our knowledge of these structures. The Thaliacea have of late years been the subject of several very important memoirs. The researches of F. Todaro, W. K. Brooks (25), W. Salensky (26), O. Seeliger, Korotneff and others have elucidated the embryology, the gemmation and the life-history of the Salpidae; and K. Grobben, Barrois (27), and more especially Uljanin (28), have elaborately worked out the structure and the details of the complicated life- history of the Doliolidae. Finally, we owe to the successive memoirs of J. Hjort, O. Seeliger, W. E. Ritter, E. van Beneden, C. Julin, C. P. Sluiter, R. Hartmeyer and others the description of many new forms and much information as to the development and life-history of the group. The new forms described from Puget Sound and Alaska have drawn renewed attention to the similarity of the tauna in that region of the North Pacific and the fauna of north-west Europe. There is probably a common circumpolar Tunicate fauna which sends extensions downwards in both Atlantic and Pacific. As the result of the careful quantitative work of the German Plankton expedi- tion, A. Borgert thinks that the temperature of the water has more to do with both the horizontal and the vertical distribution of pelagic 38o TUNICATA Tunicata in the sea than any other factor. It is probable that the occasional phenomenal swarms of Doliolum which have been met with in summer in the North Atlantic are a result of the curious life-history which, in favourable circumstances, allows a small number of budding forms to produce from the numerous minute buds an enormous number of the next generation. The great increase in the number of species known from nearly all seas during the last twelve or fifteen years of the iQth century enables us now to form a truer estimate of the geographical distribution of the group than was possible when the " Challenger " collections were described, and shows that the Tunicata at least give no support to the " bi-polar theory " of the distribution of animals. ANATOMY As a type of the Tunicata, Ascidia mentula, one of the larger species of the simple Ascidians, may be taken. This species is E t raal f°und il most of the i-har«<-t..r* European seas, in shal- Cl"ncle"' low water. It has an irregularly ovate form, of a dull grey colour, and is attached to some foreign object by one end (fig. i). The opposite end of the body has a terminal opening sur- rounded by eight rounded lobes. This is the mouth or branchial aperture, and it indicates the anterior end of the animal. About half-way back from the anterior end is the atrial or cloacal aperture, surrounded by six lobes and placed upon the dorsal edge. \Vhen the Ascidian is living and undisturbed, water is being constantly drawn in through the branchial aperture and passed out through the atrial. If coloured particles be placed in the water near the apertures, they are seen to be sucked into the body through the branchial aperture, and after a short time some of "'/ them are ejected with considerable force through the atrial aperture. The current of water passing in is for respiratory purposes, and it also conveys food into the animal. The atrial current is mainly the water which has been used in respi- ration, but it also contains all excretions from the body, and at times the ova and spermatozoa or the embryos. The outer grey part of the body, FIG. i.— Ascidia mentula, from which is attache.d a* °r "far its the right side ^^ &£&<& two. ££ at Atrial aperture; br, bran- tures> js the "test." This is a chial aperture; /, test. fjrm gelatinous cuticular secretion upon the outer surface of the ectoderm, which is a layer of flat cells. Although at first produced as a cuticle, the test soon becomes organized by the migration into it of cells derived from the mesoderm. A. Kowalevsky has shown that cells of the mesenchyme of the larva make their way through (From Herdman, " C/tallenger " Report.) FIG. 2. — Diagrammatic section of part of Mantle and Test of an Ascidian, showing the formation of a vessel and the structure of the test. m, Mantle. blc, Bladder cell. me, Mantle cells. e, Ectoderm. s, s', Blood sinus in mantle y, Septum of ves- tc, Test cell. being drawn out sel. tm, Matrix. into test. the ectoderm to the exterior during the metamorphosis, and become the first cells of the young test. Some of the cells in the adult test may, however, be ectodermal in origin (see fig. 2). These test cells may remain as rounded or fusiform or stellate cells embedded in the gelatinous matrix, to which they are constantly adding by secretions on their surfaces; or they may develop vacuoles which become larger and fuse so that each cell has an ovate clear cavity (a bladder cell), surrounded by a delicate film of protoplasm with the nucleus still visible at one point; or they may form pigment granules in the protoplasm ; or, lastly, they may deposit carbonate of lime, so that one or several of them together produce a calcareous spicule in the test. Only the unmodified test cells and the bladder cells are found in Ascidia mentula (fig. 3). (From The Cambridge Natural History, vol. vii., " Fishes, &c." By permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.) FIG. 3. — Section through the surface layer of Test of Ascidia mentula (X 50). bl, Bladder cells; tc, test cell; tk, terminal knobs of vessels; v, vessels of test. Calcareous spicules are found chiefly in the Didemnidae amongst compound Ascidians; but pigmented cells may occur in the test of almost all groups of Tunicata. The matrix in which these structures are embedded is usually clear and apparently homogeneous ; but in some cases it becomes finely fibrillated, especially in the family Cynthiidae. It is this matrix which contains tunicine. At one point on the left side near the posterior end a tube enters the test, and then splits up into a number of branches, which extend in all directions and finally terminate in rounded enlargements or bulbs, situated chiefly in the outer layer of the test. These tubes are known as the " vessels " of the test, and they contain blood. Each vessel is bounded by a layer of ectoderm cells lined by connective tissue (fig. 4, B), and is divided into two tubes by a septum of connective tissue. The septum does not extend into the terminal bulb, .-~«>=a»>-^. and consequently the two tubes y communicate at their ends (fig. PIG 4 4, A). The vessels are formed by A A , f n an outgrowth of a blood sinus B Diagrammatic transverse sec- (derived originally from the bias- J> f , tocoele of the embryo) from the Ectoderm body wall (mantle) into the test / Connective tissue. the wall of the sinus being formed s , The t t b by connective tissue and pushing ' seDtum out a covering of ectoderm in ft Terminal hnlh front of it (fig. 2, s'). The test is ' *' ' lmal bulb> turned inwards at the branchial and atrial apertures to line two funnel-like tubes — the branchial siphon leading to the branchial sac, and the atrial siphon leading to the atrial or peribranchial cavity. The body wall, inside the test and the ectoderm, is formed of a layer (the somatic layer of mesoderm) of connective tissue, enclosing muscle fibres, blood sinuses, and nerves. This layer (the mantle) has very much the shape of the test outside it, but at the two apertures it is drawn out to form the branchial and atrial siphons (fig. In the walls of these siphons Mantle, . 5). . ..... _ ------ _. -------- r ------ the muscle fibres form powerful circular bands, the Bo°y Wa" sphincter muscles. Throughout the rest of the mantle a^d jt,ody the bands of muscle fibres form a rude irregular net- Cav"'es' work. They are numerous on the right side of the body, and almost totally absent on the left. The muscles are all formed of very long fusiform non-striped fibres. The connective tissue of the mantle is chiefly a clear gelatinous matrix, containing cells of various shapes; it is frequently pigmented, giving brilliant red or yellow colours to the body, and is penetrated by numerous lacunae, in which the blood flows. Inside the mantle, in all parts of the body, except along the ventral edge, there is a cavity — the atrial or •peribranchial cavity— which opens to the exterior by the atrial aperture. This cavity is lined by a layer of cells derived originally from the ectoderm' 1 According to E. van Beneden and Julin (30) only the outer wall of the atrium is lined with epiblast, the inner wall being derived from the hypoblast of the primitive branchial sac. TUNICATA and directly continuous with that layer through the atrial aperture (fig. 6) ; consequently the mantle is covered both externally and internally by ,/» ectodermal cells. There is no true body cavity or coelom in the mesoderm ; and yet the Tuni- cata are Coelomata in their structure and affinities, al- though it is very doubtful whether the enterocoele which has been described in the development is really found. In any case the coelom if formed is after- wards suppressed, and in the adult is only represented by the pericardium and its derivatives and the small cavities of the renal and re- productive organs. The branchial aperture (mouth) leads into the bran- chial siphon (buccal cavity or Neighbour- St9m°d.a eum>' lag 0/saas.?nd this opens into the anterior end of a very large cavity (the branchial sac) which extends nearly to the posterior end of the body (see figs. 5 and 6). This branchial sac is an enlarged and modified pharynx, and is therefore properly a part of the ali- mentary canal. The oeso- phagus opens from it far back on the dorsal edge (see below) . The wall of the branchial sac is pierced by a large number of vertical slits — the stig- mata— placed in numerous transverse rows (secondary or subdivided gill-slits). These slits place the branchial sac in communication with the peribranchial or atrial cavity, which lies outside it (fig. 6). Between the stigmata the wall of the branchial sac is traversed by blood-vessels, which are arranged in three regular series (fig. 7) — (i) the transverse vessels, which run horizontally round the wall I. ov. ; br, a. brs, dl. dt, end, h, FIG. 5. — Diagrammatic dissection of A. mentula to show the anatomy. at, Atrial aperture. Branchial aperture. Anus. Branchial sac. Dorsal lamina. Dorsal tubercle. Endostyle. Heart. Intestine. Mantle. Nerve ganglion. Oesophagus. Oesophageal aperture. Ovary. Peribranchial cavity. Rectum. Stomach. Test. Tentacles. Vas deferens. Subneural gland. m, ng, oe, tea, ov, pbr, r, st, t, tn. vd, ngl, all. and open at their dorsal and ventral ends into large longi- tudinal vessels, the dorsal and ventral sinuses; (2) the fine longitudinal vessels, which run vertically between adjacent trans- verse vessels and open into them, and which bound the stigmata; and (3) the internal longitudinal bars, which run vertically in •I. it I'v B (From Herdman, " Challenger " Report.) of Ascidia from inside. FIG. 7. — A, Part of branchial B, Transverse section of same. tr, Transverse vessel. cd, Connecting duct. hm, Horizontal membrane. il, Internal longitudinal bar. (A and B are drawn to different scales.) Iv, Fine longitudinal vessels. p,p', Papillae. sg, Stigmata. Ventral Iv. (From The Cambridge Natural History, vol. vii., " Fishes, &c." By permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.) a plane internal to that of the transverse and fine longitudinal vessels. These bars communicate with the transverse vessels by short side branches where they cross, and at these points are prolonged into the lumen of the sac in the form of hollow papillae. The edges of the stigmata are richly set with cilia, which drive the water from the branchial sac into the peribranchial cavity, and so" cause the currents that flow in through the branchial aperture and out through the atrial. Along its ventral edge the wall of the branchial sac is continuous externally with the mantle (fig. 6), while internally it is thickened to form two parallel longitudinal folds bounding a p groove, the " endostyle " or ventral furrow (figs. 5, Eaaostyie. 6, 8, end.) corresponding to the hypopharyngeal groove of Amphioxus and the median part of the thyroid gland of Vertebrata. The endoderm cells which line the endostyle are greatly enlarged at the bottom, where they bear very long cilia, and on parts of the sides of the furrow so as to form projecting glandular pads (fig. 8, gl.). It is generally sup- ~*n&- posed that this organ is a gland for the pro- duction of the mucous secretion which is spread round the edges of the branchial sac and catches the food particles in the pass- ing current of water. It has, however, been pointed out that there are comparatively few gland cells in the epi- thelium of the endo- style, and that it is possible that this fur- row is merely a ciliated path along which the br. ., mucous ^secretion (pro- styie; FlG.6. — Semi-diagrammatictransversesectionoL4.scif Tunicata, and therefore exhibits their relations to one anothe • „. much more correctly than any system of lineai Hay'°Zeay classification can do. The ancestral Proto-Tunicata are here regarded ' as an offshoot from the Proto-Chordata — the common ancestors of the Tunicata (Urochorda), Amphioxus (Cephalochorda) and the Vertebrata. The ancestral Tunicata were probably free- swimming forms, not very unlike the existing Append iculariidae, and are represented in the life-history of nearly all sections of the Tunicata by the tailed larval stage. The Larvacea are the first offshoot from the ancestral forms which gave rise to the two lines of descendants, the Proto-Thaliacea and the Proto-Ascidiacea. The Proto-Thaliacea then split into the ancestors of the existing Cyclomyaria and Hemimyaria. The Proto-Ascidiacea gave up their pelagic mode of life and became fixed. This ancestral process is repeated at the present day when the free-swimming larva of the simple and compound Ascidians becomes attached. The Proto- Ascidiacea, after the change, are probably most nearly represented by the existing genus Clavelina. They have given rise directly or indirectly to the various groups of simple and compound Ascidians and the Pyrosomidae. These groups form two lines, which appear to have diverged close to the position of the family Clavelinidae. The one line leads to the more typical compound Ascidians, and includes the Polyclinidae, Distomidae, Didemnidae, Diplosprr. idae, Coelocormidae, and finally the Ascidiae Luciae or Salpiformes. The second line gave rise to the simple Ascidians, and to the Botryl- lidae and Polystyelidae, which are, therefore, not closely allied to the other compound Ascidians. The later Proto-Ascidiacea were probably colonial forms, and gemmation was retained by the Clave- linidae and by the typical compound Ascidians (Distomidae, &c.) derived from them. The power of forming colonies by budding was lost, however, by the primitive simple Ascidians, and must, therefore, have been regained independently by the ancestral forms of the Botryllidae and the Polystyelidae. If this is a correct inter- pretation of the course of evolution of the Tunicata, we arrive at the following important conclusions. (l) The Tunicata, as a whole, form a degenerate branch of the Proto-Chordata; (2) the Ascidiae Luciae (Pyrosoma) are much more closely related to the typical compound Ascidians than to the other pelagic Tunicata, viz. the Larvacea and the Thaliacea ; and (3) the Ascidiae Compositae form a polyphyletic group, the sections of which have arisen at several distinct points from the ancestral simple Ascidians. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (i) Cuvier, " Mern. s. les Ascidies," &c., in Mem. d. Mus. ii. 10 (Paris, 1815); (2) Savigny, Memoires sur les animaux sans vertebres, pt. ii. fasc. i. (Paris, 1816); (3) Lamarck, Hist. not. d. anim. sans vertebres (ist ed., Paris, 1815-1823); (4) O. F. Miiller, Zoo/, danica. (1806), vol. iv. ; (5) Milne-Edwards, " Observ. s. les Ascidies Composees," &c., in Mem. Acad. Set. vol. xviii. (Paris, 1842) ; (6) Schmidt, Zur vergl. Physiol. d. wirbellos. Thiere (Brunswick, 1845); (7) Lowig and Kolliker, " De la Compos., &c., d. Envel. d. Tun.," in Ann. Sc. Nat., 1846 (Zool.), 3rd series, vol. v. ; (8) Huxley, Phil. Trans. (1851); (9) Kowalevsky, " Entwickel. d. einf. Ascid.," in Mem. St Petersb. Acad. Sc. (1866), 7th series, vol. x. ; (10) J. P. van Beneden, " Rech. s. 1'Embryolog., &c., d. Asc. Simp.," in Mem. acad. roy. belg. (1847), vol. xx. ; (ii) Krohn, in Wiegmann and 1 By Dohrn and others their point of origin is placed considerably farther up on the stem of the Chordata, thus causing the Tunicata to be regarded as very degenerate Vertebrata (see 31). 392 TUNICLE— TUNIS Muller's Archiv (1852); (12) Kupffer, Arch. f. mikr. Anal. (1869, 1872); (13) Giard, "Etude d. trav. embryolog. d. Tun., &c., ' in Arch. zoo/, exper. (1872), vol. i.; (14) Fol, " Etudes sur les appendi- culaires du d^troit de Messine," in Mem. soc. phys. hist. nat. Geneve, vol. xxi.; (15) Giard, " Recherches s. 1. Asc. Comp.," in Arch. zoo/. exper. (1872), vol. i. ; (16) Von Drasche, Die Synascidien der Bucht von Rovigno (Vienna, 1883); (17) Herdman, "Report upon the Tunicata of the ' Challenger ' Expedition," pt. i. in Zoo/. ' Chall." Exp (1882), vol. vi.; pt. ii. in Zoo/. " Chall. Exp. (1886), vol. xiv.; pt. iii. in Zoo/. " Chall." Exp. (1889), vol. xxvii.; (18) Alder and Hancock, in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (1863, 1870); (19) Heller, " Untersuch. u. d. Tunic, d. Adriat. Meeres," in Denkschr. d. k. Akad. Wiss. (1875-1877); (20) Lacaze-Duthiers, " Asc. simp. d. c8tes d. 1. Manche, in Arch. zoo/, exper. (1874, 1877); (21) Traustedt, in Vidensk. medd. naturh. For. (Copenhagen, 1881-1884); (22) Herd- man, " Notes on British Tunicata, &c.," in Journ. Linn. Soc. Zoo/. (1880), vol. xv. ; (23) Ussoff, in Proc. imp. soc. nat. hist. (Moscow, 1876), vol. xviii.; (24) Julin, " Rech. s. 1'org. d. asc. simp.," in Arch. d. biol. (1881), vol. ii. ; (25) Brooks, " Development of Salpa," in Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo/, iii. 291 (Harvard); (26) Salensky, Ztschr. /. wiss. Zoo/. (1877); (27) Barrois, Journ. d. I'anat. et phys. (1885), vol. xxi.; ; (30) E. Tuniciers," in Arch. d. Biol. (1886), vol. vi.; (31) Dohrn, " Studien zur Urgesch. der Wirbelth." in Mitth. zoo/. Stat. Neapel; (32) Herdman, " Revised Classification," Journ. Linn. Soc. (1891), vol. xxiii.; (33) Herdman, Descriptive Catalogue of Australian Tunicata (1899); (34) Brooks, The Genus Salpa (1893); (35) Seeliger, Bronn's Thier-Reich Tunicata. (W. A. HE.) TUNICLE (Lat. tunicella), a liturgical vestment of the Christian church, proper to subdeacons. It is practically the same vest- ment as the dalmatic (q.v.). TUNING FORK, a small bar of cast steel with tolerably denned edges, bent into a fork with two prongs, with a handle of the same metal extending from the bend of the fork and serving as a sound-post to transmit the vibrations to any resonance board or body convenient for reinforcing the sound. The fork is set in vibration by striking one of the prongs against a hard substance, or pressing the prongs together if they are light ones, or if heavy drawing a bow across. The tuning fork was invented by John Shore, royal trumpeter in 1711, sergeant trumpeter at the entry of George I. in 1714, and lutanist to the Chapel Royal in 1715. It is used for determining musical pitch (see PITCH), and also in certain physical experiments (see SOUND). TUNIS, capital of Tunisia, the largest city in North Africa outside Egypt, in 36° 48' N., 10° 12' E. Tunis is situated on an isthmus between two salt lakes, the marshy Sebkha-el- Sejumi to the south-west, and the shallow el-Bahira (little sea), or Lake of Tunis, to the north-east. An artificially deepened channel through the Bahira into the Gulf of Tunis has converted the city into a seaport (see below). North-west and south-west the city is commanded by hills, on which are forts, that on Sidi bel Hassan to the south dating from the middle ages. The city, which was iormerly strongly fortified, is built in the shape of an amphitheatre, with the kasbah, or citadel, at its highest point. The old town (Medina), the walls of which have in great part disappeared, lies between two suburbs, the Ribat-el- Sowika on the north and the Ribat Bab-el-Jezira on the south. These suburbs were also surrounded by a wall, now pulled down, leaving the gates of the city isolated. An outer wall, however, encloses the Medina and its suburbs. Beyond the Bab-el-Bahar (sea-gate), now called Porte de France, on the level ground by the Bahira, is the marine town, or Quartier Franc, built since the French occupation in 1881. No attempt has been made by the French to modernize the ancient city. The European Quarter. — From the landing stage a short street leads into the broad Avenue Jules Ferry or de la Marine running east to west and ending in the Place de la Residence, on the north side of which is the Roman Catholic cathedral and on the south side the palace of the French resident-general, with a large garden. The main thoroughfare is continued west- wards by the Avenue de France, which leads to the Porte de France. Beyond the gate is the small Place de la Bourse, in which is the British consulate. From the Porte electric trams run to the harbour and also in a circle round the native city. From the Place de la Residence cross-roads run north and south. The northern road, the Rue de Rome, led to the Gare du Nord, the station for Carthage, Goletta and La Marsa. This line was replaced in 1908 by an electric tramway built along the northern bank of the canal connecting Tunis and Goletta. The southern road, the Rue-es-Sadikia, leads to the Gare du Sud, the station for Susa, Kairawan, &c., and also for Algiers. The Avenue Jules Ferry is intersected by a north-to south street running in a straight line over two miles. The northern section is called the Avenue de Paris; the southern Avenue de Carthage. By these avenues, served by electric trams, access is gained to the suburbs of the city. In the Avenue de France or Avenue Jules Ferry are the chief hotels and cafes, the casino-theatre, the principal banks and the finest shops. In the Rue d'ltalie, running south from the Avenue de France, are the post office, market buildings, and French Protestant church. There is an English church in the Rue d'Espagne. Behind the cathedral is a disused cemetery with a chapel, where the Christian slaves are supposed to have worshipped. The coffins in the vaults have been removed to the Chapel of St Louis at Carthage. Among them was that of M. de Lesseps, French consul-general (d. 1832), father of the maker of the Suez Canal. Next to the cemetery is the old Greek church. North of the Avenue de France is a district, inhabited chiefly by Maltese, which has obtained the name of Malta-es-Segheira (Little Malta). The Native Town. — To the visitor from Europe the attraction of Tunis lies in the native city, where, in the Rue al Jezira, along which runs electric trams, he can see hundreds of camels in the morning bearing charcoal to market; where he may witness the motley life of the bazaars, or, by the Bab-Jedid, watch the snake-charmers and listen to the Moorish story- tellers. Christians are forbidden to enter the mosques. From various points the traveller can look over the city, with its great citadel, its many minarets and its flat-topped houses. Many of the dwellings of the richer residents are adorned with arcades, the marble columns of which were taken from the ruins of Carthage. The Porte de France is the threshold of the ancient city. Two narrow streets climb the hill towards the citadel. That to the right, the Rue de la Kasbah, opens into a small square (Suk-el-Islam or Place de la Kasbah), on the left of which is the Dar-el-Bey (palace of the bey), while beyond it rise the walls of the citadel. That to the left leads to the chief mosque of the city, the Jamaa-al-Zeituna (mosque of the Olive Tree), founded in A.D. 698. It has many domes and a spacious cloister, and its central court can be seen from the neighbouring streets. Attached to the mosque is a college attended by several hun- dreds of Moslem youths. The Dar-el-Bey contains numerous rooms beautifully decorated in the Moorish style of the i8th century; and the judgment hall has a domed roof adorned with the delicate arabesque plaster-work known as Nuksh hadida. The kasbah, which forms the western side of the Suk-el-Islam, includes within the circuit of its walls a mosque built about A.D. 1232 by Abu Zakariya the Hafsite. Of the ancient kasbah nothing but the walls remain, the old buildings having been demolished to make way for barracks for the French troops. Besides being a fortress the kasbah formerly contained a palace of the beys, barracks for janissaries and bagnios for the Christian slaves. When in July 1535 the Spaniards under Charles V. attacked Tunis, the Christians in the kasbah, said to number 10,000, rose against their keepers and helped to secure the victory of the emperor. The Spaniards during their occupancy of Tunis strengthened the kasbah and built an aqueduct to supply it with water. Immediately north of the kasbah are the buildings of the Sadiki College, and north of the college is the Palais de Justice, a building completed in 1901. It stands between the line of the ancient wall and the enceinte. Its walls are decorated with faience taken from an ancient Tunisian palace. North-east of the Palais de Justice, which like the Sadiki College is built in the Moorish style, rises the great dome, surrounded by smaller cupolas, of the largest mosque in the city, that named after Sidi Mahrez, a renowned saint of the 5th century of the Mahommedan era, whose tomb makes it a TUNISIA 393 sanctuary for debtors. East of the mosque, which dates from the 1 7th century, and just without the inner city walls, here demolished, is the Protestant cemetery of St George, used during the I7th, i8th and the greater part of the igth centuries. Here are buried several British consuls. Here also was the grave of John Howard Payne, author of " Home, Sweet Home " and consul for the United States, who died at Tunis in 1852. In 1883 the body was disinterred and removed to America, but a monument has been placed on the spot similar to that erected over the new tomb at Washington. The Bazaars. — The native city to the north of the Rue de la Kasbah includes the Jewish quarter and the synagogue. The Jews of Tunis adopt a special costume, the women wearing gaily coloured vests and close-fitting white trousers. Beyond the Jewish quarter, in the Ribat-el-Soweika, is the Place el Halfa-Ouine, a favourite rendezvous of the poorer Moslem population, wherein are many native cafe's. South of the Rue de la Kasbah is the bazaar quarter. Here the streets are very narrow and tortuous, some being vaulted and many covered in with planking. They are known as suks (markets), and each suk is devoted to one particular trade. Beyond paving the streets the French have made no altera- tion in the suks, which retain their original character unimpaired. The shops consist of small cubes, open in the front, in which the trader squats cross-legged amidst his wares. The principal suks are el-Attarin (market of the perfumers), el-Farashin (carpets and cloths), el-Serajin (saddlery) and el-Birka (jewelry). The suk el-Birka was formerly the slave market. Near by are the green- tiled domes and walls enriched with rose-coloured marbles of the mausoleum of the beys. Public Institutions, &c. — Tunis is furnished with well-equipped hospitals and a large asylum for aged people kept by the Little Sisters of the Poor. The principal educational establishments, besides that of the mosque of the Olive Tree, are the Sadiki College, founded in 1875, for free instruction in Arabic and European subjects, the Lyc6e Carnot in the Avenue de Paris, formerly the College of St Charles (founded by Cardinal Lavigerie), open to Chris- tians and Moslems alike, and the normal school, founded in 1884 by the reigning bey, for the training of teachers in the French language and European ideas. The Dames de Sion have a large establishment for the teaching of small children of both sexes, and there is a secondary school for girls. All the schools are well attended. About a mile and a half north of the centre of the European quarter, on the slopes of a hill rising 270 ft., is the Pare du Belvedere covering some 240 acres and commanding extensive views. Water is supplied to the city, with its numerous fountains, from Jebel Zaghwan (vide infra) by the Roman aqueduct repaired, at a cost of half a million sterling, by the bey Mahommed al-Sadik (d. 1882). The Port. — The canal which traverses the shallow Bahira, and connects Tunis with the Mediterranean, is nearly seven miles long. By means of breakwaters it is continued beyond the coast-line and is at its mouth 328 ft. wide. It has a uniform depth of 21 i ft., but its width within the lake is reduced to 98 ft. In the centre, however, the canal is widened to 147 ft. to allow vessels to pass. There is a harbour at the entrance (see GOLETTA). That at the Tunis end of the canal is 1312 ft. long by 984 ft. broad, and is of the same depth as the canal. The canal was begun in 1885 and was opened to navigation in June 1893. An additional basin, south- east of the main harbour, was opened in 1905 and is used for the exportation of phosphates. Of the ships using the harbour more than half are French, and one-third Italian, British vessels coming next. British goods, however, are largely carried in French bottoms, and next to France the United Kingdom and Malta take most of the trade of the port. The exports are chiefly phosphates and other minerals, cereals, olive oil, cattle, hides, sponges and wax. The imports are cotton goods, flour, hardware, coal, sugar, tea, coffee, &c. The figures of trade and shipping are included in those of the trade of the regency (see TUNISIA), of which Tunis and Goletta take about a third. Population. — The population of the city at the census of 1906 was returned at 227,519. The " natives " — Arabs, Berbers, " Moors," Turks and negroes — were estimated at 100,000, Tunisian Jews at 50,000, French 18,000, Italians 52,000, Maltese 6000, Greeks 500 and Levantines 1000. The French language is predominant in the European quarter. Environs: The Bardo Palace, Zaghwan, &c. — The environs of Tunis are picturesque and afford many beautiful views, the finest being from the hill on the south-east, crowned by a French fort, and from the Belvedere already mentioned. About a mile and a quarter from the Bab Bu Saadun, the north-west gate of the city, is the ancient palace called the Bardo, remarkable for the " lion court," a terrace to which access is gained by a flight of steps guarded by marble lions, and for some apartments in the Moorish style. The finest of these apartments, containing beautiful arabesque plaster work, formed the old Harem, and are now part of the Muse'e Alaoui, which occupies a considerable portion of the Bardo. In this museum M. Paul Gauckler, the director of the department of art and antiquities in the Tunisian government, has formed a magnificent collection of Carthaginian and Roman antiquities, especially Roman mosaics. In the Muse'e Arabe, which occupies an adjacent small palace built about 1830, are treasures illustrative of the Arab-Berber or Saracenic art of Tunisia. South-east of the city, along the valley of the Wadi Melain, are hundreds of large stone arches, magnificent remains of the Roman aqueduct from Zaghwan to Carthage. At Zaghwan (38 m. by rail from Tunis), over the spot whence the spring which supplies the aqueduct issues from the hill, are the ruins of a beautiful Temple of the Waters. The spring is now diverted direct into the aqueduct and is not visible at the surface. Between Zaghwan and Tunis, and accessible by the same railway, is Wadna, the Roman Uthina, where, besides numerous other ruins, are the fairly preserved arches of a large amphitheatre. The ruins of Carthage (q.v.) lie a few miles north of Goletta. History. — Tunis is probably of greater antiquity than Car- thage, of which city however it became a dependency, being repeatedly mentioned in the history of the Punic Wars. Strabo speaks of its hot baths and quarries. The importance of Tunis dates from the Arab conquest, when, as Carthage sank, Tunis took its place commercially and politically. It became the usual port for those going from the sacred city of Kairawan to Spain, and was one of the residences of the Aghlabite dynasty (800-909). In the loth century it suffered severely, being repeatedly pillaged in the wars of the Fatimite caliphs Al-Qaim and Abu Tahir Isma'il el Mansur with the Sunnite leader Abu Yazid and the Zenata Berbers.. For its later fortunes, see TUNISIA, of which regency, since the accession of the Hafsites, Tunis has been the capital. TUNISIA (Regency of Tunis), a country of North Africa, under the protection of France, bounded N. by the Mediter- ranean, W. by Algeria, E. by Tripoli and S. by the Sahara. Tunisia reaches farther north than any other part of Africa, Ras-al-Abiadh (Cape Blanc)1 being in 37° 20' N. On the south the boundary of the Tunisian Sahara is undetermined, but it may be roughly placed at 31° N. This would give, therefore, a greatest length of something like 440 m. The country lies between 11° 40' E. and 7° 35' E. The average length is about 300 m., and the average breadth 150 m.; consequently the area may be estimated at 50,000 sq. m. (For map, see ALGERIA.) Physical Features. — Geographically speaking, Tunisia is merely the eastern prolongation of the Mauretanian projection of northern Africa, of that strip of mountainous, fertile and fairly well-watered country north of the Sahara desert, which in its flora and its fauna, and to some extent in its human race, belongs rather to Europe than to Africa. Tunisia is divided into the following four fairly distinct regions: — i. On the north and north-west the Aures mountains of Algeria are prolonged into Tunisia, and constitute the mountainous region of the north, which lies between the Majerda river and the sea, and also includes the vicinity of the city of Tunis and the peninsula of the Dakhelat el Mawin, which terminates in Ras Addar (Cape Bon). This first division is called by the French " the Majerda Mountains." It includes within its limits the once famous district of the "Kroumirs,"2 a tribe whose occasional thefts of cattle across the frontier gave the French an excuse to invade Tunisia in 1881. The highest point which the mountains attairr in this division of Tunisia is about 4125 ft., near Ain Draham in Kroumiria. The country, however, about Bizerta is very mountainous, though the summits do not attain a greater altitude than about 3000 ft. The district between Bizerta and the Gulf of Tunis is a most attractive country, resembling greatly the mountain- ous regions of South Wales. It is well watered by streams more or less perennial. The principal river, the Majerda, is formed by the junction of the Wad Malleg and the Wad Kkallad. It and its 1 It is possible that Ras-ben-Sekka, a little to the west of Cape Blanc, may be actually the most northerly point. 2 The French seem systematically unable to master certain sounds foreign to their own language, or sounds which they suppose to be foreign. Thus the " w,' though constantly represented in French by ou," is continually changed by them into " v " when they transcribe foreign languages, just as the Greek x and the German and Scottish " ch " is almost invariably rendered by the French in Algeria and Tunis as " kr." Add to this the insertion of vowel sounds where they are lacking in the Arabic and you derive from the real word Khmir the modern French term of Kroumir. In like manner sebkha, a salt lake, is constantly written by the French as sebkra. 394 TUNISIA tributaries rise in the Majerda and Aures mountains. Flowing north-east the Majerda forms an extensive plain in its lower course, reaching the sea near the ruins of Utica. Vegetation is abundant, and recalls that of the more fertile districts of southern Spain and of Italy. On the higher mountains the flora has a very English character, though the actual species of plants may not be the same. 2. The central plateau region, stretching between the Maierda valley and the mountains of Gafsa. The average elevation of this country is about 2000 ft. The climate, therefore, in parts is ex- ceedingly cold and bleak in winter, and as it is very wind-swept and parched in summer by the terrible qibli or " sirocco " it is much less attractive in appearance than the favoured region on the northern littoral. Although it is almost always covered with some kind of vegetation, trees are relatively rare. A few of the higher mountains have the Aleppo pine and the juniper; elsewhere only an infrequent wild terebinth is to be seen. In these two regions the date palm is never met with growing naturally wild. Its pre- sence is always due to its having been planted by man at some time or another, and therefore it is never seen far from human habitations. These central uplands of Tunisia in an uncultivated state are covered with alfa or esparto grass; but they also grow considerable amounts of cereals — wheat in the north, barley in the south. The range of • the Saharan Atlas of Algeria divides (roughly speaking) into two at the Tunisian frontier. One branch extends northwards up this frontier and north-eastwards across the central Tunisian table-land, and the other continues south-eastwards between Gafsa and the salt lakes of the Jerld. The greatest altitudes of the whole of Tunisia are attained on this central table-land, where Mt Sidi Ali bu Musin ascends to about 5700 ft. About 30 m. south of the city of Tunis is the picturesque mountain of Zaghwan, approxi- mately 4000 ft. in altitude, and from whose perennial springs comes the water-supply of Tunis to-day as it did in the time of the Carthaginians and Romans. North-east of Zaghwan, and nearer Tunis, is the Jebel Resas, or Mountain of Lead, the height of which is just under 4000 ft. 3. The Sahel. This well-known Arab term for coast-belt (which in the plural form reappears as the familiar " Swahili " of Zanzibar) is applied to a third division of Tunisia, viz. the littoral region stretching from the Gulf of Hammamet to the south of Sfax. It is a region varying from 30 to 60 m. in breadth, fairly well watered and fertile. In a less marked way this fertile coast region is con- tinued southwards in an ever-narrowing belt to the Tripplitan frontier. This region is relatively flat, in some districts slightly marshy, but the water oozing from the soil is often brackish, and in places large shallow salt lakes are formed. Quite close to the sea, all along the coast from Hammamet to Sfax, there are great fertility and much cultivation ; but a little distance inland the country has a rather wild and desolate aspect, though it is nowhere a desert until the latitude of Sfax has been passed. 4. The Tunisian Sahara. This occupies the whole of the southern division of Tunisia, but although desert predominates, it is by no means all desert. At the south-eastern extremity of Tunisia there is a clump of mountainous country, the wind-and-water-worn fragments of an ancient plateau, which for convenience may be styled the Matmata table-land. Here altitudes of over 3000 ft. are | reached in places, and in all the upper parts of this table-land there is fairly abundant vegetation, grass and herbage with low junipers, but with no pine trees. Fairly high mountains (in places verging on 4000 ft.) are found between Gafsa and the salt lakes of the Jerid. These salt lakes are a very curious feature. They stretch with only two short breaks in a line from the Mediterranean at the Gulf of Gabes to the Algerian frontier, which they penetrate for a con- siderable distance. They are called by the French (with their usual inaccuracy of pronunciation and spelling) " chotts " ; the word should really be the Arabic shot, an Arab term for a broad canal, an estuary or lake. These shats however are, strictly speak- ing, not lakes at all at the present day. They are smooth de- pressed areas (in the case of the largest, the Shat el Jerid, lying a few feet below the level of the Mediterranean), which for more than half the year are expanses of dried mud covered with a thick incrustation of white or grey salt. This salt covering gives them Th Sh at a distance the appearance of big sheets of water. *' During the winter, however, when the effect of the rare winter rains is felt, there may actually be 3 or 4 ft. of water in these shats, which by liquefying the mud makes them perfectly impassable. Otherwise, for about seven months of the year they can be crossed on foot or on horseback. It would seem probable that at one time these shats (at any rate the Shat el Jerid) were an inlet of the Mediterranean, which by the elevation of a narrow strip of land on the Gulf of Gabes has been cut off from them. It is, however, a region of past volcanic activity, and these salt depressions may be due to that cause. Man is probably the principal agent at the present day in causing these shats to be without water. All round these salt lakes there are numerous springs, gushing from the sandy hillocks. Almost all these springs are at a very hot temperature, often at boiling point. Some of them are charged with salt, others are perfectly fresh and sweet, though boiling hot. So abundant is their volume that in several places they form actual ever-flowing rivers. Only for the intervention of man these rivers would at all times find their way into the adjoining depressions, which they would maintain as lakes of water. But for a long period past the freshwater streams (which predominate) have been used for irrigation to such a degree that very little of the precious water is allowed to run to waste into the lake basins; so that these latter receive only a few salt streams, which deposit on their surface the salt they contain and then evaporate. This abundant supply of fresh warm water maintains oases of extraordinary luxuriance in a country where rain falls very rarely. Perennial streams of the description referred to are found between the Algerian frontier and Gabes on the coast. The town at Gabes itself is on the fringe of a splendid oasis, which is maintained by the water of an ever- running stream emptying itself into the sea at Gabes after a course of not more than 20 m. All this region round the shats has been called the " Jerid " from the time of the Arab occupation. " Jerid " means in Arabic a "palm frond" and inferentially "a palm grove." — . , . The fame of this Belad-el-Jerid, or "Country of the ' "e Je"a- Date Palms," was so exaggerated during the I7th and i8th centuries that the European geographers extended the designation from this small area in the south of Tunisia to cover much of inner Africa. With this country of Jerid may be included the island of Jerba, which lies close to the coast of Tunisia in the Gulf of Gabes. The present writer believes that the date palm was really indigenous to this district of the Jerid, as it is to countries of similar descrip- tion in southern Morocco, southern Algeria, parts of the Tripoli- taine, Egypt, Mesopotamia, southern Persia and north-western India; but that north of the latitude of the Jerid the date did not grow naturally in Mauretania, just as it was foreign to all parts of Europe, in which, as in true North Africa, its presence is due to the hand of man. To some extent it may be said that true North Africa lies to the north of the Jerid country, which, besides its Saharan, Arabian and Persian affinities, has a touch about it of real Africa, some such touch as may be observed in the valley of the Jordan. In the oases of the Jerid are found several species of tropical African mammals and two or three of Senegalese birds, and the vegetation seems to have as much affinity with tropical Africa as with Europe. In fact, the country between the Matmata highlands and the strait separating Jerba from the mainland is singularly African in the character and aspect of its flora. To the south of the Jerid the country is mainly desert — vast unexplored tracts of shifting sand, with rare oases. Nevertheless, all this southern district of Tunisia bears evidence of once having been subject to a heavy rainfall, which scooped out deep valleys in the original table-land, and has justified the present existence of im- mense watercourses — watercourses which are still, near their origin, favoured with a little water. Hot and mineral springs may be almost said to constitute one of the specialities of Tunisia. They offered a singular attraction to the Romans, and their presence in remote parts of the ... country no doubt was often the principal causeof Roman s "e™ settlement. Even at the present day their value is p *s' much appreciated by the natives, who continue to bathe in the ruined Roman baths. The principal mineral springs of medicinal value are those of Korbus and Hammam Lif (of remarkable efficacy in rheumatic and syphilitic affections and certain skin diseases), of the Jerid and Gafsa, of El Hamma, near Gabes, and of various sites in the Kroumir country. Climate. — The rainfall in the first geographical division is pretty constant, and may reach a yearly average of about 22 in. Over the second and third divisions the rainfall is less constant, and its yearly average may not exceed 17 in. The mean annual tempera- ture at Susa is 75° F., the mean of the winter or rainy season 60° and of the hot season 97°. At Tunis the temperature rarely exceeds 90°, except with a wind from the Sahara. The prevailing winds from May to September are east and north-east and during the rest of the year north-west and east. A rainy season of about two months usually begins in January; the spring season of verdure is over in May ; summer ends in October with the first rains. Violent winds are common at both equinoxes. In the Tunisian Sahara rain is most uncertain. Occasionally two or three years may pass without any rainfall; then may come floods after a heavy down- fall of a few weeks. Perhaps if an average could be struck it would amount to 9 or 10 in. per annum. [Geology. — The greater part of Tunisia is composed of sandstones, marls and loosely stratified deposits belonging to the Pliocene and Quaternary periods. The oldest strata, consisting of gypsiferous marls, are referred to the Muschelkalk and show an alternation of lagoon with marine conditions. The Lias and Oolite forma- tions are well represented, but the Sequanian and Kimmeridgian subdivisions are absent. Lower Cretaceous rocks, consisting of thick limestones, shales and marls, occur in Central Tunisia. The fossils show many notable affinities with those in the Lower Cre- taceous of the Pyrenees. Limestones and marls represent the stages Cenomanian to Upper Senonian. The fossils of the Cenomanian have affinities with those in the Cenomanian of Spain, Egypt, Madagascar, Mozambique and India. The Senonian consists of a TUNISIA 395 central facies with Micraster peini; a meridional facies with Ostrea; and a northern facies developed round Tunisia with large forms of Inoceramus and echinoids. Phosphatic deposits are well developed among the Lower Eocene rocks. The Middle Eocene is characterized by the presence of Ostrea bogharensis and the Upper Eocene by highly fossiliferous sandstones and marls. The Oligocene and Miocene formations are present, but the Upper Miocene is confined to the coast. Quaternary deposits cover much of the desert regions.1] Minerals. — Coal has been discovered in the Khmir (" Kroumir ") country, but the principal mines at present worked in Tunisia are those of copper, lead and zinc. Zinc is chiefly found in the form of calamine. Iron is worked in the Kef district. Valuable deposits of phosphates are present, chiefly in the south-west of Tunisia, in the district of Gafsa. Marble is found in the valley of the Majerda (at Shemtu), at Jebel Ust (about 35 m. south of Tunis), and at Jebel Dissa, near Gabes. The marbles of Shemtu are the finest pink Numidian marbles, which were much esteemed by the Cartha- ginians and Romans. It has been sought to work again the ancient quarries of Shemtu, but it was found that the marble had been spoilt by ferruginous and calcareous veins. Flora. — The flora of Tunisia is very nearly identical with that of Algeria, though it offers a few species either peculiar to itself or not found in the last-named country. On the whole its character is less Saharan than that of parts of Algeria, for the influences of the desert do not penetrate so far north in Tunisia as they do in Algeria. There are very few patches of real forest outside the Khmir country, though it is probable that in the time of the Romans the land was a good deal more covered with trees than at the present day. Some authorities, however, dispute this, in a measure, by saying that it was not naturally forested, and that the trees growing represented orchards of olives or other fruit trees planted by the Romans or romanized Berbers. But in the Majerda Mountains there are dense primeval forests lingering to the present day, and consisting chiefly of the cork oak (Quercus ruber), and two other . species of oak (Quercus mirbeckii and Q. kermes), the pistachio or terebinth tree, the sumach (Rhus pentaphila), and other species of Rhus which are widely spread. In the mountains of Khmiria and the central plateau there are also the alder, the poplar, the Aleppo pine, the caroub, the tamarisk, the maple, the nettle-tree, several willows and junipers. The jujube-tree (Zizyphus) is found at various places along the eastern littoral. The retama shrub is met with in sandy districts, especially in the Sahara, but also right up to the north of Tunisia. The wild olive, the wild cherry, two species of wild plums, the myrtle, the ivy, arbutus, and two species of holly are found in the mountains of Khmiria, at various sites at high elevation near Tunis and Bizerta, and along the mountainous belt of the south-west which forms the frontier region between Tunisia and Algeria. The present writer, riding up to these frontier mountains from the thoroughly Saharan country round Gafsa, found himself surrounded by a flora very reminiscent of Switzerland or England. On the other hand, the flora of the shat region, of the south-eastern littoral, and of the Kerkena islands opposite Sfax, is thoroughly Saharan, with a dash, as it were, in places of an African element. The date palm grows wild, as has been already related, in Jerba. The only other species of palm found wild in Tunisia is the Chamaerops humilis, or dwarf palm, which is found on the mountains of the north at no very great altitude. The wild flowers of the north of Tunisia are so extremely beautiful during the months of February, March and April as to constitute a distinct attraction in themselves.2 1 See L. Pervinquiere, L'Etude geologique de la Tunisie centrals (Paris, 1903) ; G. Rolland, " Carte geologique du littoral nord de la Tunisie," Bull. soc. geol. de la France (1888), vol. xvii. ; H. H. Johnston, "A Journey through the Tunisian Sahara," Geog. Journ. (1898), vol. xi.; Carte geologique de la regence de Tunis, I : 800,000 with notes (Tunis, 1892). 2 List of Plants commonly met with in northern Tunisia : — Adonis microcarpa, DC. Nigella damascena, L. Fumaria spicata, L. Cistus halimifolius, L. Silene rubella, L. Oxalis cernua, Thunb. Geranium tuberosum, L. Malva sylvestris, L. Tetragonolobus purpureus, Moench Retama retam, Webb. Fedia cornucopiae, Gaertn. Helichrysum Stoechas, DC. Centaurea (Seridia), sp. Urospermum Dalechampi, Desf. Scorzonera alexandrina, Boiss. Stachys hirta, L. Stachys, sp. not identified. Anagallis collina, Schousb. Convolvulus tricolor, L. Solznanthus lanatus, DC. Lycium europaeum, L. Solanum sodomaeum, L. Celsia cretica, L. Linaria, sp. allied to L. reflexa, Desf. Linaria triphylla, L. var. Orobanche, sp. Trixago apula, Stev. Cynomorium coccineum. Plantago albicans, L. TLuphorbia serrata, L. Ophrys fusca, Link. Orchis papilionacea, L. Romulea bulbocodium, Sebast. and Mauri. Gladiolus byzantinus, Mill. Ornithogalum umbellatum, L. A Ilium roseum, L. Asphodelus fistulosus, L. Muscari comosum, Mill, Fauna. — The fauna of Tunisia at the present day is much im- poverished as regards mammals, birds and reptiles. In 1880 the present writer saw lions killed in the north-west of Tunisia, but by 1902 the lion was regarded as practically extinct in the regency, though occasional rumours of his appearance come from the Khmir Mountains and near Feriana. Leopards of large size are still found in the north-west of central Tunisia. The cheetah lingers in the extreme south of the Jerid; so also does the caracal lynx. The pardine lynx is found fairly abundantly in the west of Tunisia in the mountains and forest. The striped hyena is scattered over the country sparsely. The genet and the common jackal are fairly abundant. The common ichneumon is rare. The zorilla, another purely African species, is found in the south of Tunisia. The Barbary otter is present in the Majerda and in some of the salt lakes. The Tunisian hedgehog is peculiar to that country and to Algeria. There is a second species (Erinaceus deserti) which is common to all North Africa. In the south of Tunisia, especially about the shats, the elephant-shrew (Macrpscelides) is found, an animal of purely African affinities. Tunisia does not appear to possess the Barbary ape, which is found in Algeria and Morocco. Natives of Morocco and of the Sahara oases occasionally bring with them young baboons which they assert are obtained in various Sahara countries to the south and south-west of Tunisia. These baboons appear to belong to the Nubian species, but they cannot be considered indigenous to any part of Tunisia. The porcupine and a large Octodont rodent (Ctenodactylus) , the jerboa (two species), the hare, and various other rodents are met with in Tunisia. The wild boar inhabits the country, in spite of much persecution at the hands of " chasseurs." The forested regions shelter the hand- some Barbary red deer, which is peculiar to this region and the adjoining districts of Algeria. In the extreme south, in the Sahara desert, the addax antelope is still found. The hartebeest appears now to be quite extinct; so also is the leucoryx, though formerly these two antelopes were found right up to the centre of Tunisia, as was also the ostrich, now entirely absent from the country. In the marshy lake near Mater (north Tunisia), round the mountain island of Jebel Ashkel, is a herd of over 50 buffaloes; these are said to resemble the domestic (Indian) buffalo of the Levant and Italy, and to have their origin in a gift of domestic buffaloes from a former king of Naples to a bey or dey of Tunis. Others again assert the buffaloes to have been there from time immemorial; in which case it is very desirable that a specimen should be submitted for examination. [An allied form with gigantic horns is found fossil in Algeria.] They are the private property of the bey, who very properly preserves them. Far down in the Sahara, to the south of Tunisia, the Arabs report the existence of a wild ass, ap- parently identical with that of Nubia. Roman mosaics show representations not only of this ass, but of the oryx, hartebeest, and perhaps of the addax. The dorcas gazelle is still common in the south of Tunisia ; but perhaps the most interesting ruminant is the magnificent udad, or Barbary sheep, which is found in the sterile mountainous regions of south Tunisia. The birds have been ably illustrated by Mr Whitaker in the Ibis magazine of the British Ornithological Union. They are, as a rule, common to the south Mediterranean region. A beautiful little bird almost peculiar to the south of Tunisia and the adjoining regions of Algeria, is a species of bunting (Fringilla), called by the Arabs bu-habibi.3 This little bird, which is about the size of the linnet, has the head and back silvery blue, and the rest of the plumage chocolate red-brown. It is of the most engaging lameness, being fortunately protected by popular sentiment from injury. It inhabits the Jerid, and ex- tends thence across the Algerian frontier. Among reptiles the Egyptian cobra seems to be indigenous in the south, where also is found the dreaded horned viper. Some nine or ten other species of snakes are present, together with an abundance of lizards, including the Varanus, and most species of Mediterranean tortoises are represented. The coasts are very rich in fish, and the tunny fisheries of the north are one of the principal sources from which the world's supply of tunny is derived. Inhabitants. — The natives of Tunisia at the present day belong mainly to two stocks, which may be roughly classified as the Berber (q.v.) and the Arab (?.».), about two-thirds being of Berber and the remaining third of Arab descent. But the Berbers of to-day are little more than an incomplete fusion of some four earlier and once independent stocks. These four divisions taken in the order of their assumed priority of invasion or habitation are: (i) the " Neanderthal " type, which is found in the districts of the shats and the adjoining Matmata table-land in the south, and in the " Kroumir " country of the Echium sericeum, Vahl. Echium maritimum, Willd. Anchusa italica, Retz. Arum italicum. Mill. Lagurus ovatus, L. To this list should also be added the common wild tulip, the Italian cyclamen, the common scarlet poppy, the fennel, wild carrot and many varieties of thistle, some of gorgeous colouring. 3 " Father of my friend." TUNISIA north-west;1 (2) ordinary Berbers, dolichocephalous, and of brown complexion, found over the greater part of Tunisia, espe- cially in the east and south centre; (3) the short-headed Berbers, found in part of the Matmata country, part of the Sahara, the island of Jerba, the Cape Bon Peninsula, and the vicinity of Susa, Kairwan, and Sfax; (4) Berbers of a blond type, that is to say, with a tendency to brown or yellow moustaches, brown beard and head hair, and grey eyes. These are met with in the west and north-west of Tunisia, and in one patch on the coast of the Cape Bon Peninsula, near Nabeul. The Arabs of more or less unmixed descent are purely nomads. They are met with in a long strip of country south of the Majerda, between the Algerian frontier and the sea-coast north of Susa; also inland, to the south-west of Susa, and near Kef; also in another long strip between the vicinity of Sfax on the north and the Jerld on the south. They are descended from the second Arab invasion which began in the nth century (see History). The extreme south of Tunis is ranged over by Berber Tawareq2 or Tamasheq. Berber dialects are still spoken in Tunisia in the island of Jerba, in the Matmata country, and in the Tunisian Sahara. Elsewhere to a remarkable degree the Arabic language has extinguished the Berber tongue, though no doubt in vulgar Tunisian a good many Berber words remain. Short vocabu- laries of the Berber spoken in the Tunisian Sahara have been published by Sir H. H. Johnston in the Geog. Journ. (1898), vol. xi., and by Mr G. B. Michell in the Journ. African Soc. (1903). The Berbers are organized in tribes with purely democratic government and laws of their own, which are not those of the Koran. On the north-eastern littoral of Tunisia the population is very mixed. The inhabitants of the Cape Bon Peninsula show evident signs of Greek blood arising from Greek invasions, which began in prehistoric times and finished with the downfall of the Byzantine Empire in North Africa. The presence of the Romans, and the constant introduction of the Italians, first as slaves, and quite recently as colonists, has also added an Italian element to the north Tunisian population. But from the fact that the bulk of the Tunisian population belongs to the Iberian section of the Berbers, and to this being no doubt the fundamental stock of most Italian peoples, the intermixture of the Italianized Berber with his African brother has not much affected the physique of the people, though it may have slightly tinged their mental characteristics. The Phoenicians have left no marked trace of their presence; but inasmuch as they were probably of nearly the same race as the Arabs, it would not be easy to distinguish the two types. Arab and Berber have mingled to some extent, though no considerable fusion of the two elements has taken place. In fact, it is thought by some French students of the country that the Arab element will probably be eliminated from Tunisia, as it is the most unsettled. It is considered that these nomads will be gently pushed back towards the Sahara, leaving cultivable Tunisia to the settled Berber stock, a stock fundamentally one with the peoples of Mediterranean Europe. The inhabitants of the coast towns belong, in large part, to the class generally known as " Moors." The pure Turks and the Kuluglis (sons of Turkish fathers by Moorish women or slave girls) are no longer numerous. Among the " Moors " the descendants of the Andalusian refugees form an exclusive and aristocratic class. The present population of Tunisia numbers approximately 2,000,000, and consists of: — Berbers, more or less of pure race, say . . . 620,000 Arabs, „ „ „ „ . . . 500,000 Mixed Arab and Berber peoples, say .... 520,000 \ In this Matmata country are the celebrated Troglodytes, people living in caves and underground dwellings now, much as they did in the days when the early Greek geographers alluded to them. See " A Journey in the Tunisian Sahara," by Sir H. H. Johnston, in the Geog. Journ. (June 1898). 1 Tawareq (Tuareg) is the Arab designation of the Libyan or Desert Berbers. It is the plural form of Tarqi, " a raider." The Tawareq call themselves by some variant of the root Masheq — Tamasheq, Imoshagh, &c. " Moors " (chiefly the population of the principal cities, of mixed Roman, Berber, Spanish, Moor and Christian races), say 110,000 Sudanese negroes and natives of Morocco, Tripoli and Turkey, say 40,000 Jews (mostly natives of Tunis, indeed, some descended from families settled at Carthage before the destruction of Jerusalem) . . . 68,000 Europeans (Christians)3 163,000 Towns. — Besides the capital, Tunis, the chief towns of Tunisia are Sfax, Susa and Kairwan. These places are noticed separately, as are also Goletta (formerly the port of Tunis), Bizerta (a naval port and arsenal), Kef, Porto Farina, and the ruins at Carthage and Sbeitla (Sufetula). Other towns of Tunisia are, on the east coast, Nabeul, pop. about 5000, the ancient Neapolis, noted for the mild- ness of its climate and its pottery manufactures; Hammamet with 3700 inhabitants; Monastir (the Ruspina of the Romans), a walled town with 5600 inhabitants and a trade in cereals and oils; Mahdiya or Mahdia (q.ii. ; in ancient chronicles called the city of Africa and sometimes the capital of the country) with 8500 inhabitants, the fallen city of the Fatimites, which since the French occupation has risen from its ruins, and has a new harbour (the ancient Cothon or harbour, of Phoenician origin, cut out of the rock is nearly dry but in excellent preservation); and Gabes (Tacape of the Romans, Qabis of the Arabs) on the Syrtis, a group of small villages, with an aggregate population of 16,000, the port of the Shat country and a d6p6t of the esparto trade. The chief town of the Majerda basin is Beja (pop. 5000), the ancient Vaga, an important corn market. The principal mosque at Beja was originally a Christian basilica, and is still dedicated to Sidna Aissa (our Lord Jesus). Gafsa, in the south of Tunisia, is a most interesting old Roman town, with hot springs. It is in railway communication with Sfax. West of Gafsa are immense beds of phosphates. Almost all the towns of Tunisia were originally Roman or romanized Berber settlements; consequently the remains of Roman buildings form a large part of the material of which their existing structures are composed. Antiquities and Art. — The principal Roman and other ruins in the regency are the aqueducts near the capital (Tunis) and the temple at Zaghwan, described under Tunis city; the great reservoir near Carthage (q.v.) ; the amphitheatre at El Jem (see SUSA) ; the temples and other ruins of Sbeitla (q.v.) ; the ruins of Dugga, near Tebursuk, in the north-west of the regency (the amphitheatre of Dugga, the ancient Thugga, is a magnificent spectacle); the baths, amphitheatre and temples of Feriana (the ancient Thelepte); the whole route between Feriana (which is in the south of Tunisia, 33 m. north-west of Gafsa) and Tebessa in Algeria is strewn on both sides with Roman ruins; the old houses and other ruins at and near Thala; the baths and other ruins of Gafsa; the baths at Tuzer, El Hamma and Gabes. There is an interesting Phoenician burial-ground near Mahdia. There are Roman ruins, scarcely known, in the vicinity of Beja and the country of the Mogods (the district behind Cape Serrat). In short, Tunisia is as much strewn with Roman remains as is Italy itself. Saracenic art has perhaps not attained here the high degree it reached in western Algeria, Spain and Egypt; still it presents much that is beautiful to see and worthy to be studied. One of the most ancient, as it is one of the loveliest fragments, strange to say, is found at Tuzer, in the Jerld, the mahrab of a ruined mosque.4 There are some very beautiful doorways to mosques and other specimens of Moorish art at Gabes. Examples of this art found at Tunis and Kairwan have been noticed under those headings. But the visible remains of Saracenic art in Tunis and its vicinity are of relatively recent date, the few mosques which might offer earlier examples not being open to inspection by Christians. It may be noted, however, as a general condition that the native towns and villages of Tunisia, where they have not been spoiled by the shocking tastelessness of Mediterranean Europe, are exceedingly picturesque, and offer exceptional attractions to the painter. Industries. — Agriculture is the principal industry. Oats, wheat and barley are the chief crops in the north. In the central region 3 Of recent introduction for the most part, consisting (census of 1906) of 81,156 Italians, 34,610 French, 10,330 Maltese, about 1000 Greeks and the remainder British, German, Austrian, &c. The French army of occupation (20,360 men) is not included in these figures. 4 Since this was written the mahrab in question has been removed to Paris. TUNISIA the olive is largely cultivated, in the south the date-palm. Viti- culture is also of importance; almonds, oranges, lemons, &c., are also grown for export. The alfa and cork industries employ large numbers of persons, as do also the sardine, anchovy and tunny fisheries. The fisheries are in the hands of Italians, Maltese and Greeks. There are large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and goats. About 60,000 acres are cultivated by French immigrants and about 15,000 acres by Italians. Among native industries may be mentioned the spinning and weaving of wool for clothing, carpet-weaving, the manufacture of pottery, slippers and matting, saddle-making and leather em- broidery. Silk-weaving, formerly important, is declining. In 1907 the number of mines working was 32. The export of phosphates rose from 445,000 tons in 1904 to 1,267,000 tons in 1908. The export of coal in that year was 74,000 tons, and copper ore 937 tons (vide supra, § Minerals). Commerce. — The commerce of Tunisia has thriven under the French protectorate, having risen from an annual total of about £1,700,000 in 1881 to £8,687,000 in 1908. British trade with Tunisia has nearly tripled since the establishment of the French protectorate. It stood at over £600,000 in annual value during the year 1898. In 1908 the total trade with Great Britain and Malta amounted to £914,000. In the same year the imports from France exceeded £2,750,000 and the exports to France £1,685,000. From Algeria the imports were £656,000; to Algeria the exports were £185,000. The principal exports are olive oil, wheat, esparto grass, barley, sponges, dates, fish (especially tunny), hides, horses, wool, phosphates, copper, zinc and lead. The imports consist mainly of European manufactured goods (especially British cotton), machinery, flour, alcohol, sugar, timber, coal and petroleum. About half the shipping trade is in the hands of the French; in 1908, of the total tonnage of ships entered, 4,155,000, French vessels represented 1,905,000 tons, Italian vessels 1,422,000 tons and British vessels 299,000 tons. \ Communications. — The French have made since 1882 about 2000 m. of good roads. The first railway built (1871-1872) was that between Goletta and Tunis. This line, with the extensions to La Marsa and Bardo, is 21 J m. in length. It was constructed by an English company, which in 1880 sold it to an Italian company, despite the keen competition of French rivals (see History, below). The conversion of Tunis into a seaport (1893) destroyed the impor- tance of this line, which was then sold to the French Bone-Guelma Company (Bone-Guelma et Prolongements) , which owns the majority of the railways in Tunisia. The second railway connects the capital with the frontier of Algeria, where, at Suk Ahras, it joins the main line to Constantino, Algiers, &c. This line was built by the Bone-Guelma Company. The concession was obtained in 1877, and the line, IQI m. long, was finished in 1880. A branch line (8 m.) connected Beja with this railway, and another (u m.) ran from Tunis to Hamman-el- Enf , a favourite seaside resort of the Tunisians. For the next twelve years there was a pause in railway construc- tion followed by the opening, in 1892, of the line between Susa and Moknine (30 m.). Then came the continuation of the line from Hamman-el-Enf to Hammamet and along the Sahel to Susa (93 m.), and the building of a line from Susa to Kairwan, 31 m. (the last- named line superseded a horse-tramway built by the French army during the campaign of 1881). A branch line to Bizerta (434 m.) from Jedeida on the main Algeria-Tunis line was also built as well as one from Tunis to Zaghwan (44 m.). A short line, branching from the Tunis-Zaghwan line, was carried south-west to Pont du Fahs. These with a few short branch lines were built between 1892 and 1900 by the Bone-Guelma Company. In 1906 was opened a con- tinuation of the line from Pont du Fahs to Kef and thence south- west to Kalaat-es-Senam, a place midway between Kef and Tebessa, the centre of the Algerian phosphate region. A branch from the Kef line runs to the phosphate mines of Kalaa-Jerda. Another railway (completed by 1900) runs from Sfax, along the coast to Mahres, thence inland to Gafsa and the phosphate mines of Metalwi. This line, 151 m. long, was for some years isolated from the general Tunisian system. The total mileage of the Tunisian railways was computed to be 1060 m. by the finishing of the Susa- Sfax, Gabes-Tebessa lines in 1909. Extensions of the railway system are contemplated to Gabes and, beyond, to the Tripolitan frontier. In the south communication is maintained chiefly by camel caravans. Posts and Telegraphs. — The whole of Tunisia is covered with a network of telegraph lines (2500 m.), and there are telephones working in most of the large towns. The telegraph system pene- trates to the farthest French post in the Sahara, is connected with the Turkish system on the Tripolitan frontier and with Algeria, and by cable with Sicily, Malta, Sardinia and Marseilles. There is an efficient post office service, with about 400 post offices. Finance. — The principal bank is the Banque de Tunisie. The coinage formerly was the caroub and piastre (the latter worth about 6d.), but in 1891 the French reformed the coinage, sub- stituting the franc as a unit, and having the money minted at Paris. The values of the coinage are pieces of 5 and 10 centimes in bronze, of 50 centimes, I franc and 2 francs in silver, of 10 francs and 20 francs in gold. The inscriptions are in French and Arabic. The public debt was consolidated in 1884 into a total of : guaranteed by France, and bearing 4% interest. In Pr\n\7Pt"t*»H inf r» Q Ino n T»o wlnnr t A °/ in + nr-rkct- o rn4 397 5,702,000, it was converted into a loan paying 3$°% interest, and in 1892 another conversion reduced the rate of interest to 3%. In 1902 a new loan of £1,800,000 was issued at 3%. At the beginning of 1907 the total Tunisian debt was £9,287,260; in that year the government was authorized to contract another loan of £5,000,000 at 3% (£3.000,000 being guaranteed by France) for railways, roads and colonization. The weights and measures are those of France. The revenue for the year 1900 was £1,456,640, and the expenditure was £it 452,597- In 1910 receipts and expenditure balanced at about £1,888,000 each. The principal sources of revenue are direct taxation, stamp and death duties, customs, port and lighthouse dues, octroi and tithes, tobacco, salt and gunpowder monopolies, postal and telegraph receipts, and revenue from the state domains (lands, fisheries, forests, mines). The civil list paid to the Bey of Tunis amounts to £36,000 per annum, and the endowment of the princes and princesses of the beylical family to £31,200 a year more. Administration. — From a native's point of view Tunisia still appears to be governed by the Bey of Tunis, his Arab ministers and his Arab officials, the French only exercising an indirect — though a very real — control over the indigenous population (Mahommedans and Jews). But all Christians and foreigners are directly governed by the French, and the native administration is supervised by a staff of thirteen French contrdleurs and their French and Tunisian subordinates. Seven of the departments of state have Frenchmen at their head, the other two, Tunisians: thus the larger proportion of the Bey's ministers are French. France is directly represented in Tunisia by a minister resident-general, and by an assistant resident. The French resident-general is the virtual viceroy of Tunisia, and is minister for foreign affairs. Besides Mussulman (native) schools there were in the regency, in 1906, 158 public schools, 5 Iyc6es and colleges and 21 private schools. At these schools were 22,000 pupils (13,000 boys), all save 3500 Mussulmans being Europeans or Jews. History. — The history of Tunisia begins for us with the establishment of the Phoenician colonies (see PHOENICIA and CARTHAGE). The Punic settlers semitized the coast, but left the Berbers of the interior almost untouched. The Romans entered into the heritage of the Carthaginians and the vassal kings of Numidia, and Punic speech and civilization ne gave way to Latin, a change which from the time Province of of Caesar was helped on by Italian colonization; to "<***»•" this region the Romans gave the name of " Africa," apparently a latinizing of the Berber term " Ifriqa," " Ifrigia " (in modern Arabic, Ifriqiyah). Rich in corn, in herds, and in later times also in oil, and possessing valuable fisheries, mines and quarries, the province of Africa, of which Tunisia was the most important part, attained under the empire a prosperity to which Roman remains in all parts of the country still bear witness. Carthage was the second city of the Latin part of the empire, " after Rome the busiest and perhaps the most corrupt city of the West, and the chief centre of Latin culture and letters." In the early history of Latin Christianity Africa holds a more important place than Italy. It was here that Christian Latin literature took its rise, and to this province belong the names of Tertullian and Cyprian, of Arnobius and Lactantius, above all of Augustine. Lost to Rome by the invasion of the Vandals, who took Carthage in 439, the province was recovered by Belisarius a century later (533-34), and remained Roman till the Arab invasions of 648-69. The conqueror, 'Oqba-bin-Nafa, founded the city of Kairwan (673) which was the residence of the governors of " Ifriqiyah " under the Omayyads and thereafter the capital of the Aghlabite princes, the conquerors of Sicily, who ruled in merely nominal dependence on the Abbasids. The Latin element in Africa and the Christian faith almost disappeared in a single generation;1 the Berbers of the [ * The North African Church was not utterly swept away by the Moslem conquest, though its numbers at that time were very greatly diminished, and thereafter fell gradually to vanishing point, partly by emigration to Europe. Its episcopate in the loth century still numbered thirty members, but in 1076 the Church could not provide three bishops to consecrate a new member of the episcopate, and for that purpose Gregory VII. named two bishops to act with the archbishop of Carthage. In the 1 3th century the native episcopate had disappeared. Abd ul-Mumin, the Almohade con- queror of Tunisia, compelled many of the native Christians to embrace Islam, but when Tunis was captured by Charles V. in 1535, there were still found in the city native Christians, the last remnants of the TUNISIA mountains, who had never been latinized and never really christianized, accepted Islam without difficulty, but showed Arab Coo- their stubborn nationality, not only in the character quest and of their Mahommedanism, which has always been Berber mixed up with the worship of living as well as Dynasties. (jea(j saints (marabouts) arid other peculiarities, but also in political movements. The empire of the Fatimites (q.v.) rested on Berber support, and from that time forth till the advent of the Turks the dynasties of North Africa were really native, even when they claimed descent from some illustrious Arab stock. When the seat of the Fatimite Empire was removed to Egypt, the Zirites, a house of the Sanhaja Berbers, ruled as their lieutenants at Mahdia, and about 1050 Mo'izz the ZIrite, in connexion with a religious movement against the Shi'ites, transferred his very nominal allegiance to the Abbasid caliphs. The Fatimites in revenge let loose upon Africa about A.D. 1045 a vast horde of Beduins from Upper Egypt (Beni Hilal and Solaim), the ancestors of the modern nomads of Barbary. All North Africa was ravaged by the invaders, who, though unable to found an empire or overthrow the settled government in the towns, forced the agricultural Berbers into the mountains, and, retaining from generation to generation their lawless and predatory habits, made order and prosperity almost impossible in the open parts of the country until its effective occupations by the French. The ZIrite dynasty was finally extinguished by Roger I. of Sicily, who took Mahdia in 1148 and established his authority over all the Tunisian coast. Even Moslem historians speak favourably of the Norman rule in Africa; but it was brought to an early end by the Almohade caliph Abd ul-Mumin, who took Mahdia in 1 1 60. The Almohade Empire soon began to decay, and in 1336 Abu Zakarlya, prince of Tunis, was able to proclaim himself independent and found a dynasty, which subsisted Hafsites. tiu the advent of the Turks. The Hafsites (so called from Abu Hafs, the ancestor of Abu Zakarlya, a Berber chieftain who had been one of the intimate disciples of the Almohade mahdi) assumed the title of Prince of the Faithful, a dignity which was acknowledged even at Mecca, when in the days of Mostansir, the second Hafsite, the fall of Bagdad left Islam without a titular head. In its best days the empire of the Hafsites extended from Tlem^en to Tripoli, and they received homage from the Merinids of Fez; they held their own against repeated Prankish invasions, of which the most notable were that which cost St Louis of France his life (1270), and that of the duke of Bourbon (1390), when English troops took part in the unsuc- cessful siege of Mahdia. They adorned Tunis with mosques, schools and other institutions, favoured letters, and in general appear to have risen above the usual level of Moslem sovereigns. But their rule was troubled by continual wars and insurrections; the support of the Beduin Arabs was imperfectly secured by pensions, which formed a heavy burden on the finances of the state;1 and in later times the dynasty was weakened by family dissensions. Leo Africanus, writing early in the i6th century, gives a favourable picture of the " great city " of Tunis, which had a flourishing manufacture of fine cloth, a prosperous colony of Christian traders, and, including the suburbs, nine or ten thousand hearths; but he speaks also of the decay of once flourishing provincial towns, and especially of agriculture, the once powerful Church. Traces of Christianity remained among the Kabyles till after the conquest of Granada (1492), when the in- flux of Andalusian Moors from Spain completed the conversion of those tribes. It may be added that down to the early years of the igth century it was alleged that some of the Tuareg tribes in the Sahara professed Christianity (see e.g. Hornemann's Travels), For the North African Church after the Moslem conquest, see Migne, Pat. lat.; and Mas Latrie, Afrique septentrionale. Their information is summarized in the introduction to vol. ii. of Azurara's Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, Hakluyt Society's edition (1899).— ED.] 1 In the I3th and I4th centuries the Hafsites also paid tribute to Sicily for the freedom of the sea and the right to import Sicilian corn — a clear proof of the decline of Tunisian agriculture. greater part of the open country lying waste for fear of the Arab marauders. Taxation was heavy, and the revenue very considerable: Don Juan of Austria, in a report to Philip II.,- states that the land revenue alone under the last Hafsite was 375,935 ducats, but of this a great part went in tribute to the Arabs. The conquest of Algiers by 'the Turks gave a dangerous neighbour to Tunisia, and after the death of Mohammed the Hafsite in 1525 a disputed succession supplied Khair- ad-DIn Barbarossa with a pretext for occupying the city in the name of the sultan of Constantinople. Al-Hasan, the son of Mahommed, sought help from the emperor, and was restored in 1535 as a Spanish vassal, by a force which Charles V. commanded in person, while Andrea Doria was admiral of the fleet. But the conquest was far from complete, and was never consolidated. The Spaniards remained at Goletta and made it a strong fortress, they also occupied the island of Jerba and some points on the south-east coast; but the interior was a prey to anarchy and civil war, until in 1570 'All-Pasha of Algiers utterly defeated Hamid, the son and suc- cessor of Hasan, and occupied Tunis. In 1573 the Turks again retreated on the approach of Don Juan, who had dreams of making himself king of Tunis; but this success was not followed up, and in the next year Sultan Selim II. sent a strong expedition which drove the Spaniards from Tunis and Goletta, and reduced the country to a Turkish province. Nevertheless the Spanish occupation left a deep impression on the coast of Tunis, and not a. few Spanish words passed into Tunisian Arabic. After the Turkish conquest, the civil administration was placed under a pasha; but in a few years a military revolution trans- ferred the supreme power to a Dey elected by the janissaries, who formed the army of occupation. The government of the Deys lasted till 1705, but was soon narrowed or overshadowed by the authority of the Beys, whose Beys proper function was to manage the tribes and collect tribute. From 1631 to 1702 the office of Bey was hereditary in the descendants of Murad, a Corsican renegade, and their rivalry with the Deys and internal dissensions kept the country in constant disorder. Ibrahim, the last of the Deys (1702-1705), destroyed the house of Murad, and absorbed the beyship in his own office; but, when he fell in battle- with the Algerians, Hussein b. 'All, the son of a Cretan rene- gade, was proclaimed sovereign by the troops under the title of " Bey," and, being a prince of energy and ability, was able to establish the hereditary sovereignty, which has lasted without change of dynasty to the present time.2 Frequent wars with Algiers form the chief incidents in the internal history of Tunisia under the Beys. Under Deys and Beys alike Tunisia was essentially a pirate state. Occasionally acts of chastisement, of which the bombardment of Porto Farina by Blake in 1655 was the most notable, and repeated treaties, extorted by European powers, checked from time to time, but did not put an end to, the habitual piracies, on which indeed the public revenue of Tunis was mainly dependent. The powers were generally less concerned for the captives than for the acquisition of trading privileges, and the Beys took advantage of the commercial rivalry of England and France to play off the one power against the other. The release of all Christian slaves was not effected till after the bombardment of Algiers; and the definite abandonment of piracy may be dated from the presentation to the Bey in 1819 of a collective note of the powers assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle. The government had not elasticity enough to adapt itself to so profound a change in its ancient traditions; the finances became more and more hopelessly embarrassed, in spite of ruinous taxation; and attempts at European innovations in the court and army made matters only worse, so long as no attempt was made to improve 2 Muhammad VI. es Sadok, the reigning Bey at the time of the French occupation, died in October 1882, and was succeeded by his brother 'AH IV. This prince reigned until 1902, the throne then passing to his son Muhammad VII. el Hadi, who died in 1906, when his cousin Muhammad VIII. en Nasr (b. 1855) became Bey. TUNNEL 399 the internal condition of the country. In the third quarter of the i gth century not more than a tenth part of the fertile land was under cultivation, and the yearly charge on the public debt exceeded the whole annual revenue. In these circum- stances only the rivalry of the European powers that had interests in Tunisia protracted from year to year the inevitable revolution. The French began to regard the dominions of the Bey as a natural adjunct to Algeria, but after the Crimean War Turkish rights over the regency of Tunis were revived. After the Franco-German War the embarrassed Bey turned towards Great Britain for advice, and a British protectorate — suggested by the proximity of Malta — was not an impossibility under the remarkable influence of the celebrated Sir Richard Wood, British diplomatic agent at the court of Tunis from 1855 to 1879. The railways, lighthouses, gas and waterworks and other concessions and industries were placed in British hands. But in 1878, at the Congress of Berlin, Lord Salisbury agreed to allow France a " free hand " in Tunisia in return for French acquiescence in the British lease of Cyprus. After 1862, however, the kingdom of Italy began to take a deep interest in the future of Tunisia. When the country Occupation went bankrupt in 1869, a triple control was estab- bythe lished over Tunisian finances, with British, French Preach. and itai;an « controllers." In 1880 the Italians bought the British railway from Tunis to Goletta. This and other actions excited the French to act on the secret under- standing effected with the British foreign minister at the Berlin Congress. In 1881 a French force crossed the Algerian frontier under pretext of chastising the independent Khmir or Kroumir tribes on the north-east of the regency, and, quickly dropping the mask, advanced on the capital and com- pelled the Bey to accept the French protectorate. The actual conquest of the country was not effected without a serious struggle with Moslem fanaticism, especially at Sfax; but all Tunisia was brought completely under French jurisdiction and administration, supported by military posts at every important point. In 1883 the new situation under the French protectorate was recognized by the British government, with- drawing its consular jurisdiction in favour of the French courts, and in 1885 it ceased to be represented by a diplomatic official. The other powers followed suit, except Italy, which did not recognize the full consequences of the French protectorate until 1896. In 1884 a thorough reform of the government and administration of the country was begun under the direction of a succession of eminent French residents-general. In 1897 Great Britain surrendered her commercial treaty with Tunisia and agreed (subject to a special temporary privilege regarding cotton goods) to allow her commerce and all other relations with Tunisia to be subjected to the same conditions as those affecting all such relations between Britain and France. The French protectorate over Tunisia, based on the treaty signed by the Bey at Bardo on the i2th of May 1881 and con- Reiatioas firmed by the treaty of La Marsa (June 8, 1883), was with not recognized by Turkey, which claimed the regency Turkey. as part of tjje ottoman dominions. The protests of the Porte were ignored by the French, and in 1892 Turkey so far recognized the actual situation as to determine the Tunisia- Tripoli frontier as far south as Ghadames. South of that point the Saharan frontiers of Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli remained undefined. Working eastward from Tunisia and Algeria the French occupied several points to which Turkey laid claim. Thus the oasis of Janet, S.S.W. of Rhat, was occupied in 1906. The action of France led to counter-action by Turkey and to various frontier incidents. Janet was re- occupied by Ottoman troops in the summer of 1910, but in deference to French protests the troops were withdrawn pending the delimitation of the frontier. At the same time Turkey maintained the claim that Tunisians were Ottoman subjects. Frontier troubles had however little effect on the remainder of the protectorate. In 1904-1905 there were famines and some native discontent in the south of Tunisia; but in general the country has prospered amazingly under the French protec- torate. The native dynasty has been strengthened rather than weakened, and Tunisia may be pointed out as the best and wisest example of French administration over an alien land and race. Though on a smaller scale it is worthy to be set as a pendant to the British work in Egypt. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Of 'Arabic sources accessible in translations the geographical works of Ya'kubi (Descriptio al Magribi, by De Goeje Leiden, 1860), Al-Bakri (Descr. de I'Afrique septentrionale, by De Slane, Paris, 1859; Arabic text, ibid. 1857) and Idrisi (Descr. de LAJnque, &c., by Dozy and De Goeje, Leiden, 1866) belong to the loth, iith and I2th centuries respectively; the history of Ibn Knaldun (Hist, des Berbbres, by De Slane, 4 vols., Algiers, 1852-1856) includes the earlier Haf sites, that of Al-KairawanI (Hist, de lAfrique, by Pelissier and Remusat, Paris, 1845, in Expl. scient. de I'Algerie, vol. vii.; Arabic text, Tunis, 1286 A.H.) deals especially with Tunisia and goes down to 1681. Especially valuable and lucid are the following works: Ernest Mercier, Histoire de I'Afrique septentrionale (Berberie) (3 vols., Paris, 1891), and Histoire de I'etablissement des Arabes dans I'Afrique septentrionale selon les auteurs arabes (Paris, 1875); Stanley Lane Poole, The Barbary Corsairs (" Story of the Nations Series," London, 1890), deals in part with the history of Tunisia. Other works which should be studied are: Dr Thos. Shaw's Travels ( 1 757)1^60 Africanus's description of Africa in Ramusio and in Purchas s Pilgrims; Rousseau, Annales tunisiennes (Algiers, 1864); the late Sir R. Lambert Playfair, In the Footsteps of Bruce (London, 1887); A. M. Broadley, Tunis, Past and Present (Edinburgh, 1882); Guerin, Voyage archeologique (Paris, 1862); D'Herisson, Mission archeologique en Tunisie (Paris, 1884); E. D. Schoenfield, Aus den Staaten der Barbaresken (Berlin, 1902); Sir Harry Johnston, The Colonization of Africa (Cambridge, 1905) ; Gaston Loth, La Tunisie et I'ceuvre du protectorat fran^ais (Paris, 1907); Professor Arthur Girault, Principes de colonisation et de legislation coloniale, vol. iii. (3rd ed., Paris, 1908). Lists of all the rulers of Tunisia will be found in A. M. H. J. Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire, vol. i. (Leiden, 1898). The geography of Tunisia was first treated scientifically by E. Pelissier in the i6th volume of his Explor. scient. de I'Algerie (Paris, '853) ; and by C. Tissot, Explor. scient. de la Tunisie: Geog. comparee de la province romaine d'Afrique (2 vols., Paris, 1884-1888); also in Murray 's Handbook, by Sir R. L. Playfair (1887). The works of Canon Tristram on the Sahara describe southern Tunisia in the 'sixties of the igth century. Two important articles on Tunisia appeared in Nos. 22 and 23 of the Revue generale des sciences (Paris, Nov. 30 and Dec. 15, 1896). Still more valuable is La Tunisie franqaise, in two volumes, a government publication (Paris, 1896). An article on the Tunisian Sahara, the Tunisian Cave-Dwellers and Berber Languages, &c., by Sir H. H. Johnston, was published in the Geog. Journ. for June 1898. Other articles by the same author appeared in the Graphic during the years 1899, 1900 and 1902. An interesting dissertation on the question of the Berber race is given in Professor A. H. Keane's Man, Past and Present. Numerous other works in English and French have been published on Tunisia from the tourist's point of view; the best of these is by Douglas Sladen, Carthage and Tunis (2 vols., 1908). Gaston Boissier, L'Afrique romaine (1895), is a picturesque but somewhat super- ficial aperfu of the principal Roman ruins. Flaubert's Salammbo ought always to be read by those who visit Carthage and Tunisia. It was mainly written at La Marsa, near Carthage. See also H. S. Ashbee, Bibliography of Tunisia (London, 1889). (H. H. J.) TUNNEL (Fr. tonnel, later tonneau, a diminutive from Low Lat. lonna, tunna, a tun, cask), a more or less horizontal under- ground passage made without removing the top soil. In former times any long tube-like passage, however constructed, was called a tunnel. At the present day the word is sometimes popularly applied to an underground passage constructed by trenching down from the surface to build the arching and then refilling with the top soil; but a passage so constructed, although indistinguishable from a tunnel when completed, is more cor- rectly termed a " covered way," and the operations " cutting " and " covering," instead of tunnelling. Making a small tunnel, afterwards to be converted into a larger one, is called " driving a heading," and in mining operations small tunnels are termed " galleries," " driftways " and " adits." If the under- ground passage is vertical it is a shaft; if the shaft is begun at the surface the operations are known as "sinking"; and it is called a " rising " if worked upwards from a previously constructed heading or gallery. Tunnelling has been effected by natural forces to a far greater extent than by man. In limestone districts innumerable swallow-holes, or shafts, have been sunk by the rain water following joints and dissolving the rock, and from the bottom of these shafts tunnels have been excavated to the sides of 400 TUNNEL hills in a manner strictly analogous to the ordinary method of executing a tunnel by sinking shafts at intervals and driving headings therefrom. Many rivers find thus a course under- ground. In Asia Minor one of the rivers on the route of the Mersina railway extension pierces a hill by means of a natural tunnel, whilst a little south at Seleucia another river flows through a tunnel, 20 ft. wide and 23 ft. high, cut 1600 years ago through rock so hard that the chisel marks are still dis- cernible. The Mammoth Cave of Kentucky and the Peak caves of Derbyshire are examples of natural tunnelling. Mineral springs bring up vast quantities of matter in solution. It has been estimated that the Old Well Spring at Bath has discharged since the beginning of the ipth century solids equivalent to the excavation of a 6 ft. by 3 ft. heading 9 m. long; and yet the water is perfectly clear and the daily flow is only the isoth part of that pumped out of the great railway tunnel under the Severn. Tunnelling is also carried on to an enormous extent by the action of the sea. Where the Atlantic rollers break on the west coast of Ireland, or on the seaboard of the western Highlands of Scotland, numberless caves and tunnels have been formed in the cliffs, beside which artificial tunnelling operations appear insignificant. The most gigantic subaqueous demolition hitherto carried out by man was the blowing up in 1885 of Flood Rock, a mass about 9 acres in extent, near Long Island Sound, New York. To effect this gigantic work by a single instantaneous blast a shaft was sunk 64 ft. below sea-level, from the bottom of which 4 m. of tunnels or galleries were driven so as to completely honeycomb the rock. The roof rock ranged from 10 ft. to 24 ft. in thickness, and was supported by 467 pillars 15 ft. square; 13,286 holes, averaging 9 ft. in length and 3 ins. in diameter, were drilled in the pillars and roof. About 80,000 cub. yds. of rock were excavated in the galleries and 275,000 remained to be blasted away. The holes were charged with no tons of " rackarock," a more powerful explosive than gunpowder, which was fired by electricity, when the sea was lifted 100 ft. over the whole area of the rock. Where natural forces effect analogous results, the holes are bored and the headings driven by the chemical and mechanical action of the rain and sea, and the explosive force is obtained by the expansive action of air locked up in the fissures of the rock and compressed to many tons per square foot by impact from the waves. Artificial breakwaters have often been thus tunnelled into by the sea, the compressed air blowing out the blocks and the waves carrying away the debris. With so many examples of natural caves and tunnels in existence it is not to be wondered at that tunnelling was one of the earliest works undertaken by man, first for dwellings and tombs, then for quarrying and mining, and finally for water-supply, drainage, and other requirements of civilization. A Theban king on ascending the throne began at once to drive the tunnel which was to form his final resting-place, and per- severed with the work until death. The tomb of Mineptah at Thebes was driven at a slope for a distance of 350 ft. into the hill, when a shaft was sunk and the tunnel projected a farther length of about 300 ft., and enlarged into a chamber for the sarcophagus. Tunnelling on a large scale was also carried on at the rock temples of Nubia and of India, and the architectural features of the entrances to some of these temples might be studied with advantage by the designers of modern tunnel fronts. Flinders Petrie has traced the method of underground quarrying followed by the Egyptians opposite the Pyramids. Parallel galleries about 20 ft. square were driven into the rock and cross galleries cut, so that a hall 300 to 400 ft. wide was formed, with a roof supported by rows of pillars 20 ft. square and 20 ft. apart. Blocks of stone were removed by the workmen cutting grooves all round them, and, where the stone was not required for use, but merely had to be removed to form a gallery, the grooves were wide enough for a man to stand up in. Where granite, diorite and other hard stone had to be cut the work was done by tube drills and by saws supplied with corundum, or other hard gritty material, and water — the drills leaving a core of rock exactly like that of the modern diamond drill. As instances of ancient tunnels through soft ground and requiring masonry arching, reference may be made to the vaulted drain under the south-east palace of Nimrod and to the brick arched tunnel, 12 ft. high and 15 ft. wide, under the Euphrates. In Algeria, Switzerland, and wherever the Romans went, remains of tunnels for roads, drains and water-supply are found. Pliny refers to the tunnel constructed for the drainage of Lake Fucino as the greatest public work of the time. It was by far the longest tunnel in the world, being more than 3^ m. in length, and was driven under Monte Salviano, which necessitated shafts no less than 400 ft. in depth. Forty shafts and a number of " cuniculi," or inclined galleries, were sunk, and the excavated material was drawn up in copper pails, of about ten gallons capacity, by windlasses. The tunnel was designed to be 10 ft. high by 6 ft. wide, but its actual cross- section varied. It is stated that 30,000 labourers were occupied eleven years in its construction. With modern appliances such a tunnel could be driven from the two ends without intermediate shafts in eleven months. No practical advance was made on the tunnelling methods of the Romans until gunpowder came into use. Old engravings of mining operations early in the I7th century show that excavation was still accomplished by pickaxes or hammer and chisel, and that wood fires were lighted at the ends of the headings to split and soften the rock in advance (see fig. i). (From Agricola's De re metallica, Basel, 1621.) FIG. I. — Method of mining, 1621. Crude methods of ventilation by shaking cloths in the headings and by placing inclined boards at the top of the shafts are also on record. In 1766 a tunnel 9 ft. wide, 12 ft. high and 2880 yds. long was begun on the Grand Trunk Canal, England, and completed eleven years later; and this was followed by many others. On the introduction of railways tunnelling became one of the ordinary incidents of a contractor's work; probably upwards of 4000 railway tunnels have been executed. Tunnelling under Rivers and Harbours. — In 1825 Marc Isambard Brunei began, and in 1843 completed, the Thames tunnel between Rotherhithe and Wapping now used by the East London railway. He employed a peculiar " shield," made of timber, in several independent sections. Part of the ground penetrated was almost liquid mud, and the cost of the funnel was about £1300 per lineal yard. In 1818 he took out a patent for a tunnelling process, which included a shield, and which mentioned cast iron as a surrounding wall. His shield fore- shadowed the modern shield, which is substituted for the ordinary timber work of the tunnel, holds up the earth of excavation, affords space within its shelter for building the permanent walls, overlaps these walls in telescope fashion, and is moved forward by pushing against their front ends. The advantages of cast-iron walls are that they have great strength TUNNEL 401 in small space as soon as the segments are bolted together, and they can be caulked water-tight. In 1830 Lord Cochrane (afterwards loth earl of Dundonald) patented the use of compressed air for shaft-sinking and tun- nelling in water-bearing strata. Water under any pressure can be kept out of a subaqueous chamber or tunnel by sufficient air of a greater pressure, and men can breathe and work therein — for a time— up to a pressure exceeding four atmo- spheres. The shield and cast-iron lining invented by Brunei, and the compressed air of Cochrane, have with the aid of later inventors largely removed the difficulties of subaqueous tunnel- ling. Cochrane's process was used for the foundation of bridge piers, &c., comparatively early, but neither of these devices was employed for tunnelling until half a century after their inven- tion. Two important subaqueous tunnels in the construction of which neither of these valuable aids was adopted are the Severn and the Mersey tunnels. The Severn tunnel (fig. 16), 4$ m. in length for a double line of railway, begun in 1873 and finished in 1886, Hawkshaw, Son, Hayter & Richardson being the engineers and T. A. Walker the contractor, is made almost wholly in the Trias and Coal Measure formations, but for a short distance at its eastern end passes through gravel. At the lowest part the depth is 60 ft. at low water and looft. at high water, and the thickness of sandstone over the brickwork is 45 ft. Under a depression in the bed of the river on the English side there is a cover of only 30 ft. of marl. Much water was met with throughout. In 1879 the works were flooded for months by a land spring on the Welsh side of the river, and on another occasion from a hole in the river bed at the Salmon Pool. This hole was subse- quently filled with clay and the works completed beneath. Two preliminary headings were driven across the river to test the ground. Break-ups " were made at intervals of two to five chains and the arching was carried on at each of these points. All parts of the excavation were timbered, and the greatest amount excavated in any one week was 6000 cub. yds. The total amount of water raised at all the pumping stations is about 27,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. The length of the Mersey tunnel (fig. 15) between Liverpool and Birkenhead between the pumping shafts on each side of the river is one mile. From each a drainage heading was driven through the sandstone with a rising gradient towards the centre of the river. This heading was partly bored out by a Beaumont machine to a diameter of 7 ft. 4 in. and at a rate attaining occasionally 65 lineal yds. per week. All of the tunnel excavation, amounting to 320,000 cub. yds., was got out by hand labour, since heavy blasting would have shaken the rock. The minimum cover between the top of the arch and the bed of the river is 30 ft. Pumping machinery is provided for 27,000,000 gallons per day, which is more than double the usual quantity of water. Messrs Brunlees & Fox were the engineers, and Messrs Waddell the contractors for the works, which were opened in 1886, about six years after the beginning of operations. In 1869 P. W. Barlow and J. H. Greathead built the Tower foot-way under the Thames, using for the first time a cast-iron lining and a shield which embodied the main features of Brunei's design. Barlow had patented a shield in 1864, and A. E. Beach one in 1868. The latter was used in a short masonry tunnel under Broadway, New York City, at that time. In 1874 Greathead designed and built a shield, to be used in connexion with compressed air, for a proposed Woolwich tunnel under the Thames, but it was never used. Compressed air was first used in tunnel work by Hersent, at Antwerp, in 1879, in a small drift with a cast-iron lining. In the same year compressed air was used for the first time in any important tunnel by D. C. Haskin in the famous first Hudson River tunnel, New York City. This was to be of two tubes, each having internal dimensions of about 16 ft. wide by 1 8 ft. high. The excavation as fast as made was lined with thin steel plates, and inside of these with brick. In June 1880 the northerly tube had reached 360 ft. from the Hoboken shaft, but a portion near the latter, not of full size, was being enlarged. Just after a change of shifts the compressed air blew a hole through the soft silt in the roof at this spot, and the water entering drowned the twenty men who were working therein. From time to time money was raised and the work advanced. Between 1888 and 1891 the northerly tunnel was extended 2000 ft. to about three-fourths of the way across, with British capital and largely under the direction of British engineers — Sir Benjamin Baker and E. W. Moir. Compressed air and a shield were used, and the tunnel walls were made of bolted segments of cast iron. The money being exhausted, the tunnel was allowed to fill with water, and it so remained for ten years. Both tubes were completed in 1908. The use of compressed air in the Hudson tunnel, and of annular shields and cast-iron lined tunnel in constructing the City & South London railway (1886 to 1890) by Great- head, became widely known and greatly influenced subaqueous and soft-ground tunnelling thereafter. The pair of tunnels for this railway from near the Monument to Stockwell, from 10 ft. 2 in. to 10 ft. 6 in. interior diameter, were constructed mostly in clay and without the use of compressed air, except for a comparatively short distance through water-bearing gravel. In this gravel a timber heading was made, through which the shield was pushed. The reported total cost was £840,000. Among the tunnels constructed after the City & South London work was well advanced, lined with cast-iron segments, and constructed by means of annular shields and the use of compressed air, were the St Clair (Joseph Hobson, engineer) from Sarnia to Port Huron, 1889-1890, through clay, and for a short distance through water-bearing gravel, 6000 ft., 1 8 ft. internal diameter; and the notable Blackwall tunnel under the Thames (Sir Alexander Binnie, engineer, and S. Pearson & Sons, contractors), through clay and 400 ft. of water- saturated gravel, 1892-1897, about 3116 ft. long, 24 ft. 3 in. in internal diameter. The shield, 19 ft. 6 in. long, contained a bulkhead with movable shutters, as foreshadowed in Baker's pro- posed shield (fig. 2). Numerous tunnels of small diameter have been similarly con- structed under the Thames and Clyde for electric and cable ways, several for sewers in Melbourne, and two under the Seine at Paris for sewer siphons. The Rotherhithe tunnel, under the Thames, for a road- way, with a length of 4863 ft. between por- tals, of which about 1400 ft. are directly under the river, has the largest cross- section of any sub- aqueous tube of this FIG. 2.— B. Baker's pneumatic shield, type in the world (see fig. 3). It was begun in 1904 and finished in 1908, Maurice Fitzmaurice being the engineer of design and construction, and Price & Reeves the contractors. It penetrates sandy and shelly clay overlying a seam of limestone, beneath which are pebbles and loamy sand. A preliminary tunnel for exploration, 12 ft. in diameter, was driven across the river, the top being within 2 ft. of the following main tunnel. The top of the main tunnel excavation in the middle of the river was only 7 ft. from the bed of the Thames, and a temporary blanket of filled earth, usually allowed in similar cases, was prohibited owing to the close proximity of the docks. The maximum progress in one day was 12-5 ft., and the average in six days 10-4 ft. The air compressors were together capable of supplying 1,000,000 cub. ft. of air per hour. Some tunnels of marked importance of this type — to be operated solely with electric cars — have been built under the East and Hudson rivers at New York. Two tubes of 15 ft. interior diameter and 4150 ft. long penetrate gneiss and gravel directly under the East River between the Battery and Brooklyn. They were begun in 1902, with Wm. B. Parsons and George S. Rice as engineers, and were finished in December 1907, under the direction of D. L. Hough of the ''" 4-02 TUNNEL The Thames Tunnel (Brunei), 1825-1842 Glasgow Cable Subway, Clyde. y tubes. Hudson River, Morton St. a tubes. Baker St. & Waterloo Greenwich Footway Railway, Thames. 2 tubes. Tunnel, i tube. •• - Harlem River. 2 tubes. City & South London Railway, Thames. 3 tubes. St Clair River, i tube. Hudson River (Haskin), 1879. ^^•fvfwsWw*^^ Waterloo & City Rail way, Thames. a tubes. Plackwall Tunnel, Thames, i tube. East Boston Tunnel under Harbour, i tube. Rotherhithe, Thames, t tube Hudson and E.iht Rivers. Pennsylvania Railroad. 2 and 4 tubes. — i^B— — =-— Battery to Brooklyn, East River. 2 tubes. removing its bulkheads, and making good the masonry between consecutive bulk- heads, this masonry being inside the flanges. This work, about 1500 ft. in length, was done without contractors, by labourers and foremen under the immediate control of the engineers, and was found perfectly tight, straight and sound. The double-track railroad tunnel at Detroit, made in 1906- 1909, under the direction of an advisory board consisting of W. J. Wilgus (chairman), H. A. Carson and W. S. Kinnear (the last-named being chief engineer), is 15 m. long, with a portion directly under the river of % m. The method used under the river (proposed by Wilgus) is an important variation on the Boston scheme. A trench was dredged with a depth equal to the thickness of the tunnel below the river bed and about 70 ft. below the river surface, and grillages were accurately placed in it to support the ends of thin steel tube-forms, inside of which concrete was to be moulded and outside of which de- posited. These tubes, each about 23 ft. in diameter and 262-5 ft. long, were in pairs (one tube for each track), and were connected sidewise and surrounded by thin steel diaphragms 12 ft. apart. Planking, to limit the concrete, was secured outside the diaphragms (see fig. 3). The forms were made tight, bulkheaded at their ends, floated into place, sunk by admitting water, set on the grillages, and the ends of successive pairs connected together by bolts through rubber gaskets and flanges. The succeeding pair of tubes was not lowered until concrete had been deposited through the river around the tubes of the preceding pair. The following steps were to re- move the water from one pair of tubes, mould inside a lining of concrete 20 in. thick, remove the contiguous bulkheads, and repeat again and again the processes described until the subaqueous tunnel was complete. The New York Rapid Transit tunnel under Harlem river, built 1904-1905, has two tubes, each about 15 ft. diameter and 400 ft. long, with a surrounding shell of cast iron itself surrounded by concrete. The outside width of concrete is about 33 ft. Its top is 28 ft. below high water and about 3 ft. below the bed of the river. D. D. McBean, the sub-contractor, dredged a trench in the river to within 7 or 8 ft. of the required depth. He then enclosed a space of the width of the tunnel from shore to mid-stream with i2-in. sheet piling, which was evenly cut off some 2 ft. above the determined outside top of the tunnel. On top of this piling he sank and tightly fitted a flat temporary roof of timber 3 ft. thick in sections, and covered this with about 5 ft. of dredged mud. Water was expelled from this subaqueous chamber by compressed air, after which the re- maining earth was easily taken out, and the iron and concrete 404 TUNNEL tunnel walls were then built in the chamber. For the remaining part of the river the foregoing process was varfed by cutting off the sheet piling at mid-height of the tunnel and making the upper half of the tunnel, which was built above and lowered in sec- tions through the water, serve as the roof of the chamber in which the lower half of the tunnel was built. The tunnels of the Metropolitain railway of Paris (F. Bien- ventie, engineer-in-chief) under the two arms of the Seine, between Place Chatelet and Place Saint Michel, were made by means of compressed-air caissons sunk beneath the river bed, were next made by the aid of temporary small caissons sunk through about 26 ft. of earth under the river. The tops of the side walls were made even with the end walls. A steel rect- angular coffer-dam (figs. 5 and 6) was sunk to rest with rubber or clay joint on these surrounding walls. The coffer-dam had shafts reaching above the surface of the water, so that the earth core was easily taken out (after removing the water) in free air. The adjacent chambers under the caissons were then connected together. Three caissons, of a total length of 396 ft., were used under the larger arm, and two, of an aggregate length Mountain Tunnels for Railways. Tunnel. Location. Length, (miles) Internal Width and Height. Material penetrated. Average progress per day = 24 hrs. (lin. yds.). Approximate cost per lin. yd. Mont Cenis (l tunnel) . St Gotthard (i tunnel) Arlberg (i tunnel) . Simplon (2 tunnels'; Modane, France and Bardonecchia, Italy. Goschenen and Airolo in Switzerland. Innsbruck and Bludenz in Tirol. Brigue, Switzerland and Iselle, Italy. 7-98 9'3 6-36 12-3 26 ft. 3 in. X 24 ft. 7 in. (horseshoe). 26 ft. 3 in. X 24 ft. 7 in. (horseshoe). 25 ft. 3 in. wide 16 ft. 5 in. X 19 ft. 6 in. each (rain.). Granitic Granitic Gneiss, mica schist, limestone and disintegrated mica schist rock. 2'57 6-61 9-07 11-63 L 226 143 108 148 L. Chagnaud being the contractor. They were built of plates of sheet steel and masonry, with temporary steel diaphragms in the ends, filled with concrete, making a cross wall with a level top about even with the outside top of the tunnel and about 2 ft. below the bottom of the Seine. The caissons were sunk on the line of the tunnel so that adjacent ends (and the walls just described) were nearly 5 ft. apart with — at that stage — a core of earth between them. Side walls joining the end walls and thus enclosing the earth core on four sides (fig. 4) Concrete Wbfls on %p of Ca/sson Ends^f- /* / MMM *l4 < r 4 -Lateral Walls J- -r- sef with Temporary Cff/ssot >•'' ""k'1 (From Engineering Neva, New York.) FIG. 4. — Perspective showing manner of enclosing space between tunnel caissons for the Metropolitain under the Seine at Paris. _H.W. M.W. (From Engineering News, New York.) FIG. 5. — Transverse Section. Coffer-dam superimposed over joints between caissons in tunnels for the Metropolitain under the Seine at Paris. of 132 ft., under the smaller arm of the Seine. The cost of the tunnel was 7000 francs per lineal metre. William Sooy Smith published in Chicago, in 1877, a de- scription of a scheme for building a tunnel under the Detroit river by sinking caissons end to end, each caisson to be secured to the adjoining one by tongued and grooved guides, and a nearly water-tight connexion between the two to be made by means of an annular inflated hose. Tunnelling through Mountains. — Where a great thickness of rock overlies a tunnel through a mountain, it may be necessary to do the work wholly from the two ends without intermediate shafts. The problem largely resolves itself into devising the most expeditious way of excavating and removing the rock. Experience has led to great advances in speed and economy, as may be seen from examples in the above table. In 1857 the first blast was fired in connexion with the Mont Cenis works; in 1861 machine drilling was introduced; and in 1871 the tunnel was opened for traffic. With the exception of about 300 yds. the tunnel is lined throughout with brick or stone. During the first four years of hand labour the average progress was not more than 9 in. per day on each side of the Alps; but with compressed air rock-drills the rate towards the end was five times greater. In 1872 the St Gotthard tunnel was begun, and in 1 88 1 the first locomotive ran through it. Mechanical drills were used from the beginning. Tunnelling was carried on by driving in advance a top heading about 8 ft. square, then enlarging this sideways, and finally sinking the excavation to invert level (see figs. 7 and 8). Air for working the rock-drills was compressed to seven atmospheres by turbines of about 2000 horse-power. The driving of the Arlberg tunnel was begun in 1 880 and the work was completed in little more than three years. Themainheading was driven along the bottom of the FIG. 6. — Longitudinal Section. TUNNEL 405 tunnel and shafts were opened up 25 to 70 yds. apart, from which smaller 'headings were driven right and left. The tunnel was enlarged to its full section at different points simultaneously in lengths of 8 yds., the excavation of each occupying about twenty days, and the masonry fourteen days. Ferroux percussion air-drills and Brandt rotary hydraulic drills were used, the performance of the latter being especially satisfactory. After each blast a fine spray of water was injected, which assisted the ventilation FIGS. 7 and 8. — Method of excavation in St Gotthard Tunnel. materially. In the St Gotthard tunnel the discharge of the air-drills was relied on for ventilation. In the Arlberg tunnel over 8000 cub. ft. of air per minute were thrown in by ven- tilators. To keep pace with the miners, 900 tons of excavated material had to be removed, and 350 tons of masonry introduced, daily at each end of the tunnel, which necessitated the transit of 450 wagons. The cost per lineal yard varied according to the thickness of masonry lining and the distance from the mouth of the tunnel. For the first thousand yards from the entrance the prices per lineal yard were £11 8s. for the lower heading; £7 123. for the upper one; £30 los. for the unlined tunnel; £45 for the tunnel with a thin lining of masonry; and £124 55. with a lining 3 ft. thick at the arch, 4 ft. at the sides, and 2 ft. 8 in. at the invert. The Simplon tunnel was begun in 1898 and completed in 1905. It is over 30 % longer than the St Gotthard, and the greatest depth below the surface is 7005 ft. A novel method was introduced in the shape of two parallel bores (56 ft. apart, connected at intervals of 660 ft. by oblique galleries), which greatly facilitated ventilation, and resulted in increased economy and rapidity of construction, while ensuring the health of the men. One of these galleries was made large enough for a single- track railroad, and the second is to be enlarged and similarly used. The death-rate in the Simplon tunnel was decreased as compared with the St Gotthard from 800 in eight years to 60 in seven years. Had one wide tunnel been made instead of two narrow ones, it would have been difficult to maintain its integrity; even with the narrow cross-section employed the floor was forced up at points in the solid rock from the great weight above, and had to be secured by building heavy inverts of masonry. Temperatures were reduced to 89° F. by spraying devices, although the rock temperatures ranged from 129° to 130° F. At one point 4374 yds. from the portal of Iselle the " Great Spring " of cold water was struck; it yielded 10,564 gallons per minute at 600 ft pressure per sq. in., and reduced the temperature to 55-4° F., the lowest point recorded. A spring of hot water was met on the Italian side which discharged into the tunnel 1600 gallons per minute with a temperature of 113° F. The maximum flow of cold water was 17,081 gallons per minute, and of hot water 4330 gallons per minute. These springs often necessitated a temporary abandonment of the work. Water power from the Rhone at the Swiss and from the Diveria at the Italian end provided the power for operating all plant during the construction of most of the work. Among the able engineers connected with this work must be mentioned Alfred Brandt, a man of remarkable energy and ability, whose drills were used with much success. He died early in the work, of injuries received from falling rock. A group of tunnels — the Tauern, Barengraben, Wocheiner and Bosriick — was undertaken by the Austrian government in connexion with new Alpine railroads to increase the commercial territory tributary to the seaport of Trieste, which at one time was greater than Hamburg. The principal tunnel of this group is under the main body of the Tauern mountain. The bottom drifts met on the 2ist of July 1907. The difficulties resulted mostly from mountain debris and springs. There are four minor tunnels between Schwarzach, St Veit, and the north portal of the Tauern, and nineteen between the south portal and the south slope at Mollbriicken. The electric railway from the Eiger glacier to near the summit of the Jungfrau includes a tunnel 15 m. long, 3-6 metres wide and 3-8 metres high, with a midway station, from which a large part of northern Switzerland can be seen. From the Jungfrau terminus, at an elevation of 13,428 ft., the summit, 242 ft. higher, will be reached by an elevator. The Hoosac tunnel was the first prominent tunnel in America. It was begun in 1855 and finished in 1876, after many interrup- tions. It was memorable for the original use in America of air-drills and nitroglycerin. The Pennsylvania railroad tunnels crossing New York City under 32nd and 33rd Streets are of un- usual size. Owing to the close proximity of large buildings and other structures special methods were adopted for mining the rock to lessen the vibrations by explosions. At 33rd Street and 4th Avenue the tunnels pass directly under two of the Rapid Transit system, above which there is another belonging to the Metropolitan Traction Company, so that there are three tunnels at different levels under the street. Among other rock tunnels may be mentioned the Albula, through a granite ridge of the Rhaetian Alps, for a single-track narrow-gauge railroad, 3-6 m. long; tunnels on the Midland railway, near Totley in Derbyshire, over 3-5 m. long, largely in shale, and at Cowburn, over 2 m. long, in shale and harder rock, each 27 ft. wide and 20-5 ft. high inside; the Suram, on the Trans-Caucasus railway, for double track, 2-47 m. long, through soft rock; the tail-race tunnel for the Niagara Falls Water Power Company, 1-3 m. long, 19 ft. wide and 21 ft. high, through argillaceous shale and limestone, costing about $1,250,000; the Tequixquiac outlet to the drainage system for the city of Mexico, costing $6,760,000; the Cascade, Washington, part of the Great Northern railroad system, saving 9 m. in distance; and the Gunnison, irrigating 147,000 acres in Colorado. Tunnelling in Towns. — Where tunnels have to be carried through soft soil in proximity to valuable buildings special precautions have to be taken to avoid settlement. A successful example of such work is the tunnel driven in 1886 for the Great Northern Railway Company under the Metropolitan Cattle FIG. 9. — Paris Metropolitain Tunnel, longitudinal horizontal section. 406 TUNNEL Market, London. This was done by the crown-bar method, the bars being built in with solid brickwork. The subsidence in the ground was from i to about 3^ in. Several buildings were tunnelled under without any structural damage. London has now some 90 m. of tunnels for railways, mostly operated by electric traction. Most of those which have been constructed since 1890 have been tunnelled by the use of cylin- drical shields and walls of cast iron. Shields about 23 ft. in diameter were used in constructing the stations on the Central London railway, and one 32 ft. 4 in. in diameter and only 9 ft. 3 in. long was used for a short distance on the Clapham extension of the City and South London railway. general, the upper half of the tunnel was executed first (figs. 9 and 10) and the lower part completed by underpinning. Figs, n, 12 and 13 illustrate a case of tunnelling near impor- tant buildings in Boston in 1896, with a roof-shield 29 ft. 4 in. in external diameter. The vertical sidewalls were first made in small drifts, the roof-shield running on top of these, and the core was taken out later and the invert or floor of the tunnel put in last. Each hydraulic press of the shield reacted against a small continuous cast-iron rod imbedded in the brick arch. In some large sewerage tunnels in Chicago the shields were pushed from a wall of oak planks, 8 in. thick, surrounding the brick walls of the sewer. FIG. 10. — Paris Metropolitain Tunnel, longitudinal vertical section. Paris has an elaborate plan for underground railways some 50 m. in length, a considerable number of which have been constructed since 1898 under the engineering direction of F. Bienveniie. Instead of using completely cylindrical shields and cast-iron walls, as in London, roof-shields (boucliers de votile) were employed for the construction of the upper half of the tunnel, and masonry walls were adopted throughout. In Ventilation oj Tunnels. — The simplest method for ven- tilating a railway tunnel is to have numerous wide openings to daylight at frequent intervals. If these are the full width of the tunnel, at least 20 ft. in length, and not farther apart than 200 yds., it can be naturally ventilated. Such arrange- ments are, however, frequently impracticable, and then recourse must be had to mechanical means. FIG. ii. — Boston Subway, first and second phases. TUNNEL 407 FIG. 12. — Boston Subway, third phase. FIG. 13. — Boston Subway, longitudinal vertical section through shield. The first application of mechanical or fan ventilation to railway tunnels was made in the Lime Street tunnel of the London and North-Western railway at Liverpool, which has since been replaced by an open cutting. At a later date fans were applied to the Severn and Mersey tunnels. The principle ordinarily acted upon, where mechanical ventilation has been adopted, is to exhaust the vitiated air at a point midway between the portals of a tunnel, by means of a shaft with which is connected a ventilating fan of suitable power and dimensions. In the case of the tunnel under the river Mersey (fig. 14) such a shaft could not be provided, owing to the river being overhead, but a ventilating heading was driven from the middle of the river (at which point entry into the tunnel was effected) to each shore, where a fan 40 ft. in diameter was placed. In this way the vitiated air is drawn from the lowest point of the railway, while fresh air flows in at the stations on each side to replenish the partial vacuum, as indicated by arrows in the accompanying longitudinal section of the tunnel. The principle was that fresh air should enter at each station and " split " each way into the tunnel, and that thus the atmosphere on the station platforms should be maintained in a condition of purity. The fans in the Mersey tunnel are somewhat similar to the well- known Guibal fans, with the exception of an important alteration in the shutter. With the Guibal shutter, the top of the opening (From a diagram in Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.) FIG. 14. Longitudinal Section of the Mersey Tunnel, showing Method of Ventilation. 408 TUNNEL into the chimney from the fan has a line parallel to that of the fan- shaft and of the fan-blades, and, as a consequence, as each blade passes this shutter, the stoppage of the discharge of the air is instan- taneous, and the sudden change of the pressure of the air on the face cf the blade whilst discharging and the reversal of the pressure, due to the vacuum inside the fan-casing, cause the vibration hitherto inseparable from this type of ventilator. As an illustration of the effect of the pulsatory action of the Guibal shutters the following figures may be given : a fan having ten arms and running, say, sixty revolutions per minute, and working twenty-four hours per day, gives (10 X 60 X 60 X 24 = ) 864,000 blows per day transmitted From the tip of the fan-vanes to the fan-shaft; the shaft is thus in a constant state of tremor, and sooner or later reaches its elastic limit, and the consequent injury to the general structure of the fan is obvious. This difficulty is avoided by cutting a A -shaped opening in the shutter, thus gradually decreasing the aperture and allowing the air to pass into the chimney in a continuous stream instead of intermittently. The action of this regulating shutter increases the durability and efficiency of the fans in an important degree. In towns like Liverpool and Birkenhead any pulsatory action would be readily felt by the inhabitants, but with the above arrangement it is difficult to detect any sound whatever, even when standing close to the buildings containing the fans. The admission of the air on both sides is found in practice to conduce to smooth running and to the reduction of the side-thrust which occurs when the air is admitted on one side only. The fans are five in number: two are 40 ft. in diameter by 12 ft. wide, and two 30 ft. in diameter by loft, wide, one of each size being erected at Liverpool and at Birken- head respectively. In addition, there is a high-speed fan 1 6 ft. in diameter in Liverpool which throws 300,000 cub. ft. The following table gives the result of experiments made with the ventilating fans of the Mersey railway : — 1 3 J.1 li .5 a a Sl Fan at •oj • •s^ oS Id *o S "oil jj'*' o ^J BJ ft •— ^ t/.— >% S3 *J rj S i's ••2.3 1.1 •Sa 3 |J li8 s £ z3 < * > Hamilton Street, Birkenhead Shore Road, 30 IO 47 "3 1-30 1895 214,135 Birkenhead James Street, 40 12 45 41 2-50 3288' 134-685 Liverpool . James Street, 40 12 45 72 2-45 2465 178,880 Liverpool . 30 IO 60 60 2-30 2062 123,720 Bold Street, Liverpool .. 1 6* — — — — 300,000 Total 951,420 The central point of the Severn tunnel (fig. 15) lies toward the Monmouthshire bank of the river, and ventilation is effected from that point by means of one fan placed on the surface at Sudbrooke, Monmouth, at the top of a shaft which is connected with a horizontal Ventilating Fan Monmouthshire40"^ f"''"V^L?el/em 1 Gloucestershire 7 milei al length of Tunnel 4 miles 624 yardt rd FIG. 15. — Section of Severn Tunnel (Fox). heading leading to the centre. This fan, which is 40 ft. in diameter by 12 ft. in width, removes from the tunnel some 400,000 cub. ft. per minute, and draws in an equivalent volume of fresh air from the two ends. About 1896 an excellent system was introduced by Signor Saccardo, the well-known Italian engineer, which to a great extent has minim- ized the difficulty of ventilating long tunnels under mountain-ranges where shafts are not available. This system, which is not applicable to tunnels in which underground stations exist, is illustrated in fig. 1 6, which represents its application to the single-line tunnel through the Apennines at Pracchia. This tunnel is one of fifty- two single-line tunnels, with a gradient of I in 40, on the main line between Florence and Bologna, built by Thomas Brassey. There is a great deal of traffic which has to be worked by heavy locomotives. Before the installation of a ventilating system under any condition of wind the state of this tunnel, about 3000 yds. in length, was bad ; _* In the case of this circular drift-way a velocity of 4000 ft. per minute was subsequently attained. * Quick-running fan. but when the wind was blowing in at the lower end at the same time that a heavy goods or passenger train was ascending the gradient the condition of affairs became almost insupportable. The engines, working with the regulators full open, often emitted large quantities of both smoke and steam, which travelled concurrently with the train. The goods trains had two engines, one in front and another at the rear, and when, from the humidity in the tunnel, due to the Fan (From the Proc. Inst. Civ. Ens.) FIG. 16. — Diagram illustrating the Saccardo System for Ventilating Tunnels. steam, the wheels slipped and possibly the train stopped, the state of the air was indescribable. A heavy train with two engines, conveying a royal party and their suite, arrived on one occasion at the upper exit of the tunnel with both enginemen and both fire- men insensible; and on another occasion, when a heavy passenger train came to a stop in the tunnel, all the occupants were seriously affected. In applying the Saccardo system, the tunnel was extended for 15 or 20 ft. by a structure either of timber or brickwork, the inside line of which represented the line of maximum construction, and this was allowed to project for about 3 ft. into the tunnel. The space between this line and the exterior constituted the chamber into which air was blown by means of a fan. Considering the length of tunnel it might at first be thought there would be some tendency for the air to return through the open mouth, but nothing of the kind happened. The whole of the air blown by the fan, 164,000 cub. ft. per minute, was augmented by the induced current yielding 46,000 cub. ft. per minute, making a total of 210,000 cub. ft.; and this volume was blown down the gradient against the ascending train, so as to free the driver and men in charge of the train from the products of combustion at the earliest possible moment. Prior to the installation of this system the drivers and firemen had to be clothed in thick woollen garments, pulled on over their ordinary clothes, and wrapped round and round the neck and over the head ; but in spite of all these precautions they sometimes arrived at the upper end of the tunnel in a state of insensibility. The fan, however, immensely improved the condition of the air, which is now pure and fresh. In the case of the St Gotthard tunnel, which is c>$ m. in length and 26 ft. wide with a sectional area of 603 sq. ft., the Saccardo system was installed in 1899 with most beneficial results. The railway is double-tracked and worked by steam locomotives, the cars being lighted by gas. The ventilating plant is situated at Goschenen at the north end of the tunnel and consists of two large fans operated by water power. The quantity of air passed into the narrow mouth of the tunnel is 413,000 cub. ft. per minute at a velocity of 686 ft., this velocity being much reduced as the full section of the tunnel is reached. A sample of the air taken from a carriage contained 10-19 parts of carbonic acid gas per 10,000 volumes. In the Simplon tunnel, where electricity is the motive power, mechanical ventilation is installed. A steel sliding door is arranged at each entrance to be raised and lowered by electric power. After the entrance of a train the door is lowered and fresh air forced into the tunnel at considerable pressure from the same end by fans. The introduction of electric traction has simplified the problem of ventilating intra-urban railways laid in tunnels at a greater or less distance below the surface, since the absence of smoke and products of combustion from coal and coke renders necessary only such a quantity of air as is required by the passengers and staff. For supplying air to the shallow tunnels which form the under- ground portions of the Metropolitan and District railways in London, open staircases, blow-holes and sections of uncovered track are relied on. When the lines were worked by steam locomotives they afforded notorious examples of bad ventilation, the proportion of TUNNEL VAULT— TUNNY 409 carbonic acid amounting to from 15 or 20 to 60, 70 and even 89 parts in 10,000. But since the adoption of electricity as the motive power the atmosphere of the tunnels has much improved, and two samples taken from the cars in 1905 gave 11-27 and 14-07 parts of carbonic acid in 10,000. When deep level " tube " railways were first constructed in London, it was supposed that adequate ventilation would be obtained through the lift-shafts and staircases at the stations, with the aid of the scouring action of the trains which, being of nearly the same cross-section as the tunnel, would, it was supposed, drive the air in front of them out by the openings at the stations they were approaching, while drawing fresh air in behind them at the stations they had left. This expectation, however, was disappointed, and it was found necessary to employ mechanical means. On the Central London railway, which runs from the Bank of England to Shepherd's Bush.adistance of 6 m.,the ventilating plant installed-in 1902 consists of a 300 h.p. electrically driven fan, which is placed at Shepherd's Bush and draws in fresh air from the Bank end of the line and at other intermediate points. The fan is 5 ft. wide and 20 ft. in diameter, and makes 145 revolutions a minute, its capacity being 100,000 cub. ft. a minute. It is operated from I to 4 a.m., and the openings at all the intermediate stations being closed it draws fresh air in at the Bank station. The tunnel is thus cleared out about 2 1 times each night and the air is left in the same condition as it is outside. The fan is also worked during the day from n a.m. to 5 p.m., the intermediate doors being open; in this way the atmo- sphere is improved for about half the length of the line and the cars are cleared out as they arrive at Shepherd's Bush. Samples of the air in the tunnel taken when the fan was not running contained 7-07 parts of carbonic acid in 10,000, while the air of a full car contained 10-7 parts. The outside air at the same time contained 44 parts. A series of tests made for the London County Council in 1902 showed that the air of the cars contained a minimum of 9-60 parts and a maximum of 14-7 parts. In some of the later tube railways in London — such as the Baker Street and Waterloo, and the Charing Cross and Hampstead lines — electrically driven exhaust fans are provided at about half-mile intervals; these each extract 18,500 cub. ft. of air per minute from the tunnels, and discharge it from the tops of the station roofs, fresh air being conveyed to the points of suction in the tunnels. Tne Boston system of electrically operated subways and tunnels is ventilated by electric fans capable of completely changing the air in each section about every fifteen minutes. Air admitted at portals and stations is withdrawn midway between stations. In the case of the East Boston tunnel, the air leaving the tunnel under the middle of the harbour is carried to the shore through longitudinal ducts (fig- 3) atld is there expelled through fan-chambers. In the southerly 5 m. of the New York Rapid Transit railway, which runs in a four-track tunnel of rectangular section, having an area of 650 sq. ft., and built as close as possible to the surface of the streets, ventilation by natural means through the open stair- cases at the stations is mainly relied upon, with satisfactory results as regards the proportions of carbonic acid found in the air. But when intensely hot weather prevails in New York the tunnel air is sometimes 5° hotter still, due to the conversion of electrical energy into heat. This condition is aggravated by the fine diffusion through the air of oil from the motors, dust from the ballast and particles of metal ground off by the brake shoes, &c. Volume of Air Required for Ventilation. — The consumption of coal by a locomotive during the passage through a tunnel having been ascertained, and 29 cub. ft. of poisonous gas being allowed for each pound of coal consumed, the volume of fresh air required to maintain the atmosphere of the tunnel at a standard of purity of 20 parts of carbon dioxide in 10,000 parts of air is ascertained as follows: The number of pounds of fuel consumed per mile, multiplied by 29, multiplied by 500, and divided by the interval in minutes between the trains, will give the volume of air in cubic feet which must be introduced into the tunnel per minute. As an illustration, assume that the tunnel is a mile in length, that the consumption of fuel is 32 ft per mile, and that one train passes through the tunnel every five minutes in each direction; then the volume of air required per minute will be 32 ft X 29 cub, ft. X 500 = cub f 2j minutes. Corrosion of Rails in Tunnels. — Careful tests made in the Box and Severn tunnels of the Great Western railway, to ascertain if possible the loss that takes place in the weight of rails owing to the presence of corrosive gases, gave the following results: — Box TUNNEL (i m. 66 chains in length). Percentage of Wear per annum. ft per yard Down line, gradient falling I in 100 — % per annum. At east mouth 0-439 = 0-377 28 chains from east mouth I 800 = I -540 48 chains from east mouth 2-110 = 1-810 I m. 8 chains from east mouth 2-880 = 2.480 At west mouth 0-640 = 0-553 Up line, gradient rising I in 100 — At east mouth 0-620 = 0-575 I m. 8 chains from east mouth i -500 = I -380 i m. 28 chains from east mouth 1520 = 1-310 At west mouth 0-680 = 0-587 SEVERN TUNNEL (4 m. 28i chains in length). Percentage of Wear per annum. Ib per yard JJown line, outside and quite clear of tunnel, % per annum. Bristol end, gradient falling I in 100 . . . 0-280 = 0-240 Up line, outside and quite clear of tunnel, Newport end, gradient falling I in 90 . . 0-440 = 0-390 At Bristol mouth, gradient falling I in 100 1-200 = 1-020 33 chains from Bristol mouth, gradient falling 1 in iop 2-160 = 1 860 3 m- 75i chains from Bristol mouth, gradient rising I in 90 1-900=1-630 At Newport mouth 0-310 = 0-270 Down and up line under main-shaft level . . 3-200 = 2-750 It will be seen that the maximum wear and corrosion together reached the extraordinary weight of 2 \ ft per yard of rail per year — a very serious amount that involved great expenditure The wear occurred over the whole of the rail, but the top, over which the engine and train passed, wore at a greater rate, presumably on account of the surface being kept bright and the gases being able to act on it. The Great Western Company tried the experiment in the Severn tunnel of boxing up the rails, so that the ballast approached their surface within i in. or i^ in. It was found, however, that — in the case, at any rate, of the limestone ballast — the cure was almost worse than the disease, the result being a maximum wear of 2j ft and an average wear of just under 2 ft> per yard of rail per year. The average on the open line would be about 0-25 ft in the same time. See Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. ; also works on tunnelling by Drinker, Simms, Stauffer and Prelini, and on tunnel shields, &c., by Copper- thwaite. (H. A. C.) TUNNEL VAULT, the term in architecture given to the semicircular or elliptical vault over underground passages, in contradistinction to the wagon or barrel vault of edifices above ground. TUNNY (Thunnusthynnus), one of the largest fishes of the family of mackerels, belongs to the genus of which the bonito (Th. pelamys) and the albacores (Th. albacora, Th. alalonga, &c.) are equally well-known members. From the latter the tunny is distinguished by its much shorter pectoral fins, which reach backwards only to, or nearly to, the end of the first dorsal fin. It possesses nine short finlets behind the dorsal, and eight behind the anal fin. Its colour is dark bluish above, and greyish, tinged and spotted with silvery, below. The tunny is a pelagic fish, but periodically approaches the shore, wandering in large shoals, within well-ascertained areas along the coast. It not infrequently appears in small companies or singly in the English Channel and in the German Ocean, probably in pursuit Tunny. of the shoals of pilchards and herrings on which it feeds. The regularity of its appearance on certain parts of the coasts of the Mediterranean has led to the establishment of a systematic fishery, which has been carried on from the time of the Phoeni- cians to the present day. Immense numbers of tunnies were caught on the Spanish coast and in the Sea of Marmora, where, however, this industry has much declined. The Sardinian tunnies were considered to be of superior excellence. The greatest number is now caught on the north coast of Sicily, the fisheries of this island supplying most of the preserved tunny which is exported to other parts of the world. In ancient times the fish were preserved in salt, and that coming from Sardinia, which was specially esteemed by the Romans, was known as TUNSTALL, C.— TUPPER, SIR CHARLES Salsamentum sardicum. At present preference is given to tunny preserved in oil. Many of the fishes, especially the smaller ones, are consumed fresh. The tunny occurs also in the Pacific and is much sought for by anglers on the coast of southern California, where tuna-fishing has become a fashionable sport; but several other species seem to take its place in the Indo-Pacific ocean. It is one of the largest fishes, attaining to a length of ten ft. and to a weight of more than a thousand pounds. In connexion with the extremely active life of these fishes allusion should be made to the fact, first ascertained in 1839 by John (brother of Sir Humphry) Davy, that the temperature of the blood of a tunny may be considerably higher than that of the surrounding water, a discovery which disposed of the time- honoured division of vertebrate animals into warm-blooded and cold-blooded. The variations and movements of the tunny and albacores were studied with special care by King Carlos of Portugal, who published in 1899 a large illustrated memoir entitled A Pesca do alum no Algarve in 1898 (Lisbon). This memoir is accompanied by excel- lent figures of the different species of Thunnus and charts of their distribution in the Atlantic. TUNSTALL (or TONSTALL), CUTHBERT (1474-1559), English prelate, was an illegitimate son of Thomas Tunstall of Thurland Castle, Lancashire, his legitimate half-brother, Brian Tunstall, being killed at Flodden in 1513. Cuthbert seems to have studied at Oxford, at Cambridge and at Padua, and he became a dis- tinguished scholar, winning favourable comment from Erasmus. Having held several livings in quick succession, he became chan- cellor to William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1511, and he was soon employed on diplomatic business by Henry VIII. and Wolsey, being sent to Brussels in 1515 and to Cologne in 1519, while he was at Worms during the famous Diet of 1521. In 1516 he had been made master of the rolls; in 1521 he became dean of Salisbury, in 1522 bishop of London, and in 1523 keeper of the privy seal. For Henry VIII. he negotiated with Charles V. after his victory at Pa via in 1525 and he helped to arrange the Peace of Cambrai in 1529. In 1530 he succeeded Wolsey as bishop of Durham. Tunstall's religious views now gave some anxiety. He adhered firmly to the traditional teaching of the Church, but after some slight hesitation he accepted Henry as its head and publicly defended this position. In 1537 the bishop was appointed president of the new council of the north, but although he was often engaged in treating with the Scots he found time to take part in other public business and to attend parlia- ment, where in 1 539 he participated in the discussion on the bill of six articles. Although he disliked the religious policy pur- sued by the advisers of Edward VI. and voted against the first act of uniformity in 1549, he continued to discharge his public duties without molestation until after the fall of the protector Somerset; then in May 1551, he was placed in custody. A bill charging him with treason was introduced, but the House of Commons refused to pass it; he was, however, deprived of his bishopric in October 1552. On the accession of Mary in 1553 he was released and was again bishop of Durham, but during this reign he showed no animus against the Protestants. When Elizabeth came to the throne he refused to take the oath of supremacy, and he would not help to consecrate Matthew Parker as archbishop of Canterbury. He was arrested, and was still a prisoner at Lambeth when he died on the i8th of November ISS9- Among Tunstall's writings are De veritate corporis et sanguinis domini nostri Jesu Christi in eucharistia (1554); and De arte supputandi libri quattuor (1522). The bishop's correspondence as president of the council of the north is in the British Museum. TUNSTALL, a market town of Staffordshire, England, on the northern outskirts of the Potteries district, included in the parliamentary borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme, 4 m. N.W. from Stoke-upon-Trent by the North Staffordshire railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 19,492. The town is of modern growth. The Victoria Institute (1889) includes a library and schools of art and science. The neighbourhood is full of collieries, ironworks and potteries. Kidsgrove, Chatterley and Talk-o'-th'- hill are large neighbouring villages; the mines at the last-named were the scene of a terrible explosion in 1866, by which nearly a hundred lives were lost. There are brick and tile works in Tunstall. The town is included in the large parish of Wol- stanton, and in the borough of Stoke-on-Trent (q.v.) under the " Potteries Federation " scheme (1908). TUPIS (Comrades), a tribe and stock of South American Indians of Brazil. They call all other peoples Tapuyas (foreigners). Their original home is believed to have been on the Amazon, and from its mouth they spread far southwards along the Brazilian coast. When hard pressed by the Portuguese they retreated to the Andes. Martius gives the Tupi nation a wide range, from the Atlantic to the Andes, and from Paraguay to the Amazon. Of this stock are the Omaguas, Cocomas and other Peruvian tribes. Latham makes the Tupis members of the Guarani stock. The " Lingoa Geral " or trade language between Portuguese and Amazon Indians is a corruption of the Tupi tongue. TUPPER, SIR CHARLES, BART. (1821- ), British colonial statesman, son of the Rev. Charles Tupper, D.D., was born at Amherst, Nova Scotia, on the 2nd of July 1821, and was educated at Horton Academy. He afterwards studied for the medical profession at Edinburgh University, where he received the diplomas of M.D. and L.R.C.S. In 1855 he was returned to the Nova Scotia Assembly for Cumberland county. In 1862 he was appointed, by act of parliament, governor of Dalhousie College, Halifax; and from 1867 till 1870 he was president of the Canadian Medical Association. Mr Tupper was a member of the executive council and provincial secretary of Nova Scotia from 1857 to 1860, and from 1863 to 1867. He became prime minister of Nova Scotia in 1864, and held that office until the Union Act came into force on the ist of July 1867, when his government retired. He was a delegate to Great Britain on public business from the Nova Scotia government in 1858 and 1865, and from the Dominion government in March 1868. Mr Tupper was leader of the delegation from Nova Scotia to the Union conference at Charlottetown in 1864, and to that of Quebec during the same year; and to the final colonial conference in London, which assembled to complete the terms of union, in 1866-1867. On that occasion he received a patent of rank and precedence from Queen Victoria as an executive councillor of Nova Scotia. He was sworn a member of the privy council of Canada, June 1870, and was president of that body from that date until the ist of July 1872, when he was appointed minister of inland revenue. This office he held until February 1873, when he became minister of customs under Sir John Macdonald, resigning with the ministry at the close of 1873. On Sir John's return to power in 1878, Mr Tupper became minister of public works, and in the following year minister of railways and canals. At this time he was made K.C.M.G. Mr Tupper was the author of the Public Schools Act of Nova Scotia, and had been largely instrumental in moulding the Dominion Confederation Bill and other important measures. Sir Charles represented the county of Cumberland, Nova Scotia, for thirty-two years in succession — first in the Nova Scotia Assembly, and subsequently in the Dominion parliament until 1884, when he resigned his seat on being appointed high commissioner for Canada in London. Shortly before the Canadian Federal elections of February 1887, Sir Charles re-entered the Conservative cabinet as finance minister. By his efforts the Canadian Pacific railway was enabled to float a loan of $30,000,000, on the strength of which the line was finished several years before the expiration of the contract time. He resigned the office of finance minister in May 1888, when he was reappointed high commissioner for the Dominion of Canada in London. Sir Charles was designated one of the British plenipotentiaries to the Fisheries Convention at Washington in 1887, the result of which conference was the signing of a treaty in February 1888 (rejected by the U.S. Senate) for the settlement of the matters in dispute between Canada and the United States in connexion with the Atlantic fisheries. He was created a baronet in September 1888. When the Dominion cabinet, under Sir Mackenzie Bowell, was reconstituted in January 1896 Sir Charles Tupper accepted office, and in the following April he TUPPER, MARTIN F.— TURBOT 411 succeeded Bowell in the premiership. On both patriotic and commercial grounds he urged the adoption of a preferential tariff with Great Britain and the sister colonies. At the general election in the ensuing June the Conservatives were severely defeated, and Sir Charles Tupper and his colleagues resigned, Sir Wilfrid Laurier becoming premier. The Conservative party now gradually became more and more disorganized, and at the next general election, in November 1900, they were again defeated. Sir Charles Tupper, who had long been the Conserva- tive leader, sustained in his own constituency of Cape Breton his first defeat in forty years. TUPPER, MARTIN FARQUHAR (1810-1889), English writer, the author of Proverbial Philosophy, was born in London on the 1 7th of July 1810. He was the son of Martin Tupper, a doctor, who came of an old Huguenot family. He was educated at Charterhouse and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he gained a prize for a theological essay, Gladstone being second to him. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but never practised. He began a long career of authorship in 1832 with Sacra Poesis, and in 1838 he published Geraldine, and other Poems, and for fifty years was fertile in producing both verse and prose; but his name is indissolubly connected with his long series of didactic moralisings in blank verse, the Proverbial Philosophy (1838-1867), which for about twenty-five years enjoyed an extraordinary popularity that has ever since been the cause of persistent satire. The first part was, however, a comparative failure, and N. P. Willis, the American author, took it to be a forgotten work of the 1 7th century. The commonplace character of Tupper's reflections is indubitable, and his blank verse is only prose cut up into suitable lengths; but the Proverbial Philosophy was full of a perfectly genuine moral and religious feeling, and con- tained many apt and striking expressions. By these qualities it appealed to a large and uncritical section of the public. A genial, warm-hearted man, Tupper's humane instincts prompted him to espouse many reforming movements; he was an early supporter of the Volunteer movement, and did much to promote good relations with America. He was also a mechanical inventor in a small way. In 1886 he published My Life as an Author; and on the 29th of November 1889 he died at Albury, Surrey. TURBAN, the name of a particular form of head-dress worn by men of Mahommedan races. The earlier forms of the word in English are lurbant, turband, and tolibant or lulipant, the latter showing that variant of the original which survives in the name of the flower, the tulip. All these forms represent the French adaptation of the Turkish tulbend, a vulgarism for dulbend, from Persian dulband, a sash or scarf wound round the head. The Moslem turban is essentially a scarf of silk, fine linen, cotton or other material folded round the head, some- times, as in Egypt, round the tarbush or close-fitting felt cap; sometimes, as in Afghanistan, round a conical cap; or, as among certain races in India, round the skull-cap or kullah. Races, professions, degrees of rank, and the like vary in the style of turban worn; distinctions being made in size, methods of folding, and colour and the like (see INDIA: Costume). At the end of the i8th and beginning of the ipth century, a species of head- dress somewhat resembling the true turban in outward form was worn by ladies of western nations, chiefly for use indoors. TURBERVILLE (or TURBEEVILE), GEORGE (1540^-1610?), English poet, second son of Nicholas Turberville of Whitchurch, Dorset, belonged to an old Dorsetshire family, the D'Urbervilles of Mr Thomas Hardy's novel, Tess. He became a scholar of Winchester College in 1554, and in 1561 was made a fellow of New College, Oxford. In 1562 he began to study law in London, and gained a reputation, according to Anthony a Wood, as a poet and man of affairs. He accompanied Thomas Randolph in a special mission to Moscow to the court of Ivan the Terrible in 1 568. Of his Poems describing the Places and Manners of the Country and People of Russia (1568) mentioned by Wood, only three metrical letters describing his adventures survive, and these were reprinted in Hakluyt's Voyages (1589). His Epitaphs, Epigrams, Songs and Sonets appeared " newly corrected with additions " in 1567. In the same year he published translations of the Heroycatt Epistles of Ovid, and of the Eglogs of Mantuan (Gianbattista Spagnuoli, called Mantuanus), and in 1568 A Plaine Path to Perfect Vertue from Dominicus Mancinus. The Book of Falconry or Hawking and the Noble Art of Venerie (printed together in 1575) may both be assigned to Turberville. The title page of his Tragical Tales (1587), which are translations from Boccaccio and Bandello, says that the book was written at the time of the author's troubles. What these were is unknown, but Wood says he was living and in high esteem in 1594. He probably died before 161 1. He is a disciple of Wyat and Surrey, whose matter he sometimes appropriated. Much of his verse is sing-song enough, but he disarms criticism by his humble estimate of his own powers. His Epitaphs &c. were reprinted in Alexander Chalmers's English Poets (1810), and by J. P. Collier in 1867. TURBET I HAIDARI, a district of the province of Khorasan in Persia, bounded N. by Meshed, E. by Bakharz, S. by Khaf and W. by Turshiz. It has a population of about 30,000, com- posed chiefly of members of the Turki Karai tribe and Beluchis. The Karais were settled here by Timur in the i4th century and now provide a battalion of infantry and 150 cavalrymen to the army. The district contains about 150 villages and hamlets, most of them situated in its more fertile eastern part, and pays a yearly revenue of £14,000. Much silk was formerly produced, now very little, but there are large crops of grain. TURBET I HAIDARI, the capital of the district, is 76 m. nearly S. of Meshed, in 35° 17' N., 59° n' E., at an elevation of 4100 ft. The town is picturesquely situated on the bank of a deep and wide ravine in the midst of lofty hills, and surrounded by clusters of villages. Its population amounts to 8000 souls. There is a well-stocked bazaar and a number of Russian traders have estab- lished themselves here since 1903, when the place was connected with Meshed on one side and with Seistan on the other side by a telegraph line which, nominally Persian, is worked and main- tained by a Russian staff. A British consul has resided here since 1905, and there is alsoa post-office. The place was formerly known as Zavah and derives its present name from the turbet or tomb of a holy man named Kutb ed din Haidar, the founder of the ascetic sect of dervishes known as the Haidaris. He died c. 1230 and is buried in a large domed building a short distance outside the town. TURBINE (Lat. turbo, a whirlwind, a whirling motion or object, a top), in engineering, a machine which applies the energy of a jet of water or steam to produce the rotation of a shaft. It consists essentially of a wheel or chamber provided with a number of blades or vanes upon which the fluid jet impinges; the impelled fluid causes the blades to rotate and also the shaft to which they are attached. Water turbines are treated under HYDRAULICS, and steam turbines under STEAM ENGINE. TURBOT1 (Rhombus maximus or Psetta maxima), one of the largest and most valuable of the flat-fishes or Pleuronectidae. The turbot, which rarely exceeds a length of two feet, has great width of body, and is scaleless, but is covered with conical bony tubercles. The eyes are on the left side of the body, the lower being slightly in advance of the upper; the mouth is large and armed with teeth of uniformly minute size. The turbot is found all round the coasts of Europe (except in the extreme north)>; pre- ferring a flat sandy bottom with from 10 to 50 fathoms of water. The broad banks off the Dutch coast are a favourite resort. It is a voracious fish, and feeds on other fish, crustaceans and molluscs. It seems to constantly change its abode, wandering northward during the summer, and going into deeper water in the cold season. The eggs of the turbot, like those of the majority of flat-fishes, are pelagic and buoyant. They are small and very numerous, varying from five to ten millions in fish of 18 to 21 Ib weight. The young fish are symmetrical and swim 1 The word " turbot " is of great antiquity, perhaps of Celtic origin • it is preserved in French in the same form as in English, and is composed of two words, of which the second is identical with the " but " in halibut and with the German " Butte, which signifies flat-fish. The German name for the turbot is ' Stembutte. 412 TUREEN— TURENNE vertically like the young of other Pleuronectids, but they reach a much larger size before metamorphosis than species of other genera, specimens from f in. to i in. in length being frequently taken swimming at the surface of the water and not completely converted into the adult condition. Specimens one year old are from 3 to 45 in. long, some perhaps larger. About 1860 it was estimated that the Dutch supplied turbot to the London market to the value of £80,000 a year. In 1900 the total weight of turbot landed on English and Welsh coasts for the year was according to the Board of Trade returns 60,715 cwt. valued at £252,680. The turbot is also common, though not abundant, in the Mediterranean, and is replaced in the Black Sea by an allied species with much larger bony tubercles (Rh. maeoticus). Both species grow to a large size, being usually sold at from 5 to 10 ft; but the common turbot is stated to attain to a weight of 30 K>. TUREEN, a deep dish or bowl, round or oval in shape, and with a cover, made to serve soup at table. The word is a corruption of the more correct " terrine," an earthenware vessel (Med. Lat. terrineus, made of earth, terra). The corruption is due to mis- spelling in early cookery-books, and an absurd story that the name arose from Marshal Turenne once drinking his soup from his helmet was invented to account for it. TURENNE, HENRI DE LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE, VICOMTE DE (1611-1675), marshal of France, second son of Henri, duke of Bouillon and sovereign prince of Sedan, by his second wife Elizabeth, daughter of William the Silent, prince of Orange, was born at Sedan on the nth of September 1611. He was educated in the doctrines of the Reformed religion and received the usual training of a young noble of the time, but physical infirmity, and particularly an impediment of speech (which he never lost), hampered his progress, though he showed a marked partiality for history and geography, and especial admiration of the exploits of Alexander the Great and Caesar. After his father's death in 1623, he devoted himself to bodily exercises and in a great measure overcame his natural weakness. At the age of fourteen he went to learn war in the camp of his uncle, Maurice of Nassau, and began his military career (as a private soldier in that prince's bodyguard) in the Dutch War of Independence. Frederick Henry of Nassau, who succeeded his brother Maurice in 1625, gave Turenne a captaincy in 1626. The young officer took his part in the siege warfare of the period, and won special commendation from his uncle, who was one of the foremost commanders of the time, for his skill and courage at the celebrated siege of Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-Duc) in 1629. In 1630 Turenne left Holland and entered the service of France. This step was dictated not only by the prospect of military advancement but also by his mother's desire to show the loyalty of the Bouillon dominions to the French crown. Cardinal Richelieu at once made him colonel of an infantry regiment. He still continued to serve at frequent intervals with the prince of Orange, who was the ally of France, and his first serious service under the French flag was at the siege of La Motte in Lorraine by Marshal de la Force (1634), where his brilliant courage at the assault won him immediate promotion to the rank of marechal de camp (equivalent to the modern grade of major-general). In 1635 Turenne served under Cardinal de la Valette in Lorraine and on the Rhine. The siege of Mainz was raised but the French army had to fall back on Metz from want of provisions. In the retreat Turenne measured swords with the famous imperialist General Gallas, and distinguished himself greatly by his courage and skill. The reorganized army took the field again in 1636 and captured Saverne (Zabern), at the storming of which place Turenne was seriously wounded. In 1637 he took part in the campaign of Flanders and was present at the capture of Landrecies (July 26) and in the latter part of 1638, under Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar (1608-1639), he directed the assault of Breisach (reputed the strongest fortress on the upper Rhine), which surrendered on the I7th of December. He had now gained a reputation as one of the foremost of the younger generals of France, and Richelieu next employed him in the Italian campaign of 1639-40 under " Cadet la Perle," Henri de Lorraine, count of Harcourt (1601- 1666). On the igth of November 1639 he fought in the famous rearguard action called the battle of the " Route de Quiers," and during the winter revictualled the citadel of Turin, held by the French against the forces of Prince Thomas of Savoy. In 1640 Harcourt saved Casale and besieged Prince Thomas's forces in Turin, which were besieging in their turn another French force in the citadel. The latter held out, while Prince Thomas was forced to surrender on the I7th of September 1640, a fourth army which was investing Harcourt's lines being at the same time forced to retire. The favourable result of these complicated operations was largely due to Turenne, who had by now become a lieutenant-general. He himself com- manded during the campaign of 1641 and took Coni (Cuneo), Ceva and Mondovi. In 1642 he was second in command of the French troops which conquered Roussillon. At this time the conspiracy of Cinq Mars (see FRANCE: History) in which Turenne's elder brother, the duke of Bouillon, was implicated, was discovered. The earlier career of Turenne was markedly influenced by the relations of the principality of Sedan to the French crown; sometimes it was necessary to advance the soldier to conciliate the ducal family, at others the machinations of the latter against Richelieu or Mazarin prevented the king's advisers from giving their full confidence to their general in the field. Moreover his steady adherence to the Protestant religion was a further element of difficulty in Turenne's relations with the ministers. Cardinal Richelieu nevertheless entrusted him with the command in Italy in 1643 under Prince Thomas (who had changed sides in the quarrel). Turenne took Trino in a few weeks, but was recalled to France towards the end of the year. He was made a marshal of France (December 19) and was soon sent to Alsace to reorganize the " Army of Weimar " — the remnant of Duke Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar's troops — which had just been severely defeated at Tuttlingen (November 24-25, 1643). He was at this time thirty-two years of age and had served under four famous commanders. The methodical prince of Orange, the fiery Bernhard, the soldierly Cardinal de la Valette and the stubborn and astute Harcourt had each contributed much to the completeness of Turenne's training, and he took the field in 1644 prepared by genius and education for the responsibilities of high command. The work of reorganization over, Marshal Turenne began the campaign in June by crossing the Rhine at Breisach, but was almost instantly joined by an army under the due d'Enghien (afterwards the great Conde), who, as a prince of the royal house, took the chief command of the united armies of " France " and " Weimar." The four famous campaigns which followed brought to an end the Thirty Years' War (2 (vols. i.-ii., Stockholm, 1905- 1906), Through Asia (2 vols., London, 1898), and Central Asia and Tibet (2 vols., London, 1903). See also H. H. P. Deasy, In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan (London, 1901) ; F. Grenard, in vol. ii. of J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins's Mission Scientifique dans la Haute Asie (1890- 1895, n.p., 1897); Futterer, Durch Asien (Berlin, 1901); N. M. Przhevalsky, From Kulja across the Tian-shan to Lob-nor (Eng. trans., by Delmar Morgan, London, 1879) > G. E. Grum-Grshimailo, Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy Kitai (St Petersburg, 1897-1899); V. I. Roborovsky and P. K. Kozlov, Trudy Ekspeditsiy Imp. Russ. Geog. 426 TURKESTAN— TURKEY ObshcheslvapocentralnoyAsiya, 1893-1895 (St Petersburg, i897,&c.) ; V. I. Roborovsky , Trudy Tibetskoi Ekspeditsiy, 1889-1890 ; K. Bogdan- ovich, Geologicheskiya Isledovaniya v. Vostochnom Turkestane and Trudy Tibetskoy Ekspeditsiy, 1889-1890 (St Petersburg., 1891-1892) ; V A Obruchev, Centralnaya Asiya, Severniy Kitai i Nan-schan, 1802-1804 (2 vols., St Petersburg, 1899-1901); A. N. Kuropatkin, Kashearia (Eng. trans., London, 1883); and P. W. Church, Chinese Turkestan with Caravan and Rifle (London, 1901). For the archaeo- logical discoveries, see the books of Sven Hedin already quoted; M. A. Stein, The Sand-buried Cities of Khotan (London, 1903), and Geographical Journal (London, July and Sept., 1909) ; and D. A. Klements and W. Radlov, Nachrichten -fiber die von der k. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu St Petersburg im Jahre 1898 ausgerilsteten Expedition (St Petersburg, 1899). Consult also books cited under TIAN-SHAN, LOP-NOR, GOBI and KUEN-LUN. Q. T. BE. ; P. A. K.) TURKESTAN, or HAZRET, a town of Russian Turkestan, in the province of Syr-darya, on the railway from Orenburg to Tashkent, from which it lies 165 m. to the N.N.W. Pop. (1897), 11,592. It lies on the right bank of the Syr-darya river, 20 m. from it, at an altitude of 833 ft. It has a very old mosque of the saint Hazret-Yassavi, which attracts many pilgrims. It is an important dep6t for hides, wool and other produce of cattle- breeding. The town was captured by the Russians in 1864. TURKEY. The Turkish or Ottoman Empire comprises Turkey in Europe, Turkey in Asia, and the vilayets of Tripoli and Barca, or Bengazi, in North Africa; and in addition to those provinces under immediate Turkish rule, it embraces also certain tributary states and certain others under foreign administration. Turkey in Europe, occupying the central portion of the Balkan Peninsula, lies between 38° 46' and 42° 50' N. and 19° 20' and 29° 10' E. It is bounded on the N.W. by Montenegro and Bosnia, on the N. by Servia and Bulgaria, on the E. by the Black Sea and the Bosporus, on the S. by the Sea of Marmora, the Dardanelles, the Aegean Sea and Greece, and on the W. by the Ionian and Adriatic Seas. Turkey in Asia, fronting Turkey in Europe to the south-east, and lying between 28° and 41° N. and 25° and 48° E., is bounded on the N. by the Black Sea, on the N.W. by the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles, on the W. by the Aegean Sea, on the E. by Persia and Transcaucasia, and on the S. by Arabia and the Mediterranean. So far as geo- graphical description is concerned, the separate articles on ASIA MINOR, ALBANIA, ARMENIA, and other areas mentioned below — constituting the Turkish Empire — may be consulted. (For maps of Asiatic Turkey , see ARABIA; ARMENIA; ASIA MINOR; PALESTINE; SYRIA.) The possessions of the sultan in Europe now consist of a strip of territory stretching continuously across the Balkan Peninsula from the Bosporus to the Adriatic (29° 10' to 19° 20' E.), and lying in the east mainly between 40° and 42° and in the west between 39° and 43° N. It corresponded roughly to ancient Thrace, Mace- donia with Chalcidice, Epirus and a large part of Illyria, constituting the present administrative divisions of Stambul (Constantinople, including a small strip of the opposite Asiatic coast), Edirne (Adria- nople), Salonica with Kossovo (Macedonia), lannina (parts of Epirus and Thessaly), Shkodra (Scutari or upper Albania). To these must be added the Turkish islands in the Aegean usually reckoned to Europe, that is, Thasos, Samothrace, Imbros and, in the extreme south, Crete or Candia. In December 1898, however, Crete was granted practical independence, under the protection of Great Britain, France, Italy and Russia (see CRETE), and the suzerainty of the sultan is purely nominal. Asiatic Turkey. — The mainstay of the Ottoman dynasty is the Asiatic portion of the empire, where the Mahornmedan religion is absolutely predominant, and where the naturally vigorous and robust Turki race forms in Asia Minor a compact mass of many millions, far outnumbering any other single ethnical element and_ probably equalling all taken collectively. Here also, with the unimportant exception of the islands of Samos and Cyprus and the somewhat privileged district of Lebanon, all the Turkish possessions constitute vilayets directly controlled by the Porte. They comprise the geo- graphically distinct regions of the Anatolian plateau (Asia Minor), the Armenian and Kurdish highlands, the Mesopotamian lowlands, the hilly and partly mountainous territory of Syria and Palestine and the coast lands of west and north-east Arabia. Asiatic Turkey is conterminous on the east with Russia and Persia; in the south- west it encloses on the west, north and north-east the independent part of Arabia. Towards Egypt the frontier is a line drawn from Akaba at the head of the Gulf of Akaba north-westwards to the little port of El Arish on the Mediterranean. Elsewhere Asiatic Turkey enjoys the advantage of a sea frontage, being washed in the north-west and west by the Euxine, Aegean and Mediterranean, in the south-west by the Red Sea, and in the south-east by the Persian Gulf. Turkey's Arabian possessions comprise, besides El-Hasa on the Persian Gulf, the low-lying, hot and insalubrious Tehama and the south-western highlands (vilayets of Hejaz and Yemen) stretching continuously along the east side of the Red Sea, and including the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina. African Territories. — Turkey in Africa has gradually been reduced to Tripoli and Barca. Egypt, though nominally under Turkish suzerainty, has formed a practically independent principality since 1841, and has been de facto under British protection since 1881. Population. — The total population of the Turkish Empire in 1 910, including Egypt and other regions nominally under the sultan's suzerainty, was 36,3 23, 539, averaging 25 to the square mile; in the provinces directly under Turkish government, 25,926,000. The following towns have over 50,000 inhabitants each: Con- stantinople, 1,150,000; Smyrna, 250,000; Bagdad, 145,000; Damas- cus, 145,000; Aleppo, 122,000; Beirut, 118,000; Adrianople, 81,000; Brusa, 76,000; Jerusalem, 56,000; Caesarea Mazaca (Kaisarieh), 72,000; Kerbela, 65,000; Monastir, 53,000; Mosul, 61,000; Mecca, 60,000; Horns, 60,000; Sana, 58,000; Urfa, 55,000; and Marash, 52,000. Race and Religion. — Exact statistics are not available as regards either race or religion. The Osmanlis or Turks (q.v.) are supposed to number some 10 millions, of whom i J million belong to Turkey in Europe. Of the Semitic races the Arabs — over whom, however, the Turkish rule is little more than nominal — number some 7 millions, and in addition to about 300,000 Jews there is a large number of Syrians. Of the Aryan races the Slavs — Serbs, Bulgarians, Pomaks and Cossacks — and the Greeks predominate, the other representatives being chiefly Albanians and Kurds. The proportion borne to one another by the different religions, as estimated in 1910, is: 50% Mussulman, 41 % Ortho- dox, 6% Catholic, 3% all others (Jews, Druses, Nestorians, &c.). In the European provinces about two-thirds of the popu- lation are Christian and one-third Mahornmedan. Full and fairly accurate statistics are available for a considerable portion of Asiatic Turkey. Out of a population of 13,241,000 (1896) in Armenia, Kurdistan and Asia Minor, 10,030,000 were returned as Mahommedans, 1,144,000 as Armenians, 1,818,000 as other Christians, and 249,000 as Jews. There are also about 300,000 Druses and about 200,000 Gipsies. The non-Mussulman popu- lation is divided into millets, or religious communities, which are allowed the free exercise of their religion and the control of their own monasteries, schools and hospitals. The communities now recognized are the Latin (or Catholic), Greek (or Orthodox), Armenian Catholic, Armenian Gregorians, Syrian, and United Chaldee, Maronite, Protestant and Jewish. The table on the following page, for which the writer is indebted to the kindness of Carolidi Effendi, formerly professor of history in the university of Athens, and in 1910 deputy for Smyrna in the Turkish parlia- ment, shows the various races of the Ottoman Empire, the regions which they inhabit, and the religions which they profess. Administration. — Until the revolution of 1908, with a very short interval at the beginning of the reign (1876) of the deposed sultan Abd-ul-Hamid, the government of Turkey had been essen- tially a theocratic absolute monarchy. It was subject to the direct personal control of the sultan, who was himself a temporal autocrat, which he now is not, and the most generally recognized caliph, that is, " successor," of the Prophet, and consequently the spiritual head of by far the greater portion of the Moslem world — as he still is. Owing principally to the fact that the system of the caliph Omar came to be treated as an immutable dogma which was clearly not intended by its originator, and to the peculiar relations which developed therefrom between the Mussulman Turkish conquerors and the peoples (principally Christian) which fell under their sway, no such thing as an Ottoman nation has ever been created. It has been a juxta- position of separate and generally hostile peoples in territories bound under one rule by the military sway of a dominant race. Various endeavours have been made since the time of Selim III. (1789-1807), who initiated them, to break down the barriers to the formation of a homogeneous nation. The most earnest and ADMINISTRATION] TURKEY 427 Races. Regions inhabited.orVilayets. Religions. Albanians . lannina, Scutari of Albania, Mussulman, Kossovo, Monastir Orthodox, Catholic Bulgarians . Salonica, Kossovo, Monastir Orthodox (dis- senting) Servians. Kossovo Orthodox Greeks . Constantinople, Adrianople, Salonica, Monastir, Kos- Orthodox and partly Greco- sovo, Janina, Archipelago. catholic Vilayets of Asiatic Turkey, (Hudavendighiar, Aidin, Konia, Angora, Kastamuni, Trebizond, Sivas, Adana Syria, Aleppo, Sanjak of Jerusalem) Crete Kutzo-Vlachs (See Monastir, lannina Orthodox MACEDONIA) Turks . . . The whole of European Tur- Mussulman key, Vilayets of Asia Minor, (Bitlis, Van, Ma-nuret-ul- Aziz, part of Mosul and cer- tain islands of Vilayet of the . Archipelago, of Cyprus, Crete) Lazes '. Trebizond and throughout Mussulman and the whole of Eastern Asia Orthodox Minor Kurds . . . Erzerum, Sivas,Seert,Angora, Mussulman Mosul Circassians . Spread over the whole of Asia Mussulman Minor Avchar . Adana, Angora, Sivas Mussulman Arabs Adana, Aleppo, Syria, Bagdad, Mussulman Sanjak of Jerusalem, Hejaz, Yemen, Beirut, Basna Armenians . Constantinople and spread Gregorian and over the other Vilayets of Catholic Turkey in Europe; also Sivas, Angora, Trebizond, Adana, Erzerum, Bitlis, Mamuret-ul-Aziz, Mosul, Aleppo, Van Jews Spread through Turkey in Jew Europe and Asia, and large- ly congregated in the San- jak of Jerusalent( and in the Vilayets of Bagdad, Mosul, Syria, Beirut. Samaritans . Only in the Sanjak of Nap- Samaritan Jew luze (Vilayet of Beirut) Gipsies . Spread throughout the whole Mussulman empire Chaldaeans or Bagdad, Mosul and partly Nestorian Nestorians, Aleppo, Beirut and Mamu- Christian speaking partly ret-ul-Aziz Syrochaldaic and partly Arabic (Syro- chaldaic in their churches) Melchites, or Beirut, Aleppo, Syria United Ortho- Syrian Greco- dox Catholics (Greek in feel- ing, speaking Arabic) Jacobite Syrians, Beirut, Syria, Aleppo, Mosul, Monophysite speaking Ara- Mamuret-ul-Aziz and Jacobite bic and partly Syrian (Syrian in their churches) Monites (speak- Mt Lebanon, Beirut Monophysite ing Arabic and (Catholic in their churches monothelite) Syrian) Druses . Mt Lebanon.SanjakofHauran Druse Mendaites or Basra Sabaean: or of Ben-i-Yahya the sect of the son of John the Baptist (Ben-i-Yahya) whom they re- gard as their only prophet. Yezzites . Mosul, Bagdad, Basra Yezzite(Mahom- medan sect) important of these attempts under Abd-ul-Mejid (1839-1861) proved, however, for various reasons abortive. So also did the " Midhat Constitution " promulgated by Abd-ul-Hamid almost immediately after his accession to the throne, owing largely to the reactionary spirit at that time of the ' Ulema and of the sultan's immediate advisers, but almost, if not quite, in equal measure to the scornful reception of the Constitution by the European powers. The 'Ulema form a powerful corporation, whose head, the Sheik-ul-Islam, ranks as a state functionary almost co-equal with the grand vizier. Until quite recent times the conservative and fanatical spirit of the 'Ulema had been one of the greatest obstacles to progress and reform hi a political system in which spiritual and temporal functions were intimately interwoven. Of late years, however, there has been a gradual assimilation of broader views by the leaders of Islam in Turkey, at any rate at Constantinople, and the revolution of 1908, and its affirmation in the spring of 1909, took place not only with their approval, but with their active assistance. The theoretical absolutism of the sultan had, indeed, always been tempered not only by tra- ditional usage, local privilege, the juridical and spiritual precepts of the Koran and the Sunnet, and their 'Ulema interpreters, and the privy council, but for nearly a century by the direct or indirect pressure of the European powers, and during the reigns of Abd-ul-Aziz and of Abd-ul-Hamid by the growing force of public opinion. The enthusiastic spirit of reform which heralded the accession of the latter sultan never altogether died out, and from about the last decade of the igth century has been rapidly and effectively growing in force and in method. The members and sympathizers of the party of reform who styled themselves " Young Turks," working largely from the European centres and from the different points in the Turkish Empire to which the sultan had exiled them for the purpose of repression — their relentless persecution by the sultan thus proving to be his own undoing — spread a powerful propaganda throughout the Turkish Empire against the old regime, in the face of that persecution and of the open and characteristic scepticism, and indeed of the hostile action, of some of the European powers. This movement came to a head in the revolution of 1908. In July of that year the sultan Abd-ul-Hamid capitulated to the Young Turks and restored by Irade (July 24) the constitution which he had granted in December 1876 and suspended on the I4th of February 1878. A reactionary movement started hi April 1909 was promptly suppressed by the Young Turks through the military occupation of Constantinople by Shevket Pasha and the dethronement of Abd-ul-Hamid, who was succeeded by his younger brother Reshad Effendi under the title of Mahommed V. A new constitution, differing from that of Abd-ul-Hainid only in some matters of detail, was promulgated by imperial Irade of the 5th of August 1909. In temporal matters the sultan is a constitutional monarch, advised by a cabinet formed of executive ministers who are the heads of the various departments of state, and who are respon- sible to the elected Turkish parliament. All Turkish subjects, of whatever race or religion, have equal juridical and political rights and obligations, and all discrimination as to military service has been abolished. The sultan remains the spiritual head of Islam, and Islam is the state religion, but it has no other distinctive or theocratic character. The grand vizier (sadr-azam), who is nominated by the sultan, presides ex officio over the privy council (mejliss-i-khass) , which, besides the Sheikh -ul-Islam, comprises the ministers of home and foreign affairs, war, finance, marine, commerce and public works, justice, public instruction and " pious foundations " (evkaf), with the grand master of ordnance and the president of the council ol state. For administrative purposes the immediate possessions of the sultan are divided into vilayets (provinces), which are again subdivided into sanjaks or mutessarifliks (arrondissements), these into kazas (cantons), and the kazas into nahies (parishes or communes). A vali or governor-general, nominated by the sultan, stands at the head of the vilayet, and on him are directly dependent the kaimakams, mutassarifs, deftardars and other administrators of the minor divisions. All these officials unite 428 TURKEY [ARMY in their own persons the judicial and executive functions, under the " Law of the Vilayets," which made its appearance in 1861, and purported, and was really intended by its framers, to confer on the provinces a large measure of self-government, in which both Mussulmans and non-Mussulmans should take part. It really, however, had the effect of centralizing the whole power of the country more absolutely than ever in the sultan's hands, since the Valis were wholly in his undisputed power, while the ex officio official members of the local councils secured a perpetual Mussul- man majority. Under such a system, and the legal protection enjoyed through it by Ottoman functionaries against evil con- sequences of their own misdeeds, corruption was rife throughout the empire. Foreigners settled in the country are specially protected from exactions by the so-called Capitulations (q.v.), in virtue of which they are exempt from the jurisdiction of the local courts and amenable for trial to tribunals presided over by their respective consuls. Cases between foreigners of different nationalities are heard in the court of the defendant, and between foreigners and Turkish subjects in the local courts, at which a consular dragoman attends to see that the trial is conducted according to law. (See further, as regards Turkish administra- tion, the account given under History below, regarding the reforms instituted under the sultan Abd-ul-Mejid in 1839.) Education. — The schools are of two classes: (i) public, under the immediate direction of the state; and (2) private, conducted either by individuals or by the religious communities with the permission of the government, the religious tenets of the non-Mussulman population being thus fully respected. State education is of three degrees: primary, secondary and superior. Primary education is gratuitous and obligatory, and superior education is gratuitous or supported by bursaries. For primary education there are three grades of schools: (l) infant schools, of which there is one in every village; (2) primary schools in the larger villages; (3) superior primary schools. Secondary education is supplied by the grammar school, of which there is one in the capital of every vilayet. For superior education there is (l) the uni- versity of Constantinople, with its four faculties of letters, science, law and medicine; and (2) special schools, including (a) the normal school for training teachers, (b) the civil imperial school, (c) the school of the fine arts and (d) the imperial schools of medicine. Public instruction is much more widely diffused throughout the empire than is commonly supposed. This is due partly to the Christian communities, notably the Maronites and others in Syria, the Anatolian and Rumelian Greeks, and the Armenians of the eastern province and of Constantinople. Under the reformed constitution (Aug. 5, 1909) education is free, and measures have been taken largely to extend and to co-ordinate the education of all " Ottomans," without prejudice to the religious educational rights of the various religious communities. Primary education is obliga- tory. Among the Christians, especially the Armenians, the Greeks of Smyrna and the Syrians of Beirut, it has long embraced a consider- able range of subjects, such as classical Greek, Armenian and Syriac, as well as modern French, Italian and English, modern history, geogra- phy and medicine. Large sums are freely contri- buted for the establish- ment and support of good schools, and the cause of national education is seldom forgotten in the legacies of patriotic Anatolian Greeks. Much educational work has also been done by American colleges, especially in the northern provinces of Asia Minor, in conjunction with Robert College (Constantinople) . Army. — In virtue of the enactments of May 1880, of November 1886, of February 1888 and of December 1903, military service had been obligatory on all Mussulmans, Christians having been excluded but under obligation of paying a " military exoneration tax " of £T§o for 135 males between the ages of 15 and 75. Under the new regime this system, which had greatly cramped the military strength and efficiency of the Ottoman Empire, has been changed, and all " Ottomans " are now subject to military service. Under certain conditions, however, and on payment of a certain exoneration tax, exemption may still be purchased. The revision of the whole military system was undertaken in 1910, especially as regards enrolment and promotion of officers, but, as things then stood, the term of service was twenty years (from the age of 20 to the age of 40), for all Ottoman male subjects: active service (muasaff) nine years, of which three with the colours (nizam), in the case of infantry, four in the case of cavalry and artillery; six and five respectively in the reserve (ikhtiat) ; Landwehr (redif) nine years ; territorial (mustahfiz) two years. In case of supreme necessity all males up to 70 years of age can be called upon to join the colours. There are certain recognized rights to exemption from military service, such as some court officials, state officials, students in normal schools, medicine and law colleges, &c. The redifs form the principal part of the army in time of war, and are divided into two classes: Class I. comprises all men in the service who have completed their time with the nizam. In peace-time it is composed of weak cadres, on which falls the duty of guarding magazines and stores, and of carrying through musketry instruction and drill of the rank and file of the ikhtiat and the redif. Class II. was first established in 1898 under the name of ilaweh, and became "redif, class II." in 1903. This class is distributed in very weak cadres in time of peace. In time of war, it is completed by all troops not serving with the nizam, the redif class I. or the mustahfiz. As the organization proceeded, and stronger cadres were formed, the redif class II. would become completely absorbed in class I. The mustahfiz have no cadres in peace-time. The army is divided into seven army-corps (ordus), each under the command of a field marshal, and the two independent commands of Tripoli (Africa) and the Hejaz. The headquarters of the ordus are I., Cqnstantinople; II., Adrianople; III., Salonica; IV., Erzerum; V., Damascus; VI., Bagdad; VII., Yemen; I5th division, Tripoli; l6th division, Hejaz. Only the first six army-corps have, however, their proper establishment : the seventh ordu and the commands of Tripoli and the Hejaz have only garrison troops, and are fed by drafts from the first six ordus. Each ordu territory, from I. to VI., is composed of 8 redif brigade districts of 2 regimental districts of 4 battalion districts apiece, each ordu thus counting 64 battalion districts. The total strength of the Ottoman army in 1904 was returned at 1,795,350 men all told, made up as follows: (i) Active (4 years' service) 230,408 (called), reserve (ikhtiat) 251,511 (called), total 481,919; (2) nizam (class I., completely trained) 237,026 (called); (3) redif (class II., not completely ti-ained), from 21-29 years old, 585,846; from 30-^38 years old, 391,563; total 977,409 (uncalled) ; (4) mustahfiz, trained 53,715 (called), untrained 40,286 (uncalled), total 94,001. The strength of the different arms is given as follows: — Infantry. — 79 nizam infantry regiments I to 80 (4 is missing), each regiment consisting of four battalions of four companies apiece. Allowing for certain battalions unformed, there are altogether 309 nizam battalions; 20 separate chasseur battalions, of four companies each; 4 special chasseur battalions stationed on the Bulgarian frontier — total, 333 battalions in the first line. There are 96 infantry battalions of redif class I.; each regiment composed of 4 battalions — total 384 battalkms. (In 1904 the 4th battalion of the 94th regiment, and regiments 95 and 96 had not yet been formed, but, it was stated, had by 1910 been made good.) The projected strength of redif class II. was 172 regiments of 4 battalions each — total, 688 battalions. At the end of 1904 the organization of this class was stated as completed in Turkey in Europe at 40 battalions with a total of 160 regiments: how far the organization had pro- gressed in 1910 in Asiatic Turkey was not known. The following table shows the war strength of battalions, and the total war strength of the infantry arm : — Class. War Strength of Battalions. Total War Strength of Infantry. Officers. N.C.O.'s and Men. Draft Animals. Rifles. Officers. N.C.O's and Men. Draft Animals. Rifles. Special Chasseurs . Nizam Redif I Redif II. .. . . . Mustahfiz .... 26 24 24 24 8-15 800 700 900 800 400-600 200 1 06 1 06 1 06 650 650 850 75° 400-600 520 7,896 10,320 16,512 1,760 . 16,000 230,300 337-500 550,400 98,000 4,000 34,874 39-750 72,968 13,000 213,850 318,750 515,000 98,000 The troops are armed principally with Mauser repeating rifles (models 1887 and 1890) of which there are 1,120,000 issued and in store; there are also 510,000 Martini-Henry rifles in reserve. Cavalry. — Cavalry of the Guard: I regiment " Ertogrul " or 5 squadrons, 2 regiments of hussars of 5 squadrons each, and I regiment of lancers of 5 squadrons. Nizam Cavalry: 38 regiments of 5 squadrons each, or 190 squadrons in all. Redif Cavalry. — 12 regiments of 4 squadrons each, or 48 squadrons in all, attached to the first three ordus. It was further proposed to appoint one regiment of redif cavalry to each redif division. On war footing the strength of a squadron of cavalry is 6 officers, 100 men, 80 horses (Ertogrul — 140 men, 135 horses). The nizam cavalry is incorporated with the first six ordus. one cavalry division of 3 brigades of 2 regiments each being appointed to each ordu. The redif cavalry is not organized with large units, and in time of war would be employed as divisional troops. The total war strength of the cavalry is 54 regiments (210 squadrons); 1580 officers, 26,800 men, 21,900 horses. The cavalry is armed with repeating carbines (the N.C.O.'s with repeating revolvers) and swords. Artillery. — From ancient times the artillery has formed an INDUSTRIES] TURKEY 429 altogether independent command in the Turkish army. The grand master of ordnance is co-equal with the minister of war, and his department is classed separately in the budget ; the artillery estab- lishments, parts of the infantry and of the technical corps, and even hospitals are placed under his direct orders. The artillery is divided into (a) field artillery, horse artillery, mountain artillery and howit- zer regiments; (6) fortress artillery, (c) artillery depots. All artillery troops are nizam : there is no second line. On principle an ordu would have with it 30 batteries of field artillery, 3 batteries of horse artillery and 3 batteries of mountain artillery, or in all 36 batteries with 216 guns, all batteries being 6 guns strong. But the unequal strength of the ordus and political and other reasons have prevented this organization from being carried out. On war-footing each field battery has 4 officers, 100-120 N.C. officers and men, 100-125 horses and draught animals, 3-9 ammunition wagons; each horse battery, 4 officers, 120 N.C. officers and men, 100 horses, &c., 3 ammunition wagons ; each mountain battery, 3 officers, 100 N.C. officers and men, 87 horses, &c. ; each howitzer .battery, 4 officers, 120 N.C. officers and men, 100 horses, &c., 3 ammunition wagons. In 1904 the total strength of the artillery was given as 198 field batteries (1188 guns), 18 horse batteries (108 guns), 40 mountain batteries (240 guns) and 12 howitzer batteries (72 guns) : total 268 batteries (1608 guns). The guns are of various Krupp types. The ammunition train counts 1254 wagons. On a war-footing the strength oi the artillery troops is 1032 officers and 29,380 men. Technical Troops. — These are formed into battalions of pioneers, railway troops, telegraph troops, sappers and miners, &c. ; in all 1 1 battalions (55 companies) numbering 245 officers and 10,470 men. Other non-combatant troops, such as military train, medical corps, &c., are undergoing reorganization. (For the history of the Turkish army, see ARMY, § 98.) Navy. — The Turkish sea-power, already decayed owing to a variety of causes (for the effect of the revolt of the Greek islanders see GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF), was shattered by the catas- trophe of Sinope (1853). Abd-ul-Aziz, however, with the aid of British naval officers, succeeded in creating an imposing fleet of ironclads constructed in English and French yards. Sultan Abd-ul- Hamid, on the other hand, pursued a settled policy of reducing the fleet to impotency, owing to his fear that it might turn against him as it had turned against Abd-ul-Aziz. He added, it is true, a few torpedo boats and destroyers, but he promptly had them dismantled on arrival at Constantinople. These now refitted, a cruiser ordered from Cramp's shipyard (America) and another from W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., and the battleship " Messudiyeh " (9100 tons displacement) reconstructed by the firm of Ansaldo (Genoa) in 1902, and re-armed by Vickers, Sons & Maxim, formed the only really effective war-ships at the disposal of Turkey in 1910, although a few armoured ships in addition might still serve for coast defence at a pinch, and a few more for training ships. Taking all into account, the available strength of the fleet might be put at 7 armour-clad ships, of which the " Messu- diyeh " was one, the six others varying in displacement from 2400 to 6400 tons; two cruisers (unarmoured) of 3800 tons displacement; some 18 gunboats; 12 destroyers, 16 first-class torpedo boats and 6 second-class torpedo boats. There were also two Nordenfeldt submarine boats of doubtful efficiency. Up to 1908 the personnel was found by yearly drafts of two to three thousand men from army recruits designated by the minister of war; the term of service was 12 years, of which 5 were in the first line, 3 in the reserve, 4 in the coastguard. The peace cadres (including 2 battalions of marines and 4 battalions of mechanics) were supposed to comprise 12,500 men on peace-footing, to be increased on declara- tion of war to 37,000; but these cadres were mainly on paper. Under the " new regime " the Turkish government displayed commendable energy in reconstructing and reorganizing the sea- power of the empire. New construction to an amount of £Ts ,000,000, repayable over ten years at the rate of £Tsoo,ooo a year by national subscription guaranteed by the government, had by 1910 been voted by parliament. The programme of construction which this initial expenditure was to cover was fixed at two battleships of about 16,000 tons displacement, one armoured cruiser of about 12,000 tons displacement, some few auxiliary vessels (destroyers and gunboats), and a floating dock to lift about 17,000 tons. The main armament of the battleships was to be three pairs of 12-in. guns in three turrets, and three pairs of 9-2-in. in three turrets. The secon- dary armament was to be sixteen 4-in. Q.F. guns, and a few smaller guns (boat and field). The armoured cruiser was to carry four pairs of 9'2-in. guns in four turrets as main armament, and fourteen 4-in. Q.F. guns, and a few boat and field guns as secondary armament. British naval officers were engaged for training the personnel, and to assist in the reorganization of the fleet. Communications. — A considerable hindrance to the development of the empire's resources has been the lack of an adequate system of communications; but although it is still deficient in good roads, much has been done of late years to develop railways, extend canals and improve river communications. From 1250 in 1885, of which 903 were in Europe and 347 in Asia, the mileage of railways had increased to some 4440 in 1909, of which 1377 are in Europe, 1810 in Asia Minor, 418 in Syria and 835 fall to the share of the Hejaz railway, including the Ed-Dera-Haifa branch. The construction of this last line is one of the most remarkable achievements of the reign of Abd-ul-Hamid. It may be said to be an absolutely autocthonous enterprise, no recourse having been had to foreign capital to find the means requisite for construction and equipment, which were provided by means of a " national subscription " — not entirely voluntary — and from other sources which, although the financial methods were not strictly orthodox, were strictly Turkish. The line was designed, surveyed and constructed by Turkish engineers — employing Otto- man navvies and labourers — in a highly efficient and economical manner, the average cost per mile having been £3230, although con- siderable engineering difficulties had to be overcome, especially in the construction of the Haifa branch. The line, stations, sheds and stores are all solidly built, and the rolling stock is sufficient and of the best quality (see further under Finance, below). Production and Industries. — The Ottoman Empire is renowned for its productiveness, but enterprise and skill in utilizing its capabilities are still greatly lacking. For the introduction of im- provements something, however, was done by the creation in 1892 of a special ministry of agriculture, to which is attached the department of mines and forests, formerly under the minister of finance. Since the year named an agricultural bank has been established, which advances money on loan to the peasants on easy terms. Schools of agriculture have been opened in the chief towns of the vilayets, and in connexion with those schools, and elsewhere throughout the empire, model farms have been instituted, where veterinary instruction can also be obtained. To prevent the gradual destruction of the forests by unskilful management and depredations, schools of forestry have been founded, and means have been taken for regulating the cutting of wood and for replanting districts that have been partially denuded. About 21 millions of acres are under wood, of which over 3 millions are in European Turkey. Wheat, maize, oats, barley and rye are the chief agricultural products. The culture of cotton is making rapid progress, immi- grants who receive a grant of land being obliged to devote one-fourth of it to cotton culture. Tobacco is grown all over the empire, the most important market for it being Smyrna. Opium is mainly * grown in Anatolia. All the more common fruit-trees flourish in most districts. In Palestine and elsewhere there is a large orange trade, and Basra, in Turkish Arabia, has the largest export of dates in the world. The vine is largely cultivated both in Europe and Asia, and much Turkish wine is exported to France and Italy for mixing purposes. The chief centres of export are Adrianople (more than half), Constantinople and Smyrna, the others being Brusa, Beirut, Ismid, Mytilene and Salonica. Under the auspices of the Ottoman public debt administration silk culture is also carried on with much success, especially in the vilayets of Brusa and Ismid. In 1888 a school of sericulture was founded by the public debt administration for the rearing of silkworms according to the Pasteur method. The production of salt is also under the direction of the public debt administration. About a fourth of the salt produced is exported to foreign countries, and of this about three-fourths goes to British India. Since 1885 great attention has been paid to the sponge fisheries of Tripoli, the annual value of which is about £30,000. With its extensive sea-coast, and its numerous bays and inlets, Turkey has many excellent fishing-grounds, and the industry, the value of which is estimated at over £200,000 a year, could be greatly developed. Its general progress may be seen in the increase of the fishery revenue—derived from duties, permits, &c. — of the public debt administration. Among other important productions of the Ottoman Empire are sesame, coleseed, castor oil, flax, hemp, aniseed, mohair, saffron, olive oil, gums, scammony and liquorice. Attar of roses is produced in large quantities both in European and Asiatic Turkey, and to aid in furthering the industry numerous rose plants are distributed gratuitously. The empire is rich in minerals, including gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, coal, mercury, borax, emery, zinc; and only capital is needed for success- ful exploitation. The silver, lead and copper mines are mainly worked by British capital. The more special industries of Turkey are tanning, and the manufacture of muslin, velvet, silk, carpets and ornamental weapons. Shipping and Commerce. — The figures obtainable with respect to shipping are approximate, the statistical data not being altogether complete. In 1890-1891 the number of steamers that entered and cleared Turkish ports was 38,601, and of sailing vessels 140,726, the total tonnageof both classesof vessels being 30, 509,861. In 1897-1898 the number of steamers was 39,680 of 32,446,320 tons, the number of sailing vessels being 134,059 of 2,207,137 tons, thus giving a total tonnage of 34,653,457. In 1904-1905 the number of steamers was 49.235 of 44,180,000 tons, and of sailing vessels 133,706, with a ton- nage of 2,506,000 tons, the total tonnage being thus 46,686,000 tons. In 1909 the total tonnage was 43,060,515. About a third of the tonnage belongs to British vessels. The number of steam- ships belonging to Turkey in 1899-1900 was 177 of 55,938 tons, as 430 TURKEY [FINANCE compared with 87 of 46,498 tons in 1897-1898, the number of sailing vessels in the same years being respectively 2205 of 141,055 tons and 1349 of 252,947 tons. The following tables show the total value of exports and imports arranged according to countries of origin or destination for 1905-1906 and 1908-1909; the same information for the year 1905—1906 with respect to the principal ports of the empire, and the tonnage of vessels cleared thereat during the year 1908- 1909 ; and the value of the principal articles imported and exported for the year 1905-1906. Value of Principal Articles Imported and Exported for the year 1905-1006. Nature of Goods. Imports. Exports. Barley L £ 658 462 Rice Opium 944-950 I,AO4,8O'? 639.630 2,065 642 Figs Cotton — 791-473 44.0.628 C4.8.A4.2 Crude Iron and Iron Bars ... Sheepskins and Goatskins . Carpets, &c 432,091 506,353 528,282 A78.QOI Flour 995 165 Cotton Thread French Beans, Chick Peas and Beans Cashmere Cloth Coffee 1,287,243 561,246 8W,^2S 508,441 Madapollam OI6.7IS Ores Wool Woollen Fabrics Eggs Cotton Print (Calico) .... 785,622 2,014,968 486,037 439,066 441,282 Tiftik (Silk-waste) Cocoons Petroleum Sugar 909,735 2,263,928 801,755 970,169 Value of Goods Imported into, and Exported from, together with Number and Tonnage of Vessels cleared at, Principal Ports of Turkish Empire. Table indicating the number of Vessels, Value of the Goods im- (Steamships and Sail- ported into, or exported Boats), and Tonnage, from, Turkey, during cleared at" the follow- Port. the year 1905-1906. ing ports of the Otto- man Empire, in the year 1908-1909. Imports. Exports. Number of Vessels Tonnage. £ £ Constantinople 8,470,095 1,381,432 17,792 16,214,947 Dependencies of Constantinople 673.699 2,453,758 — — Smyrna . 3,724-525 5,722,273 5,888 2,989,863 Beirut. 3,568,437 1,578,691 3,076 1,740,312 Salonica . 3,! 1 1, 957 1,650,552 2,962 1,151,273 Prevesa . 358,586 259,585 — Yemen 603,731 259,553 — — Jidda .... 801,927 26,154 — — Adrianople . 587,653 585,810 — — Bagdad . 1,510,430 777,402 — — Alexandretta 1,669,231 887,326 685 676,137 Tripoli in Africa 565,331 328,164 575 376,214 Trebizond 1,507,771 1,083,515 1,389 776,698 Scutari, Albania. 257,397 135,850 Erzerum . 103,280 96,405 — — Basra. — — — Kavala . . . — — 1,410 283,256 Samsun . — — 1,064 976,803 Tripoli in Syria . — — 1,306 919,222 Jaffa .... — — 1,241 1,210,261 Chios. — — 2,732 915,880 Aivali. — — 1,489 124,804 Dedeagatch l — — 404 50,469 Total . . . 27,514,050 17,256,470 Value of the Goods Imported from or Exported to Principal Countries during the years 11)05-1906 and, 1008-1909. Country of Origin or Destination. Imports from Exports to 1905-1906 1908-1909 1905-1906 1908-1909 Amount % Amount o/ /o Amount °/ /o Amount °/ /o £ 9,641,931 1,162,538 5,715,914 2,145,789 118 643,641 63,324 252,247 865,040 33 1,596,631 697,631 1,821 89-329 524,116 2,341,086 2,928 492-037 812,466 409,727 1,210 54,495 35-05 4-22 20-77 7-79 2-34 0-23 0-92 3-15 5-80 2-54 0-33 1-91 8-51 O-OI 1-79 2-96 1-49 o 0-19 £ 8,256,793 1,697,957 3,574,724 2,150,064 15,588 485,887 105,026 360,446 762,543 2,187,868 1,107,120 2,374 441,050 555,972 2,956,643 6,633 347,287 1,019,952 1,188,981 181,965 47,524 119-738 29-96 6-16 12-96 7-79 0-06 1-77 o-39 1-30 2-76 7-94 4-01 O-OI i -60 2-OI IO-72 0-02 1-26 3-70 4-31 0-66 0-17 0-44 £ 5,552,703 1,076,929 1,874,827 872,641 21,827 57-443 640 431,684 427,998 2OI 520,916 350,876 214 172,220 509,688 4,22O,OO6 24,686 476,829 663,139 32-I8- 6-24 10-87 5-06 0-13 o-33 2-50 2-48 3-02 2-03 0-99 2-96 24-46 0-15 2-76 3-84 £ 4,506,344 1,008,750 2,173,453 883,358 17,332 82,530 3,056 616,951 152,517 504,291 336,663 86,602 220,489 3,187,376 20,228 382,484 1,453,274 498,414 10,319 2,363 27,833 27-86 6-23 13-43 5-46 O-IO 0-51 O-O2 3-8i 0-94 3-13 2-08 0-53 1-36 19-72 O-I2 2-37 8-98 3-09 0-08 O-OI 0-17 Germany Austria-Hungary Italy Spam Persia Switzerland .... United States . . . Belgium Denmark Rumania Japan Holland France Montenegro Greece Egypt Bulgaria Samos Tunis Other Countries . . £27,514,052 IOO-OO £27,572,135 IOO-OO £17,255,467 IOO-OO 16,174,627 IOO-OO The revenues produced by the customs duties for the five years 1905-1906 to 1909-1910 are as follows: — Year. Export Duties. Import Duties. Total. 1905-1906 1906-1907 1907-1908 1908-1909 1909-1910 £ 160,037 151,677 143,210 143,378 162,252 £ 1,928,957 2,260,382 2,704,347 3,138,534 3,533,405 £ 3,088,994 2,412,059 2,847,557 3,281,912 3,695,657 FINANCE Preliminary Sketch. — From the outset of their history the Osmanli Turks adapted to their own needs most of the political, economic and administrative institutions which existed before them. Primarily their system was based on the great principles enunciated by the immediate successors of the Prophet, especially by Omar, involving the absolute distinction between, and impartiality of treatment of, the Mussulman conquerors and the 1 As Dedeagatch is gaming, and will gradually gain, importance, it has been included in this table. FINANCE] TURKEY races which they conquered; and from this point of view a careful study of the financial history of Turkey will afford most valuable insight into the Eastern Question. In reward for the brilliant services rendered him by Ertoghrul (the father of Osman) and by Osman himself, Ala-ud-din, the last of the Seljuk sultans, conferred certain provinces in fief upon these two great warriors. They in their turn distributed the lands so acquired among their sons and principal emirs on strictly feudal principles, the feudatory lands being styled ziamet and timar, a system long continued by their successors in regard to the territories which they conquered. The conquered peoples fell into an inferior caste, made to work for, and to pay for the subsistence of, their conquerors, as under the Arab domination; the principal taxes exacted from them were the kharaj, a tax of indeterminate amount upon realty, based on the value of lands owned by unbe- lievers— (in contradistinction to the tithe [ashar] which was a tax of fixed amount upon lands owned by believers) — and levied in pay- ment of the privilege of gaining means of existence in a Mussulman country, and thejiziye, a compulsory payment, or poll-tax, to which believers were not subjected, in lieu of military service. The conquerors were feudatories of the reigning prince or sultan, and their payments consisted principally in providing fighting forces to make up the armies of the prince. The kharaj, the jiziye, and the whole feudal system disappeared in theory, although its spirit, and indeed in some respects its practice, still exists in fact, during the reforming period initiated by Sultan Selim III., culminating in the Tanzimat-i-Khairiye (1839) of Abd-ul-Mejid, and the Hatt-i- Humayun issued by the same sultan (1856). The administration of the state revenues was managed by a government department known as the Beit-ul-Mal or Maliye, terms generally employed throughout Islamic countries since the commencement of Islam. But the entire financial authority resided in the su'.tan as keeper, by right, of the fortune of his subjects. The public revenues were passed under three principal denominations: (i) the public treasury; (2) the reserve, into which was paid any surplus of revenues over expenses from the treasury ; (3) the private fortune (civil list) of the prince. Expenditure, as under the Seljuk sultans, was defrayed partly in cash, partly in " assignations " (havale). The Osmanh sultans, as also the Mamelukes and the Seljuks, were accustomed to give largesse to their military forces on their accession to the throne, or on special occasions of rejoicing, a custom which still is practised in form, as for instance on the first day of the year, or the birthday of the Prophet (mevltid). Largesse was especially given on the field of victory, and was, moreover, liberally distributed to stifle sedition and mutiny among the troops, the numerical strength of which was continually increased as the empire enlarged its borders. This vicious system, grafted as it was upon an inefficient administration, and added to the weight of a continual'.y depreciated currency, debased both by ill-advised fiscal measures and by public cupidity, formed one of the principal causes of the financial embarrassments which assailed the treasury with ever increasing force in the latter part of the i6th and during the I7th and l8th centuries. The Turkish historian, Kutchi Bey, attributes the origin of the decline of the empire to the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566), when the conversion of many emiriye lands into vakufs was effected, and the system of farming out revenues first introduced. Impoverished by these different causes, as well as by prodigal extravagance in interior expenditure, by shameless venality among the ruling classes, and by continual wars, of which the cost, whether they were successful or not, was enormous, the public treasury was frequently empty. So long as the reserve was available it was drawn upon to supply the void ; but when that also was exhausted recourse was had to expedients, such as the borrowing, or rather seizure, of the vakuf revenues (1622) and the sale of crown properties; then ensued a period of barefaced confiscation, until, to restore public confidence in some measure, state budgets were published at intervals, viz. the partial budget of Ainy-Ali (in 1018 or A. p. 1609), the budget of Ali Aga (in 1064, or 1653) and that of Eyubi Effendi (in 1071, or 1660). At this time (1657-1681) the brilliant administration of the two Kuprilis restored temporary order to Ottoman finance. The budget of Eyubi Effendi is particularly interesting as giving the statement of revenue and expenditure for an average year, whereas the budget of Ainy-Ali was a budget of expenditure only, and even in this respect the budget of Eyubi Effendi is far more detailed and complete. The budget of Ali Aga is almost identical with that of Eyubi Effendi, and is worthy of special note for the conclusions which accompanied it, and which although drawn up 250 years ago, described with striking accuracy some of the very ills from which Turkish finance was suffering throughout the reign of Abd-ul-Hamid. Apart from unimportant modifications, the form of the budget must have remained unchanged until the organic reforms of Selim III., while its complete transformation into European shape dates only from the year 1278 (1862), when Fuad Pasha attached a regular budget to his report on the financial situation of the empire. Since that time there had been no further change worth noting until the "new regime" was established in 1908. Although the publication of the budget had only taken place at very irregular intervals, it must also be observed that the published budgets were by no means accurate. From the time of Eyubi Effendi until the end of the grand vizierate of Ibrahim Pasha (1730), the empire experienced periodical relief from excessive financial distress under the series of remarkable grand viziers who directed the affairs of state during that time, but the recovery was not permanent. Ottoman arms met with almost systematic reverses; both the ordinary and the reserve treasuries were depleted; a proposal to contract a foreign loan (1783) came to nothing, and the public debt (duyun-i-umumiye) was created by the capitalization of certain revenues in the form of interest bearing bonds (sehims) issued to Ottoman subjects against money lent by them to the state (1785). Then came forced loans and debased currency (1788), producing still more acute distress until, in 1791, at the close of the two years' war with Russia, in which the disaster which attended Ottoman arms may be largely ascribed to the penury of the Ottoman treasury, Selim III., the first of the " reforming sultans, " attempted, with but little practical success, to introduce radical reforms into the administrative organiza- tion of his empire. These endeavours were continued with scarcely better result by each of the succeeding sultans up to the time of the Crimean War, and during the whole of the period the financial embarrassment of the empire was extreme. Partial relief was sought in the continual issue of debased currency (beshlik, altilik and their subdivisions), of which the excess of nominal value over intrinsic value ranged between 33 and 97 %, and finally paper money (kaime) which was first issued in 1839, bearing an interest of 8 %, reduced in 1842 to 6%, such interest being paid on notes of 500 piastres, but not on notes of 20 or 10 piastres, which were issued simultaneously. Finally, usage of paper money was restricted to the capital only, and in 1842 this partial reform of the paper currency was followed by a reform of the metallic currency, in the shape of an issue of gold, silver and copper currency of good value. The gold coins issued were 500, 250, 100, 50, and 25 piastres in value, the weight of the loo-piastre piece (Turkish pound), 7-216 grammes, -916! fine. The silver coins were of 20, 10, 5, 2, I and f piastre in value, the 2O-piastre piece weighing 24-055 grammes, -830 fine. The copper money was in pieces of a nominal value of 40, 20, 10, 5 and I paras, 40 paras being equal to I piastre. In 1851 further attempts were made to withdraw the paper money from circulation, but these were interrupted by the Crimean War, and the government was, on the contrary, obliged to issue notes of 20 and 10 piastres. Finally, at the outbreak of the Crimean War Turkey was assisted by her allies to raise a loan of £3,000,000 in London, guaranteed by Great Britain and France; in 1855 an organic law was issued regulating the budget, and in the same year a second guaranteed loan of £5,000,000 was contracted in Great Britain. In 1857 an interior loan of 150,000 purses in bonds (esham-i-mumtaze) , repayable in three years and bearing 8 % interest, was raised ; the term of repayment was, how- ever, prolonged indefinitely. In the same year another series of bonds (hazine tahvili), bearing 6% interest, and repayable in 1861, was issued; in 1861 the term of reimbursement was prolonged until 1875. In 1858 a third loan was contracted in Great Britain for £5,000,000, and thereafter foreign loans followed fast on one another in i860, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 1869, 1872, 1873 and 1875, not to mention the two Egyptian tribute loans raised on Egyptian credic in 1871 and 1877. In 1859 the settlement of palace debts gave rise to the issue of 1,000,000 purses of new interior bonds (esham-i-jedide) spread over a period of three years, repayable in twenty-four years, and bearing interest at 6%. Further 6% bonds, repayable in ten years, and styled sergnis, were issued in the same year. Seeing the rapid increase of the financial burdens of the state, a commission of experts, British, French and Austrian, was charged, (1860) with setting the affairs in order, and with their assistance Fuad Pasha drew up the budget accompanying his celebrated report to the sultan in 1862. Meanwhile kaime was being issued in great quantities (about 60,000 purses a month) and fell toa discount (December 1861) of 75%- In 1862 further sehims were issued, and these and the loan of 1862 (£8,000,000) were devoted to the withdrawal of the kaime. Later, however, the kaime was again issued in very large amounts, and the years succeeding 1872 up to the Russian War (1877) presented a scarcely interrupted course of extravagance and financial disorder, the result of which is described below. The Budget was supposed to be drawn up according to an excellent set of regulations sanctioned by imperial decree, dated the 6th of July 1290 (1875), of which the first article absolutely prohibited the increase, by the smallest sum, of any of the expenses, or the abandon- ment of the least iota of the revenues fixed by the budget. Under these regulations the revenues were divided into two categories, viz. the direct and the indirect. The first category included the " imposts " properly so called, the fixed contributions (redevances fixes) to be paid by the " privileged provinces, " and the military exoneration tax. In the second were comprised tithes, mine-royalties, forests and domains, customs, sheep-tax, tobacco, salt, spirits, stamps and " various. " The expenses were also divided into two categories — (l) " Periodic and fixed " expenditure, which admitted of neither reduction nor delay; and (2) the credits allowed to the various departments of state, which might be increased or diminished according to circumstances. The expenditure of the first category was made up of the service of foreign loans, of the general debt, of the dotations replacing ziamet and timarat (military fiefs) and of fixed contributions such as vakufs. In the second category were 432 TURKEY [FINANCE included the imperial civil list, the departments of the Sheikh-ul- Islamat and of religious establishments, the ministries of the interior, war, finance, public instruction, foreign affairs, marine, commerce (including mines and forests), and public works, and, finally, of the grand master of ordnance. For every province (vilayet) a complete budget of receipts and expenditure was drawn up by its defterdar (keeper of accounts) under the supervision of the vali (governor); this budget was forwarded to the minister of finance, while each state and ministry of department received communica- tion of the items appertaining to it. Each ministry and department then sent in a detailed budget to the Sublime Porte before the end of November of each year. (The Turkish financial year is from the 1st of March to the 28th of February o.s.). The Sublime Porte for- warded these budgets, with its own added thereto, to the minister of finance, who thereupon drew up a general budget of receipts and expenses and addressed it to the Sublime Porte before the 1 5th of December. This was summarily considered by the council of ministers, and then referred to the budget commission, which was to be composed not only of State functionaries, but of private persons " worthy of confidence, and well versed in financial matters, " and which was invested with the fullest powers of investigation and inquiry. The report drawn up by the commission on the results of its labours was submitted to the Council of Ministers, which then finally drew up a general summary of the definitive budget and submitted it by mazbata (memorandum) for the imperial sanction. When this sanction had been accorded the budget was to be published. The remaining regulations set forth the manner in which extra-budgetary and extraordinary expenses were to be dealt with, and the manner in which the rectified budget, showing the actual revenues and expenditure as proved at the close of the year was to be drawn up with the assistance of the state accounts department (divan-i-mouhassebdt). This rectified budget, accom- panied by an explanatory memorandum, was examined by the budget commission and the Council of Ministers, and submitted for the imperial sanction, after receiving which it was ordered that both be published. Special instructions and regulations determined the latitude left to each department in the distribution of the credits accorded to it among its various heads of expenditure, the degree of responsibility of the functionaries within each department and the relations regarding finance and accounts between each department and its dependencies. These regulations provide carefully and well for all contingencies, but unfortunately they were only very partially carried out. It may indeed be said that it was only the previsionary budget (anglicb, the estimates) that received any approximately proper care on the lines laid down, while the rule that both the estimates and the definite budget (at the close of each year) should be published was almost wholly honoured in the breach; until 1909, when the Constitution had been re-established the budget had only twice been published, in 1880 and 1897, since the regulations were put into force. Not only were the budgets not published, but no figures whatever were allowed to transpire in regard to the true position of the Turkish treasury — which laid the accuracy of even the limited number of budgets published open to suspicion. All this has now been changed, and the above regulations are conscientiously carried out with the differences in procedure necessary for compliance with constitutional methods, and with the submission of the Budget to the houses of parliament. The Budget is now published in full detail and that for the year 1326 (1910-1911), with the explanatory memorandum which prefaces it, is an admirable work, mercilessly exposing the financial short- comings and sins of the previous system, or rather want of system, while unshrinkingly facing the difficulties which the present government has inherited. The account thus presented to us of what the previous confusion was, underlines and attests the summary exposition of it given in the last edition of this work. It was there stated that, on the most favourable estimate, the normal deficit of the Turkish treasury was ^2,725,000, (upwards of £T, 1,700,000 below the truth as now declared) and the following observations were appended: — " This budget represents the normal situation of Ottoman finance; it does not tally with the budget published in 1897, which was prepared with a special object in view, and was obviously full of inaccuracies, nor indeed does it agree with figures which could be officially obtained from the Porte. It is, however, compiled from the best sources of information, and it exaggerates nothing. The formidable deficit is met principally in three ways, (i) By leaving the salaries of state officials and the army unpaid. In many parts of the empire the soldiers rarely receive more than eight months pay in the year, although in Constantinople the arrears are not so large. The reverse is the case with the civil officials, whose salaries in the provinces are paid more regularly than in Constantinople, owing to their being charged on the provincial budgets; the average arrears are from two to three months in Constantinople, and from one to three in the provinces. The arrears in civil and military salaries average annually about fTi, 750,000. (2) By means of loans, both public and from individuals. By financial expedients of this kind payments were effected by the treasury in fifteen years (1881-1896) amounting to £Ti 1, 666,000 or at the rate of nearly £T8oo,ooo per annum. (3) By anticipating the revenues of future years. This is the method so frankly condemned by Ali Aga, as was seen above, in 1 653. Delegations (havate) are granted on the provincial treasuries for one or two years in advance, sometimes for a series of years, in order to pay pressing debts too heavy to be met in a single payment. No better description of the financial distress and disorder of the empire can be given than that set forth in the official report of the budget commission of 1888. " It has hitherto been considered necessary owing to financial embarrassment, to commence financial years with unbalanced budgets. Later, without taking into consideration the effective amounts in cash at the disposal of the vilayets, considerable sums were drawn upon them, by means of havales, out of proportion to their capacity. For these reasons, during the last two or three months of the financial year, the vilayets have not a para to remit to the central administration, and it has been considered imperatively necessary to draw on the revenues of the following year. Thus, especially during the last two years, urgent extraordinary expenses have been perforce partially covered by the proceeds of the ordinary revenues, the revenues of 1303 (1887) were already considerably anticipated in the course of 1302 (1886). The former year naturally felt the effect of this, and the tithes which should have been encashed in the last months of the year were discounted and spent several months in advance. Moreover, in order to meet to some extent the deficit arising as well from the accumulation of arrears of state departments since 1300 (1884) as, to a large degree, from gross deficiencies due to the neglect of the civil officials of the government to encash the revenues — to meet, further, the needs of the central administration, and above all, tke urgent military expenses of the empire, and to provide a guarantee for bankers and merchants in business relations with the government and the treasury, part of the revenues of 1304 were perforce spent in J3O3- " This commission proved the deficit of the year to be £^4,370,000. It set out also at length the very defective and dis- orderly condition of the state accounts. During the finance ministry of Agop Pasha (188910 1894) a good deal was done to set matters in order, but most of the ground then gained has since been lost." To this may be added a short extract from the Explanatory Preface to the Finance Bill for the year 1910-1911. After point- ing out the immense difficulties which he had had to encounter owing to the absence of any regular accounts, and above all of any of " those statistics which constitute the soul, indeed the very life of a public administration," and that it was therefore impossible for him to pretend that he had been able to free him- self altogether from the effects of the past, the minister continues, " every time we have endeavoured to have recourse to the previous elements of appreciation, we found ourselves faced by the chaos which characterized former years. We have sometimes ascer- tained things so strange that we cannot forbear expressing our astonishment at the idea that a great power such as ours could maintain itself under such conditions." M. Ch. Laurent, the financial adviser to the Turkish government, stated in a lecture on Turkish Finance, delivered in Paris on the 22nd of April 1910, that the Ministry of Finance has now been largely reorganized. Officials, he says, with grand titles and no responsible duties have been abolished, and departments with responsible chiefs created. The agents of the finance ministry, instead of being mere clerks, are now employed in " the assessment and collection of taxes, the control of expenditure, the preparation and execution of the budget, the estimates of the necessary cash required at different points of the empire — all that, in fine, constitutes the real financial administration of a great empire." Laurent points out that direct taxes furnish 54% of the revenues of the empire, that agriculture is accordingly very heavily taxed, and that the tax on realty is both excessive and unfairly administered. The summary history given above of the origin of the system of taxation prevailing in Turkey explains how this came about. Reform of this system, and, further, very necessary reforms of the methods of collection of the wines and spirits revenue (which is protection turned upside down, the home-growers being far more heavily taxed than im- porters), and of the customs (in which almost every possible administrative sin was exemplified), were also undertaken. Three bills, moreover, were presented to parliament, the first regulating Public Accountancy, the second regulating the Central Accounts Department, and the third the service of the Treasury. By this last the centralization of receipts and FINANCE! TURKEY 433 expenditure and the movement of funds in the provinces were to be confided to the Imperial Ottoman Bank, which extendec and perfected its own organization for the purpose. Passing now to the examination of the budget, it should be ob- served that the method of estimating the revenues — a matter of great difficulty owing to the previous want of method — is described by Laurent as follows: " For every nature of receipts the total effective collections for the five last known years were set out, the averages were taken of these and the increase or decrease of the yearly average of those same years was worked out and added to or deducted from the figure previously obtained. The only exception made to this rule was in the case of revenues showing a yearly increase, such as Post Office revenue, tobacco, salt, for which were taken the figures of 1323 (1907) increased by a certain average." The expenditure was arrived at in the manner previously described — and when the general budget came to be made up the severest pruning was found necessary, the original demands of the various ministries and depart- ments having resulted in a deficit of upwards of £1*9,000,000. It is thought better here, for the sake of clearness, to reserve observations on revenues specially assigned to the international administration of the Ottoman Public Debt, and on the expenditure of that adminis- tration, and to deal with that subject separately, while, however, including the total figures of both in the general figures in order to reproduce exactly the totals shown in the budget of the empire. The principal items of revenue and expenditure are as follows, the figures being taken from the published budget above-mentioned. Revenue. Direct Taxes.1 — The tax on realty (vcrghi) is estimated to yield £Ta, 599,420. Duties on profession (temettu) consist (a) of a fixed duty leviable at rates declared in a schedule forming part of the special law (Dec. 8, 1907) regulating the tax, and (6) of a propor- tional duty at the rate of 3 % on the value of buildings occupied by companies or individuals in the prosecution of their business; of 3 % on salaries (subject to certain deductions) of employe's of such companies and individuals; and on government contractors and revenue farmers, at the rate of 3 % of 10 % of the value of contracts filled and of revenues farmed. The law is defective and unfair in its incidence, and it is not applicable to foreigners. The government promised in 1910 to remedy the law with the assent of the Great Powers, and, if successful in its negotiations, to present an amended law. The duties are estimated to produce £1*393,107; other profes- sional duties £Ti 10,887 — together £1503, 994. A " Military Exonera- tion tax " is levied on male Ottoman subjects between the ages of 15 and 75 to the amount of £1*50 for 135 persons — certain exceptions such as priests, religious orders, &c., are allowed. The estimated revenue from this source is £Tl, 289,612. " Prestations " are pay- ments in lieu of services (apart from military service) to the state, such as maintenance of highways, &c. — in effect, purchase of exonera- tion from forced labour. These duties vary in different parts of the empire: in the vilayets of Constantinople, Bagdad and Adrianople, and in the sanjaksof Bigha and Tchatalja the day's workis calculated at 5 piastres (about nd.); in the vilayets of Aleppo, Trebizond, Angora, lannina, Konia, Sivas and Kastamuni at 4 piastres (about 9d.) ; and in most other parts of the empire at 3 piastres (about 7d.). These taxes were formerly levied either in cash or in kind : it has now been decided to levy them in cash only, although this change was expected to cause some arrears. Allowing for these, the estimated revenue is £1*553,938. The " tax on sheep, camels, buffaloes and hogs" (aghnam, meaning literally "sheep," but for taxing purposes the other animals are included under the same name), formed origi- nally part of the " tithe." It was transformed long since into a fixed amount per head of the animals taxed, which amount varies accord- ing to the region in which the tax is levied, the highest tariff being in the sanjak of Jerusalem (7 "f piastres) and the lowest in the Yemen (i piastre). The estimated receipts are, from sheep £1*1,790,720, from camels and buffaloes £1*144,520, [and from hogs £1*8890, or together £Ti, 814,152. " Tithes" are the direct descendant of the kharaj already alluded to above. It should here be noted that, from the fiscal point of view, the reforms instituted at the commence- ment of the igth century may be summarized thus. In permanent remuneration of certain services to be rendered to the state, the sovereign assigned to civil or military functionaries territorial regions for the purpose, and with the power, of collecting land taxes imposed by Mussulman and Imperial law, i.e. the kharaj or tithe, and transfer and succession duties. The tithes were originally based on one-tenth of the agricultural produce of the country, but this propor- tion was gradually raised under the euphemistic pretence of " public instruction," but really, under financial pressure, to 12 % and again in 1900 for military " equipments " (Tejhizat-i-'Askeriyeh) by a further |% to I2j%. This last surtax, which produces about £190,000 per annum, was specially affected to a loan, known as the Tejhizat-i- Askerieh of 1905," of £1*2,640,000, by virtue of a con- tract between the government and the Deutsche Bank (April 17, 1 It should be noted that the classification of the revenues included respectively under the " direct " and " indirect " categories has now been quite properly changed, the sheep-tax, tithes, mining royalties and forest royalties being comprised under " direct taxes "; stamps and registration duties are placed in a special category, and salt and tobacco under " monopolies." !9°5). The estimated receipts from the " Tithes " (including tobacco and silk, both hypothecated to the Public Debt Administra- tion) are £10,731,107. The remaining taxes under the category direct are the forest-dues (generally speaking 15 % of the value of wood cut), estimated to produce £1*130,094; the mining dues (being a fixed duty of 10 piastres per 10,000 sq. metres of the super- ficial area covering the mine, and a proportional duty varying from i % to 20 % of the gross value of metal contained in the ore, accord- ing to the kind of metal and the method of extraction of the ore), £1*45,141; and tax-papers (Tezkeres), £1*58,434. The total "direct taxes (inclusive of tobacco and silk tithes) are thus estimated to amount to £1*13,725,892. Section II. of the budget is composed entirely of revenues from stamp-duties. Of these, commercial stamps are among the revenues specifically hypothecated to the Public Debt Administration, £14.60,079; the others, consisting of legal stamps of various kinds, registration and transfer-duties, &c., are estimated to produce £T653-373 forming a combined total of £1*1,113,452. Under Section III. fall the " indirect contributions " as now reclassified. The first revenue specified among these in the budget is that accruing from the wine and spirit duties, which is again among those assigned to the Public Debt, £1283,079. Licenses for sale of Tumbeki, a variety of Persian tobacco used for the narghile, £1*2046. By far the most important " indirect " revenue is that produced by the customs, consisting of import, export and transit duties, and various unspecified receipts. Under the old commercial treaties which lapsed about 1890 — but which have been maintained " pro- visionally " in force until one or other of the great powers consents to set a term to the negotiation of fresh treaties — an ad valorem duty of 8 % was imposed on all articles imported into the Turkish empire. In 1905 financial resources had to be found for the special administra- tion of the three European vilayets as insisted upon by the powers, and to this end the Porte initiated negotiations with the latter to increase the import duties by 3%. As is usual in Turkey, this opportunity was seized for the demand of redress of grievances by such powers as considered they had any, and the negotiations were protracted until July 1907, when France finally gave in her adhesion. Since then the import duties have been collected at the rate of II % ad valorem under the supervision of the Public Debt Administration, the bondholders having certain rights, under the decree of Muharem, described below, over any increase of revenue arising from modifica- tion of the commercial treaties. By the provisions of the " Annex Decree," also described below, three-quarters of the additional revenue is assigned to the Turkish government, and one-quarter to the Public Debt Administration to swell the sinking-fund. Fresh negotiations were also undertaken to increase the import- duties by a further 4% in order to balance the deficit shown in the budget. In the year 1910-1911 the import duties were estimated to produce £1*3,980,395, the transit duties £1:20,276, and the export duties (i % ad valorem, which it was hoped the government might soon afford to abolish) £1*168,993 — total customs revenue, £["4,217,752. The remaining " indirect contribu- tions " are port and lighthouse dues, £1*148,426. Sanitary taxes, £1*20,519, and fisheries and sporting licenses affected to the service of the public debt, £1*153,990. The revenues figuring under " indi- rect contributions " thus reach a total of £1*4,825, 812. Monopolies form Section IV. of the budget, and include in the first place the salt revenue (£Tl, 227,750), which is assigned to the Public Debt Administration, and tobacco revenues of which the larger part, £1*865,737, is assigned to the same administration, the total (includ- ing share of Tumbeki profit) producing £1*965,754; the remaining monopolies are: fixed payment from the Tumbeki Company, £140,000; explosives, £1*106,323; seignorage (Mint), £Tlo,466; and posts and telegraphs, £1912,129. The " Monopolies " thus render a total revenue of £1*3,262,424. Section V. includes receipts from commercial and industrial undertakings belonging to the state. These are the Hejaz railway, £1*152,000; the Dolma-Bagtche gas-works, £159,130; technical school, £1*8536; the Tigris and Euphrates steamships, £T62,5i3;and mines (Heraclea coal and other), £Tl2O,7io; forming a combined total of £1402,889. Section VI. iscomposed of receipts from" State Domains "of which a large proportion was formerly included in the civil list. Under the deposed sultan the Civil List Administration had encroached n every direction not only on the revenues properly accruing to the state, but upon private and upon state property in most aarts of the empire. Thus it is explained in the preface to the budget :hat the revenues " proceeding from the deposed sultan " are not classed together under one heading, but that they have been apportioned to the various sections under which they should fall ' whether taxes on house property or property not built upon, tithes, aghnam, forests, mines, cadastre, sport, military equipment, private domains of the state, various receipts, proceeds of sales, •ents " — a truly comprehensive list which by no means set a imit to the private resources of Abd-ul-Hamid II., who looked upon the customs also as a convenient reserve on which he could, and did, draw when his 'privy purse was short of money. Apart from the sources of revenue specified above, of which the amounts actually transferred from the civil list are not stated, Section VI. s estimated to produce £1*513,651. In the previous budget there 434 TURKEY [FINANCE had been a special heading, " Proceeds of Domains transferred from the Civil List," estimated to produce £7620,233, which may have been intended to include all the various receipts above enumerated. Section VII., formed of the tributes of dependencies of which the two principal are the Egyptian, ^765,000, and that of Cyprus £Tl02 1590 (assigned to the public, debt) comprises a total revenue of ?T87 1 ,3 16. Finally, various receipts of which the principal separately specified are government share of railway receipts (Oriental railways and Smyrna-Cassaba railway), £T2Oi,7io, and "subscriptions for the Hejaz railway, £1264,600, form Section VIII. The total revenues of the empire are thus estimated to produce £125,848,332, and seeing the careful and moderate manner in which the estimates have been framed, this may be looked upon rather as a minimum than a maximum. The minister of finance stated in his budget speech to parliament, delivered on the 23rd of April 1910, that the revenues for the year 1909-1910, which had been estimated to produce ^25,000,000, had as a matter of fact produced £T26, 500,000. Expenditure. Ministry of Finance. — The first item of expendi- ture shown in the budget is the service of the public debt, amount- ing to £T8,288,394. The Public Debt Administration plays so considerable a part in the finances of the Ottoman Empire, and its history is of such importance that a special section of this article will be devoted to it below. Under the budgetary heading " Public Debt " is included, as it should be, all expenditure in connexion not only with the public debt proper, but also with advances from banks and others, railway guarantees, an account of which will also be found below, and all capitalized liabilities, as far as known, contracted by the state. It is explained in the preface to the budget that one of the abuses of the previous regime had been to obtain advances from credit establishments at high rates of interest varying from 7 % to 9 %, when it was found impossible to issue a public loan. The rates on these advances have now been generally reduced to 6 % with the exception of that on the advances from the lighthouse administra- tion, which refused to allow any reduction below 7 %. In the years 1908-1909 the advances were reduced by £T688,ooo, in addition to repayments allowed for in the budget, and the credit agreed for the year 1909-1910 is £T663,ooo, as compared with £Ti, 160,000 for the previous year. In the year 1910-1911 the outstanding advances were to be so far paid off that the credits to be opened under this head would be still further reduced by £Tsoo,ooo. The civil list has been reduced to the definite amount of £1443,880, wh'.ch, without the consent of parliament, cannot be increased. The sultan receives an annual allocation for himself and household of £T240,ooo, the crown prince one of £124,000, and a sum of £Tl53,ooo is assigned to the Imperial princes and the sultanas. The deposed sultan was allowed £Tl2,ooo a year, and a similar amount was set aside to provide dowries for two sultanas who were just about to be married. The debts of the former are stated in the preface to the budget to be very large, and as payments are effected fresh creditors present themselves with undeniable vouchers in their hands, causing much embarrassment to the minister of finance: no figures, however, are given. The Finance Bill provides that these debts are to be paid out of supplementary credits. Under the reformed constitution every senator is entitled to a salary of £Tloo per month, any remuneration which he may receive from the government for other services to be deducted from the senatorial allowance which, however, it may of course exceed. Deputies are allowed £T3OO for each session of parliament, and £Tso per month in addition should the session exceed its legal duration. They are further allowed travelling expenses from and to their constituencies on the basis of rules governing journeys of function- aries receiving a monthly salary of £Tso. The amount reserved in the budget for these purposes is £Ti8i,87l. The ministry of finance absorbs ^2,989,600. In this are in- cluded the expenses of the administration of both the central and provincial departments of the finance ministry, the mint, charitable allowances, expenses and presents in connexion with the holy cities (£Ti2i,4io), pension funds of state officials (£T628,O38), administrative allowance made to the agricultural bank (£T225,38o) and various other expenses. Various administrative reforms were in hand in 1910-191 1 , by which it was expected considerably to reduce the credits demanded by the finance ministry-^-especially those in connexion with the holy cities. Special attention was called by the minister to the fact that the system of contributions of officials to the pension funds has been modified, the deduction from salaries being now IO % instead of 5 %, and the contributions to the funds being made as to one-third by the treasury, and two-thirds by the officials, instead of the reverse as formerly: the economy effected is about £T3Oo,ooo. A credit of £Ti7,i24 is allowed for the central accounts department. The total credits for the ministry ol finance are, then, as follows: Ottoman public debt, £T8,288,394- House of Osman, £T443,88o; legislative corps, £T 181,871; treasury, £T2,989,6oo; central accounts department, £Ti7,i24; forming an aggregate of £Ti 1,920,869. Indirect contributions, or more familiarly customs, are allowed credit of £"1512,670. The minister of finance points out the immense importance of the thorough reorganization of the customs administration. The services of a first-rate English expert (Mr R. F. Crawford) were obtained, and much has been done at Constan- tinople, but the provincial custom's offices are still lamentably defective. These were immediately to be taken in hand, and considerable sums are being voted for repairs of existing customs buildings and the construction of new buildings. The reforms already accomplished have resulted in a marked increase in the customs revenues. Posts and telegraphs, which absorbed a credit of ^782,839 in 1910-191 1, have also long been in urgent need of extension and better administration. An additional credit of £T9O,ooo was granted, as compared with the previous year, and increased expenditure was foreshadowed for the future; on the other hand, it was confidently expected that the post office receipts would increase in far more rapid ratio than the expenditure. The ministry of the interior was estimated te require £Ti,i57,23O. This sum covered " immigration expenses," i.e. assistance given in settling Mussulmans immigrating from provinces detached from the Ottoman Empire. There can be no doubt that this expenditure is remunerative, since many rich regions of Asia Minor have long suffered from want of population. Military expenditure, including the three departments of war, is as follows: the army (excluding artillery), £T8,28o,452; ordnance, £7356,439; and gendarmerie, £71,694,778. As regards the first of these, it is curious to observe that the budget decree of 1880 strin- gently limited the peace strength of the Ottoman army to 100,000 men, " including officers and generals," in order to put a stop to the rapidly increasing military expenditure; but this was merely the expression of a pious wish, at a time when European financial good will was indispensable, that expenditure might be kept down. No real attempt has ever been made to observe the decree, and indeed observance has been impossible seeing the dangers which never cease to menace the empire. To some extent the real level of military expenditure has been masked by the separation of certain payments into "extraordinary" expenditure, a course which, it is understood, has not been followed in the budgets of the " new regime," and which will not be revived. It should however, be remarked that out of an "extraordinary" budget, which will be mentioned below, sums of ^709,305 and of £T27,827 were allocated to the ministry of war and the ordnance department respectively in 1909. It is not expected that military expenditure can be much reduced, except in the direction of supply contracts, which have been the cause in the past of iniquitous waste of means. The official budget shows a credit for admiralty expenditure of £Tl ,000,327, which is apparently less than that for the previous year by some £T22O,ooo. This, however, is not a real decrease, salaries of functionaries not on the active list having been removed to the region of supplementary credits, as are those of civil departments. As a matter of fact, the marine budgets of the two years are almost identical. The vote of £Tsoo,ooo a year for ten years for the; re- construction of the Ottoman navy by " national subscription," as already mentioned, was not included in the official budget, nor was there any allusion to it in the prefatory memorandum. The minister of finance did, however, allude to it in his budget speech, (April 23, 1910), and stated that four destroyers purchased in Germany had been paid for from the national subscription only, without touching the ordinary state revenues. It should be added that the Greek War (1897) revealed to the sultan the decrepit state into which the Ottoman navy had fallen, and considerable " extra- ordinary " expenditure — much of which was wasted — has been incurred since (and including) 1902 to put the least out-of-date warships into a serviceable condition. The ministry of commerce and of public works absorbed £T883,i6l a reduction of some £T 180,000 on the previous year. The govern- ment acknowledges the unavoidable necessity of greatly extending and improving the internal communications of the country, but cannot see its way to doing so satisfactorily out of the ordinary resources of the country. This question was being seriously studied, and it was hoped that a comprehensive scheme would be presented ere long. The Hejaz railway figures in the budget for £T55O,i8o, and it is explained that this will not only cover working expenses, but also the final completion of the line. Floating Debt. — This is really an accretion of undetermined liabilities which has been indefinitely, and probably alternately, advancing and receding for a great number of years, and which no previous minister of finance, or Turkish government, had the courage to face. Now and then it has been dealt with piecemeal, when some particular class of creditors has become too pressing, but it is more than probable that the piece got rid of has been more or less rapidly replaced by fresh liabilities occasioned by budgetary deficits, or by the mere accumulation of interest on debts allowed to run on. FINANCE] In March 1897 the floating debt was calculated by a financial authority in the Fortnightly Review to amount to upwards of £T55,ooo,ooo, which might be compressed to £T25,opo,ooo since a large proportion was certainly composed of salaries in arrear and other items of a similar kind which the government would never, under any circumstances, make good. Laurent tells us that the present government having found it absolutely impossible to arrive at even an approximate estimate of this " occult debt," recourse was had, in order to fix it, to the creditors themselves, and a short act of parliament was passed declaring all debts prescribed which should not be claimed by a fixed date. In consequence of this 560,000 claims were received, and a first examination showed that the aggre- gate amount reached by these claims was not less than £Tl3, 000,000. Considering the dilatory methods of Orientals, even when they are creditors, it is doubtful whether this sum adequately covers the whole of the claims outstanding, and it may be found difficult, even for a parliament, to refuse claims which should equitably be admitted and which may be preferred later. High authority in Constanti- nople put the true amount of the floating debt in 1910-1911 at the amount previously estimated, viz. £T25,ooo,oop. No provision was then made in the budget to meet these liabilities, nor did the minister in his prefatory memorandum make any allusion to them ; in his budget speech, however, he announced that a scheme for dealing with them would be presented with the budget for 1911-1912. Under the heading " Floating Debt " in the budget for 1910-1911 are placed the advances before described. No other items in the budget call for special remark, but in order that the information given may be complete, each head of expenditure is shown separately below, and the budget for 1910- 1911, as first placed before the Turkish parliament, presents the following picture, from which it may be observed that the public debt absorbs 26% of the revenue, war service 38% and civil services 36 %. Expenditure. Revenue. (See above for details of general headings here given.) £T Direct contribu- tions " . . . _ . 13,725,892 Stamps and regis- tration duties . . 1,113,452 Indirect contribu- TURKEY 435 Public debt . . . 8,288,395 Civil list .... 443,880 Legislative corps .. 181,870 Finance . . . 2,989,600 Accounts (central) . 17.124 Customs .... 512,670 Posts and telegraphs 782,840 Cadastre . . . 109,820 Grand vizierate . . 25,096 Council of state . . 33,050 . Interior .... 1,157,230 ' Public security . . 400,405 Foreign affairs . . 213,400 War 8,280,453 Ordnance .... 356,440 Gendarmerie . . . 1,694,778 Marine .... 1,000,328 Sheikh-ul-Islamat . 483,341 Justice .... 751.580 Public instruction . 744,086 Forests, mines and agriculture . . 370,520 Public works and commerce . . . 883,160 Hejaz railway . . 550,180 Total . . £730,270,246 tions .... Monopolies . State undertakings, 4,825,812 3,262,424 commercial industrial . Domains . Tributes . Various receipts Total . Deficit and 402,889 513,651 871,316 . 1,132,896 £T25,848,332 ^4,421,914 Total . . ^30,270,246 This deficit was increased, by the action of parliament, to £79,678,000. Almost immediately after the budget was drawn up a change of government took place, and largely owing to this fact the parliamentary budget commission introduced various modifications on the expenditure side of the account, which increased the estimated deficit to the account just mentioned.1 The principal increase is due to the war departments, according to the budget speech of the minister of finance (April 23, 1910), although he states that some 1 On the 25th of June 1910 the chamber finally passed the budget for 1910-1911. The figures were as follows: — Ordinary expenditure, ^32,997,000; extraordinary expenditure, £T2, 696,000; revenue £T26,oi 5,000, leaving a deficit of £^9,678,000, which was brought up to over £T 10,500,000 by special credits for the pension fund, the payment of debts incurred by Abd- ul-Hamid and indemnities to officials. On the other hand, the minister of finance reckoned that the revenue would probably show an increase of £Ti, 500,000, while about £T2,ooo,ooo of expenditure would remain undisbursed, which, with a reserve of £T2,ooo,ooo from 1909, would reduce the deficit to roughly £T5,ooo,ooo. increase is apparent in all departments. The actual figures of the increase are not, however, given. Exaggerated importance must not be attributed to the swollen deficit. The demands of the various departments of state had been much cut down, and according to the minister of finance's own statement much of the reduction was merely unavoidable expenditure deferred ; the fact that some of this expen- diture, which had been jealously scrutinized, was to be undertaken at once, meant that demands on future years would be relatively re- duced. A loan of £T7,O4O,ooo was arranged with a German group headed by the Deutsche Bank. This loan followed upon one of £T4,7OO,ooo in 1 908, and another of £T7,ooo,ooo in 1909 (of which the service is provided by the revenues assigned to the Russian War in- demnities amounting to £T35O,ooo per annum, of which payment has been deferred for forty years), the year 1909 having shown a realized deficit of about that amount — a condition of affairs which would appear alarming were it not that the Turkish Empire was passing through absolutely abnormal times, and was attempting to convert the unstable morass of disorder, ineptitude and corruption left by the previous system into a solid foundation for good and orderly constitutional government. With the two previous loans abo\e mentioned, £"15,500,000 capital liabilities were paid off, the work of reorganization had made considerable progress, and £T2,ooo,ooo remained in hand at the beginning of 1910-1911 to continue it. As before stated reorganization was quickly followed by a marked increase of revenue, and it seemed probable that the forecast of the minister of finance that within a comparatively short time that increase would amount to £T§,ooo,ooo was not excessive. Nego- tiations were undertaken to increase the customs import duties by a further additional 4%. This measure would produce about £Tl, 250,000 per annum. Further expenditure was voted in the course of 1909, to be met by an extraordinary budget. On the receipts side of this budget were comprised the Austrian indemnity for the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (£T2, 500,000), cash and securities belonging to the deposed sultan (£T 1,600,000), sale of old guns (£T3oo,ooo), sale of lands and other property recovered from civil list encroachments (£T9o8,ooo), and finally the unexpected balance of the proceeds of the 1908 loan (£T655,ooo), the whole forming an aggregate total of £T5,963,ooo. It was intended to assign to the war department £T3, 804,918, to the grand master of ordnance £T358,io8, to the admiralty £1*93,912, and to the ministry of finance £T2,443,2O2 for the payment of the war indemnities in Thessaly and other urgent liabilities, the estimated aggregate extraordinary expenditure thus amounting to £T6,7OO,I4O. Some of the assets above mentioned proved, however, not to be easily realizable. Ready buyers were not found for the state lands, and the sale of the ex-sultan's securities was disputed by the German Reichsbank with which they were deposited, while the government did not consider it good policy to sell the Anatolian railway shares, which it seized at Yildiz, so that only £T45O,ooo were encashed by the ministry of finance from these sources. Of the sums really received the ministry of finance expended some £T3,ooo,ooo, in payment of the Greek indemnity, in repayment of £Tl, 000,000 of advances to tht treasury and by assigning the credit voted to the ordnance department, and it was stated that these payments exhausted the extraordinary resources so far as it has been possible to realize them. Collection of Taxes. — The Ottoman Empire possesses a very com- plete system of local self-government within certain limits. Every village or town district has a kind of mayor (mukhtar) appointed by election and approved by the official provincial authorities, and a " council of ancients" whose members are elected directly. The taxes are collected by means of the mukhtars, termed for this purpose kabz-i-mal (receiver of treasure), and under the supervision of gen- darmes specially named, termed tahsildar (collectors). The official authorities provide lists of all the taxes to be collected to the tahsil- dars, who hand them, against formal receipt, to the kabz-i-mals. The latter are bound to pay in to the local authorities all sums collected in five days in town districts, and in fifteen days in villages, if under 1500 piastres; sums of 1500 piastres and over are paid in at once. The tahsildars check the accounts of the kabz-i-mals, and, if they discover peculation, send them at once to be dealt with by the chief official authorities of the caza (department) ; all the electors of a mukhtar are, ipso facto, joint sureties for him. If the tax-payer declines to pay his due, he is brought before the proper authorities by the tahsildar; if he persists in his refusal, all his goods, except those indispensable for his dwelling and the pursuit of his trade, are sold by auction, without recourse to a judgment by tribunal. If he has no goods which may be seized, he may be summarily imprisoned for a term not exceeding 91 days: two imprisonments for the same debt are not permitted. The military exemption tax is not collected as above, but by the spiritual chiefs of the various religious communities. None of the above regulations apply to Constanti- nople, where no military exemption tax is imposed, and where sepa- rate official regulations for the collection of taxes are in force. The system of farming put the revenues is admitted, and is almost invariably followed in the case of the tithes. When this is done, the revenues to be farmed are put up to public auction and sold to the highest bidder, provided he can prove himself amply solvent and produce sufficient sureties. Elaborate regulations are in force for this method of collection to secure the state receiving its full due TURKEY FINANCE from the farmers, who, on the other hand, are entitled to full official assistance to enforce their rights. Assessment of Taxes. — For the purposes of assessment the taxes may be divided roughly into two classes: (l) variable taxes; (2) non- variable taxes. Under the first head would be included proportional taxes dependent upon the value of the property taxed; under the second, taxes whose amount does not depend upon that value. The first class contains such revenues as the emlak verghi-si (duty on realty), 'ashar (tithes), temettu (professional tax), &c. In all such cases the taxable values are fixed by a commission of experts, some- times chosen by the tax-payers themselves, sometimes by the official authorities; in all cases both tax-payers and authorities are repre- sented on the commissions, whose decisions may be appealed against, in last resort, to the council of state at Constantinople, whose deci- sion is final. Revenues composing the second class such as the tapu (registration tax) do not vary, unless by special decree, and the assessment is automatic. The systems, both of assessment and collection, were equitable and far from oppressive in theory. In practice they left almost everything to be desired. The officials, already too numerous and underpaid, frequently, as has been stated above, found such pay as they had far in arrear. They were therefore naturally open to bribery and corruption, with the result that, while the rich often got off almost scot free, the poor were unduly taxed, and often cruelly oppressed by the tax collectors and farmers of revenue. In all departments there ensued, thus, an alarming leakage of revenue, amounting, it was credibly estimated, to quite 40%. The new government energetically proceeded to remedy this state of affairs. International Administration of the Ottoman Debt. — In conse- quence of the piling up of the exterior public debt as described above, it amounted after the issue of " general debt " in 1875 to £Ti90,75o,ooo, and swallowed up annually upwards of £Tio,ooo,ooo, or nearly half the revenue of the empire as it was then constituted. The revolt of various disaffected provinces brought matters to a climax; in September 1875 one-half of the service of the interest was suspended, paper certificates known as " Ramazans " (since they were issued in the Arabic month of that name) being issued for that half in lieu of cash, and in the following March it was suspended altogether. After the war with Russia, in order to obtain credit from the Imperial Ottoman Bank and local financiers, who refused any further accommoda- tion unless their previous and further advances were amply secured, revenues known as the " six indirect contributions " were handed over to a committee of local bankers (by decree of Nov. 22, 1879), to be administered and collected directly by them. These " six indirect contributions " were the revenues from tobacco, salt, wines and spirits, stamps (com- mercial), certain specified fisheries, and the silk tithe in specified provinces. Two years later, partly in view of the recommenda- tions of the Congress of Berlin, partly to overcome insuperable difficulties in obtaining any kind of credit, the sultan authorized the Sublime Porte to issue an invitation to the various bond- holders' committees in Europe to send delegates to Constanti- nople for the purpose of negotiating a resumption of payments. These " committees " were the " Council of Foreign Bondholders " for Great Britain, the Imperial Ottoman Bank and its " group " for France, Herr S. Bleichroder for Berlin, the Credit-Anstalt and its " group " for Austria-Hungary, and the Chamber of Commerce and of Arts of Rome for Italy. The Dutch bondholders placed their interests in the hands of the British council. Russia declined to countenance the negotiations in any way. Delegates from the various committees assembled in Constantinople in the early summer of 1881. The commission formed by them in conjunction with the delegates of the Sublime Porte is more generally known as the " Valfrey-Bourke commission," from the leading parts played by the Right Hon. R. Bourke (Lord Conne- mara), the British delegate, and M. Valfrey, the French delegate. The outcome of the negotiations was the issue of an imperial decree, known as the " Decree of Muharrem," owing to its bearing the date (Turkish style) of the 28th of Muhar- rem (Dec. 20) 1881. By this decree the outstanding capital of the exterior debt, to which were added the Ramazan certifi- cates above mentioned, and all interest fallen due, making a grand total of £252,800,000, was scaled down to £106,437,234 (£Ti 17,080,958). On this reduced capital a minimum interest of i % was to be paid, the rate of interest to be increased by quarters per cent, as the revenues set aside for the service of the reduced debt permitted. For purposes of sinking fund the old loans were combined into four groups:1 group i. containing the 1858 and 1862 loans, with a reduced nominal capital of ^7,902,259; group ii. the 1860, 1863, 1864 and 1872 loans, with a reduced nominal capital of ^11,265,153; group iii. the 1865, 1869 and 1873 loans, with a reduced nominal capital of £1*33,915,762, and group iv. the " general debt," of which the last issue was in 1875, with a reduced nominal capital of ^48,365, 236, and the " lottery bonds " (railway loan), with a reduced nominal capital of £Ti 5,632, 548, the total of group iv. being thus ^63,997,784. As security for the service of the new reduced debt it was provided that an international council should be formed, composed of one delegate each from the bondholders of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Turkey, and one representing the " priority bondholders," a term which will be explained later. On this council the Turkish government has the right of naming an imperial commissioner with " consul- tative voice," i.e. no voting power, but the right to express his opinion on the proceedings of the council, who would make all reports he considered necessary to his government. The govern- ment was empowered also to name controllers to whom all the accounts of the administration should be open for inspection on demand. In all other respects the council, provided that it kept within the limits of the laws the administration of which was entrusted to it, was to be entirely independent of the Ottoman government, free to appoint and dismiss its own officials from highest to lowest, and to carry on its administration on such lines as it thought best. Proposals made by the council for the modifi- cation and improvement of the existing laws and regulations which concerned it were to receive an answer from the govern- ment within six months; this provision has remained a dead letter. Any difference between the government and the council, if not possible of adjustment, was to be settled by arbitration. To this council, with these extended powers, was handed over the absolute administration, collection and control of the " six indirect contributions " above enumerated, for the benefit of the bond- holders, and in addition, it was to encash for the same purpose bills on the customs, to be drawn half-yearly in its favour by the minister of finance, amounting annually to £Tl8o,ooo, representing the tax on Tumbeki (£T.so,ooo) and the surplus revenue of Cyprus (£Tl30,ooo) ; and the Eastern Rumelian annuity, originally fixed at £T245,ooo, but gradually reduced by force of circumstances, until after frequent suspensions of payment it reached in 1897 the level of £Ti 14,000, and has, since the declaration of Bulgarian indepen- dence, been definitely stopped. In order to assist the young king- dom of Bulgaria, which could only with great difficulty and with much damage to its resources have found means to indemnify Turkey for this serious breach of treaty engagements, the Russian government intervened, and proposed as compensation to the Turkish govern- ment the deferment for forty years of the annual payment (£T35O,ooo) of the 1877 war indemnity. This proposal was accepted by the Turkish government, which undertook to continue the annual payment of £Ti 14,000 to the public debt administration until the extinction of the debt. The public debt council consented with good grace, although the minister of finance, by omitting to consult that council during the progress of negotiations, lost sight of the fact that a sum of £^87,823 was due to the public debt administra- tion on account of arrears of the Eastern Rumelian annuity up to December 1887, and that a further sum of £T43O,74I was due by the Bulgarian to the Turkish government itself in compensation for the Rustchuk- Varna railway under the Treaty of Berlin. As pointed out by Sir Adam Block, the representative of the British and Dutch bondholders, in his report for 1908-1009, the above arrangement would have been prejudicial to the bondholders had the public debt not been " unified " (as described below) since, however, as a result of that unification, the ceded revenues now produced a sum more than sufficient for the service of the debt, it was only the surplus of revenue reverting to the government which was affected. There were further handed over, under the Muharrem decree, to the public debt council, the tribute of Bulgaria, the amount of which has never even been fixed, but as compensation for which the tobacco tithe up to a yearly amount of £T 100,000 was ceded to the council in the same conditions as the " six indirect contributions ; the proportional shares (generally known as the " contributive 1 For simplicity's sake, the lottery bonds having a special treat- ment different from that of the rest of the loans, these groups, when the new bonds of the reduced debt were exchanged against the old bonds of the original loans, became " series " thus : Series A, group i. ; series B, group 11. ; series C, group iii. ; series P, group iv. and lottery bonds. FINANCE] TURKEY 437 parts ") of the Ottoman public debt to be borne by Bulgaria, Servia, Greece and. Montenegro, which according to the Treaty of Berlin were to be adjudged by the representatives of the Great Powers at Constantinople, one of whom (the Russian) never succeeded in obtaining his instructions, and which therefore have never been fixed; and, finally, the excess of revenue resulting from a revision of the commercial treaties. The ceded revenues, exclusive of ths " contributive parts " and the excess from commercial treaties, were estimated by Bourke, in his report to the bondholders on the decree of Muharrem, at £1,812,562 (£Ti,993,8l8). A substantial reduction however, had to be made in favour of the 5% " priority bonds, " which were bonds issued to the local banks before mentioned in satisfaction of their claims, and formed an annual first charge of £T59O,ooo on the whole of the revenues ceded to the bondholders; the capital amount of the " priority bonds " was £T8, 169,986, which was to be extinguished by 1906. Four-fifths of the net product of the revenues, after deduction of the first charge of £T5go,ooo, was to be applied to the service of the interest on the new reduced debt, and provided that the four-fifths were sufficient to allow the distribu- tion of I % interest, one-fifth was to be devoted to sinking fund ; but this latter fifth was to be reduced, if necessary, by an amount sufficient to maintain the rate of interest at I %. The interest on bonds amortized was to be added to the funds available for sinking fund. The sinking fund was to work as follows: First i% on the whole reduced capital was to be applied to group i. ; if there were any surplus this was to be applied to group ii., until that also received the same full i %, and so on for group iii. and group iv., until the whole sinking fund amounted to I % on the reduced capital. It was to be applied by redemption at the best price possible on the market, until that price stood at £T66-66, when, if the rate of interest served were I %, it was to proceed by drawings; if the interest were anything more than I %, and less than 3 %, the limit of price for redemption was to be raised to £T75; if the interest were between 3% and 4% inclusive, the limit was to be raised to par. _ Any surplus of revenue beyond that necessary to provide 4 % interest and I % sinking fund was to be handed over to the government. The lottery bonds receive a special treatment both in regard to interest and sinking fund ; full information as to the intricate arrangements made for these bonds will be found in the decree of Muharrem and the published reports of the council of administration of the Ottoman public debt. In 1890 the sinking fund was increased by the conver- sion of the " priority loan " into a 4 % loan and the extension of the term of its redemption for 15 years. In this manner an annuity of £Ti59,5oo was set free, of which £Ti 1,000 per annum was allotted as " extraordinary sinking fund " to series A and £T49,5OO per annum each to series B, C and D; the lottery bonds were originally excluded from this arrangement, and special compensation was granted to these later. Each series receives the benefit of the interest on bonds belonging to it amortized by this special annuity. Thus, in the financial year 1900-1901 the total amount of the fund had risen from £Ti59,soo to £1231,500. The arrangement set forth in and sanctioned by the decree of Muharrem on the whole worked admirably. Gradually, however, it became apparent that it would be desirable to give Turkish state securities, of which those governed by the decree of Muharrem formed the principal part, a better standing in European financial markets than was possible for bonds bearing so low a rate of interest; to obliterate thus, as far as possible, the effects of the past bankruptcy; and, further, to give the Turkish government a joint interest with the bondholders in the progress of the ceded revenues. The French bondholders, who hold by far the largest proportion of Turkish securities, took the principal initiative in this matter, and, after protracted negotiations with the Turkish government and the other syndicates of bondholders, they succeeded, in 1903, in obtaining the following modifications of the original decree of Muharrem. Series B, C and D (series A having already been completely redeemed by the action of the sinking fund) were replaced by the creation of new 4% bonds to a nominal amount of ^32,738,772, with a sinking fund of 0-45% per annum, bearing identical rights and privileges, and ranking immediately after, the priority bonds. The rates at which the series were respectively exchanged against the new unified bonds were £100 series B against £70 unified, £100 series C against £42 unified and £100 series C against £37, iqs. unified. Bonds of the old series not presented for exchange within a period of fifteen years are prescribed. The amortization is to proceed by purchase when the unified bonds are below par, and when at or above par, by drawings. Coupons and drawn bonds not presented within six and fifteen years respectively of their due dates of payment are prescribed. Interest on amortized bonds goes to swell the sinking fund. When the net product of the ceded revenues amounts to £1*2,157,375, the surplus is divisible as to 75% to the Turkish government and 25% to the public debt administration. A variation from this was provided as soon as the priority bonds should become extinct; but these bonds haying since been repaid (as mentioned below) by a further issue of unified bonds, this variation lapses. The above 25 % is to be employed as additional sinking fund for the unified debt and lottery bonds, in the proportion of 60 % and 40 % respectively. A reserve fund was created of which the nucleus was the sum already standing to the credit of the " Reserve fund for increasing the rate of in- terest " jjfTl, 1 13,865), plus £T300,ooo at least in cash by the issue of sufficient unified bonds to produce that amount and the sum of £Ti5o,ooo to be paid by the government to the public debt at the rate of £Tis,ooo per annum. It should be added that the total issue was made sufficient to reserve also £T 1,460,000 for expenses, after taking into account £100,000 in cash paid by the government to the public debt administration out of the said issue. The reserve fund was created primarily to make good any deficiency in the revenues below the amount required to pay the interest due. If such drafts upon the reserve fund become necessary, they are to be made good in the following years out of the surplus above mentioned. The reserve fund is increased by the interest it may earn, but when the capital amount of the fund reaches £T2,ooo,ooo the interest earned is merged in the general receipts of the public debt administration. As soon as the unified debt is reduced to £Ti6,ooo,ooo the reserve fund is to be reduced to £T 1, 000,000, the surplus over this last amount being paid to the government. The unified bonds and coupons are exempt from all Turkish taxation existing or to come. Further special stipulations regarding the Turkish lottery bonds were made, but these are, as -before, omitted. They will be found in art. x. of the " Annex-Decree " of September 1-14, 1903, which gave the modifications to the Muharrem decree here described force of law. Finally the Imperial Ottoman government reserved to itself the right of paying off the whole unified debt at par at any moment, and all the dispositions of the decree of Muharrem not modified by the new " Annex-Decree " were formally confirmed and main- tained. In 1906 a further modification took place in the shape of the final and complete repayment of the priority bonds by the additional issue of £1*9,537,000 of unified bonds for the purpose, taken firm by the Ottoman bank at 86. The rate at which the exchange was _ effected was par with a cash bonus of 6 %. The Crevious annuity required for the service of these bonds having een £T43O,5OO, and the additional charge for the service of the unified debt as a result of the operation being ^424,396, while the government received £Tl, 272,600 in cash for its own purposes, there was a slight immediate advantage to be found in it : as, how- ever, the priority debt would have been completely extinguished in 1932, the financial wisdom of the change is not apparent. The ceded revenues administered directly by the public debt council have shown remarkable expansion, and may be fairly looked upon as exemplifying what would occur in the general revenues of the empire when good and honest administration and regular .payment of officials finally took the place of the care- lessness, corruption and irregularity which existed up to the change of regime. The council has not limited its duties to the collection of the revenues placed under its administration, but has taken pains to develop commercially the revenues capable of such development. A large and remunerative export trade in salt to India is now established, whereas formerly not one grain found its way there; the first steps in this direction were taken in 1892 when works were begun to place the great rock-salt salines of Salif, on the coast of the Red Sea, on a commercial footing. The gross receipts from this export trade amounted in the year 1908-1909 to ^99,564, and the profits approximately to £T 1 2,000, in spite of the contest between Liverpool and Spanish salt merchants on the Calcutta market, which led to a heavy cutting of prices. Pains, moreover, have been taken by the public debt council to develop the sale of salt within the empire. These efforts have been rewarded by the increase of the salt revenue from £T63S,ooo in 1881-1882, the year preceding the establishment of the council, to £Ti,o7S,88o in 1907-1908. Again, in the early years of the administration (1885), the Pasteur system of selection of silk-worms' eggs for the rearing of silk- worms was introduced, and an " Institute of Sericulture " on modern lines was erected (1888) at Brusa for gratuitous instruc- tion in silk-rearing to students from all parts of the empire. Up to the end of 1907-1908, 919 students had received the diploma of the institute, and 465 silk-growers in addition had passed through the course of instruction. These men, returning to their various districts, impart to others the instruction they have received, and thus spread through the regions adapted to seri- culture the proper methods of selection and rearing. As a result some 60,000,000 mulberry trees were planted in Turkey during 1890-1910, involving the plantation of about 130,000 acres, and new magnaneries and spinning factories sprang up in every direction; while the revenue (silk tithe) increased in the regions administered by the council from £Ti7,ooo in 1881-1882 to 438 TURKEY [FINANCE £Ti25,oooin 1906-1907, the value of the silk crop in those regions having thus advanced by over £Ti, 000,000. But the regions not under its administration benefited at least equally by the methods above described. Thus the total value of the silk tithe in Turkey increased in the period named from about £T20,ooo to £1276,500, and the total annual value of the crop from about £T2oo,ooo to £12,765,000, or by nearly 2$ millions pounds sterling. Table A gives the produce of the revenues in 1881-1882, the last year of the administration of the " Galata Bankers," the average product of the first, second, third, fourth and fifth quinquennial periods since the public council was established, and of the year 1907-1908. Table B shows the total indebtedness of the Ottoman Empire, exclusive of tribute loans. Tobacco Regie. — From the beginning of the year 1884 the tobacco revenue has been worked as a monopoly by a company formed under Ottoman law, styled " La Rdgie Imp^riale Coint6ress6e des Tabans Ottomans." This company has the absolute monopoly of the manu- facture and of the purchase and sale of tobacco throughout the Ottoman Empire, with the exception of the Lebanon and Crete, but exportation remains free. It is bound to purchase all tobacco not exported at prices to be agreed between itself and the cultivators ; if no agreement can be arrived at, the price is fixed by experts. It is obliged also to form entrepbts for the storage of the crops at reasonable distances from each other, and, on certain conditions, to grant advances to cultivators to aid them in raising the leaf. The cultivators, on the other hand, may not plant tobacco without permits from the r£gie, although the power of refusing a permit, except to known smugglers or persons of notoriously bad conduct, seems to be doubtful ; nor may they sell to any purchaser, unless for export, except to the regie, while they are bound to deposit the whole of the tobacco crops which they raise in any one year in the entrep&ts of the r6gie before the month of August of the year following, TABLE A.— Showing Revenues ceded to Ottoman Public Debt Administration at Various Periods to 1907-1908. Heads of Revenue. Last year of Galata Bankers, 1881-1882. Average for First Five Years of Council of Public Debt, 1882-83, 1886-87. Average for Second Five Years of Council of Publ'c Debt, 1887-88, 1891-02. Average for Third Five Years of Council of Public Debt, 1892-93, 1896-07- Average for Fourth Five Years of Council of Public Debt. 1897-98, I90I-2. Average for Fifth Five Years of Council of Public Debt, 1902-3, 1906-7. 1907-8. Six Indirect Contributions: — * £T 881,563 634.936 129,833 177,163 26,064 17,118 £T 822,633 651,057 146,822 198,356 34,356 24.145 £T 755.489 702,150 185,930 229,059 44,307 39,398 £T 788,384 755.978 212,815 258,848 44.337 56,393 rr 725,641 861,406 221,856 269,482 47,294 69,012 2,797 £T 815,923 987,417 321,193 273,893 53.032 98,731 25.757 £T 899,352 1,123,886 366,255 283,301 69,549 131,218 Salt Stamps Spirits Fisheries * Silk Extra Budgetary Receipts f Total of Six Indirect Contri- butions 1,866,677 1.937.369 1,956,333 2,116,755 2,197,488 2,575.946 2,873,561 Tobacco Tithe Eastern Rumelian Annuity Excess of Cyprus Revenues TaxonTumbeki .... not collected ,» H 72,340 150,040 I3O,OOO 5O,OOO 81,866 126,688 113.557 50,000 104,688 129,222 102,596 50,000 99,276 88,682 102,596 50,000 172,473 159,628 102,596 50,000 210,068 114,020 102,596 50,000 Total Gross Revenue Expenses 1,866,677 378,789 2,339,, 749 388,000 2,328,444 392,403 2,503,261 346,143 2,538,042 418,537 3,060,643 522,798 3,350,245} 572,850 Total Net Revenue .... 1,487,888 I.95L749 1,936,041 2,157,118 2,119,505 2,537,845 2,777.395 * Exclusive of £Tso,ooo representing the retrocession of the reftish (Egyptian tax, abolished in 1895) to the r<5gie. t Up to 1902-1903 the extra-budgetary receipts and fines had been carried to account of the respective revenues concerned ; after that date they were placed under a special heading. After 1905-1906 extra-budgetary receipts relating to expenditure previously effected have been deducted from " General Expenses." J The 3% customs surtax is not included in this table. It came into force on the I3th of July 1907, and produced during the remainder of the financial year ^544,987; 25% of this revenue is ceded to the public debt; the remainder reverts to the government. TABLE B. — Position of the Ottoman Public Debt on the 1st of March 1326 (March 14, zozo). Designation of Loans. Nominal Capital issued. Annuities. Nominal Capital redeemed at 1st March 1326(1910). Nominal Capital in circulation on 1st March 1326(1910). V V ^ Unified Debt 4 % ' £T 42,275,772 £T 1,887,375 £T 2,345,010 £T 39,930,762 *> *•"£ 15,632,548 270,000 1,500,502 12, 032,Q56 X-.Q A 0 i§! l'i£ ' 4% Loan 1890 5% 1896 4% 1903 Fisheries 4% Bagdad ist Series .... 4% „ 2nd „ 4,999.500 3,272,720 2,640,000 2,376,000 4,752,000 249.975 180,000 118,800 97,120 200,000 i ,509,200 289,300 105,424 15,642 8,426 3,490,300 2,983,420 2,534,576 2,360,358 4,743,574 ill 0 C g all jt9G 4% 1904 4% 1905 Military Equipment 4% 1901-1905 4% 1908 2,750,000 2,640,000 5,306,664 4,711,124 123,750 118,800 238,800 212,000 57,090 83,556 123,420 2,692,910 2,556,444 5,183,244 4,711,124 Q i-C a, Ji A <» .• r4%Loan 1893 Tumbeki 91,356,328 1,010,010 3,696,620 50,000 8,136,660 23Q 8OO 83,219,668 760,210 8||-5||S 4% 1894 1,760,000 76,560 136,202 1,623,798 »>ll^*>cl 4% 1902' 8,600,020 390,000 367,180 8,232,840 •£_12°S.SB< 4% 1855 5,500,000 167,869 1.303.280 4.I06,72O .s°rt§e,«s 4% 1891 6,948.612 308,686 777,700 6.I7O.9I2 fulfil 3i% 1894 4% 1909 9,033.574 7,000,004 362,174 350,000 852,808 8,180,766 7,OOO,OO4 Q Total i 3 i, 198,548 5.4OI.QO9 11,813,630 119.384,918 1 The capital in circulation for these loans, established on the 1st of March 1326 (1910), is approximate. FINANCE] TURKEY 439 and may not move any tobacco from the place where they cultivate it without the regie's express authority. In order to facilitate supervision, a minimum area of one-half of a deunum (a deunum = about one-fourth of an acre) is fixed for ground upon which tobacco may be cultivated; in the suburban districts of Constantinople and some other towns, and in enclosures surrounded by walls and attached to dwelling-houses, it is altogether prohibited. For its privileges the regie has to pay a rent of £T75O,opo per annum to the government (assigned to bondholders), " even if it has no revenues at all," and after the payment of a dividend of 8 % to its shareholders, and certain other deductions, it has to share profits with the govern- ment and the bondholders according to a sliding scale agreed upon between the three parties. The regie did badly during the first four years of its existence, owing principally to two causes: (l) its ineffectual power to deal with contraband to which the system described above leaves the door wide open; (2) the admission of other than Turkish tobaccos into Egypt, which deprived it at once of about £Tioo,ooo per annum. So great were its losses that in the year 1887-1888 it was obliged to write them off by reducing its capital from £2,000,000 to £1,600,000. At the same time it was granted an extension of penal powers, and the losses on reftieh (duty on tobacco exported to Egypt) were to be partially borne by the public debt administration. Things went better with it from that time until 1894-1895, when, owing to internal troubles in the empire, and the consequent fear of creating worse disorders, by the strict enforcement of the monopoly, the government withdrew most of its support, and contraband enormously increased. The following table shows the movement of the revenue of the regie from the year 1887-1888 to 1908-1909 inclusive: — Average for 5 years. Gross receipts from all sources. Total expenses, in- cluding fixed charges. Net revenue. 1887-1892 1892-1897 1897-1902 1902-1907 £T 1,924,264 2,330,786 2,098,537 2,511,921 £T 1,735,896 2,037,190 1,898,646 2,104,739 £T 188,368 *293,596 *i99,8gi 407,182 Year 1907-8 „ '1908-9 2,660,895 2.597,909 2,146,864 2,167,795 514-031 430,114 * There was a heavy fall in the receipts in the four years 1895-1896 to 1898-1899 inclusive. The climax was reached in 1897-1898 when the net revenue amounted to only £63,975 as compared with £T352,ooo in 1894-1895, and it did not revert to its previous level until 1902-1903. This was the result of the Armenian massacres, the wholesale emigration of Armenians of all classes, the accompany- ing profound political unrest throughout the country, and the great extension of contraband which ensued from it. Negotiations were initiated in 1910 for the prolongation of the concession of the tobacco monopoly, which reaches its term in I9I3- Railway Guarantees. — Up to 1888 the only railways existing in the Turkish Empire (exclusive of Egypt) were, in Europe, the Constantinople-Adrianople-Philippopolis line and the Salonica- Mitrovitza line (finished in 1872); and in Asia Minor, theSmyrna- Ai'din (completed in 1866), the Smyrna-Cassaba (completed in 1866), the Constantinople-Ismid (completed in 1872), the Mersina- Adana (completed in 1886). The want of railways in Asia Minor was urgently felt, but no capitalists were willing to risk their money in Turkish railways without a substantial guarantee, and a guarantee of the Turkish government alone was not considered substantial enough. In 1888 it was proposed by the public debt administration to undertake the collection of specified revenues to be set aside for the provision of railway guarantees, the principle to be followed being, generally, that such revenues should consist of the tithes of the districts through which the railways would pass, and that the public debt should hand over to guaranteed railway companies the amounts of their guarantees before transmitting to the imperial government any of the pro- ceeds of the revenue so collected. The government adopted this proposal, and laid down as a principle that it would guarantee the gross receipts per kilometre of guaranteed railways, such gross receipts to be settled for each railway on its own merits. Considerable competition ensued for the railway concessions under this system. The first granted was for the extension of the Constantinople-Ismid railway to Angora to a group of German and British capitalists in 1888. The Germans having bought out the British rights, this concession became a purely German affair, although a certain proportion of the capital was found in London. Since that time various other concessions have been granted to French and German financial groups, principally the Imperial Ottoman Bank group of Paris and the Deutsche Bank group of Berlin. The systems of guarantee above described are clearly faulty, since theoretically the railway company which ran no trains at all would, up to the limit of its guarantee, make the largest profits. The concessionnaire companies have, however, wisely taken the view that it is better to depend upon their own revenues than upon any government guarantee, and have done their best to develop the working value of the lines in their charge. The economic effect of the railways upon the districts through which they run is apparent from the comparative values of the tithes in the regions traversed by the Anatolian railway in 1889 and 1898 in which years it so happened that prices were almost at exactly the same level, and again in 1908-1909, when they were only slightly higher. Thus in 1889 they produced ^145,378, in 1898 ^215,470, and in 1908-1909 £T28i,9i9. A different system, still more uneconomic than the kilometric guarantee pure and simple, was adopted in the case of the Bagdad railway. In January 1902 the German group holding the Anatolian railway concession was granted a further concession for extending that railway from Konia, then its terminus, through the Taurus range and by way of the Euphrates, Nisibin, Mosul, the Tigris, Bagdad, Kerbela and Nejef to Basra, thus establishing railway communication between the Bosporus and the Persian Gulf. The total length, including branches to Adana, Orfa (the ancient Edessa) and other places was to exceed 1550 m. ; the kilometric guarantee granted was 15,500 francs (£620). It should be noted that this concession was substituted for one negotiated by the same group, and projected to pass through Diarbekr. This raised strong objections on the part of Russia, and led to the Black Sea Basin agreement reserving to Russia the sole right to construct railways in the northern portion of Asia Minor. The Anatolian railway company, apparently unable to handle the concession above described, initiated fresh negotia- tions which resulted in the Bagdad railway convention (March 5, 1903). This convention caused much excitement and irrita- tion in Great Britain, owing to the encroachment of German influence sanctioned by it on territories bordering the Persian Gulf, hitherto considered to fall solely within the sphere of British influence. Attempts were made by the German group, assisted by their government, to secure the participation of both Britain and France in the concession. These were successful in France, the Imperial Ottoman Bank group agreeing to undertake 30% of the finance without, however, any countenance from the French government — the " Glarus Syndicate " being formed for apportioning interests. The British government seemed, at one time, rather to favour, a British participation, but when the terms of the convention were published, the strongest objection was taken to the constitution of the board of directors which established German control in perpetuity, while it was evident from the general tenor of the convention that a political bias informed the whole; in the end public feeling ran so high that any British participation became impossible. The financial advantages, however, granted by the Turkish government were singularly favourable to the concessionnaires and onerous to itself. The kilometric guarantee of 15,500 francs (£620) was split into two parts, 4500 francs (£180) being granted as the fixed working expenses of the line, all receipts in excess of which amount were to be credited to the Turkish government in reduction of the remaining 11,000 francs (£440) which took the form of an annuity to be capitalized as a 4 % state loan redeemable in 99 years, that being the period fixed for the duration of the conces- sion. The line was to be constructed in sections of 200 kilometres (125 m.) each, and as the complete plans and drawings of each were presented at the times and in the order specified in the convention, the government was to deliver to the concessionnaires government securities representing the capitalization of the annuity accruing to that section. The capital sum per section was fixed, in round figures, at 54,000,000 francs (£2,160,000), subject to adjustment when the section was completed and its actual length definitely measured up. A minimum net price of 8i}% was fixed for the realization of these securities on the market. The bonds are secured 440 TURKEY [FINANCE on the surplus of the revenues assigned to the guarantee of the Anatolian railway collected by the Public Debt Administration, on the excess revenue, after certain deductions, accruing to the government under the " Annex-Decree to the Decree of Muharrem " above described, on the sheep tax of the vilayets of Koniah, Adana and Aleppo, and on the railway itself. The first series (54,000,000 francs or £2,160,000), was duly handed over to the concessionaires in 1903, and was floated in Berlin at 86-4% realizing the sum of £1,868,000. The division of the line into equal sections of 200 kilometres apiece produced at once a somewhat ridiculous result. The little town of Eregli, some 190 kilometres distant from Konia, presented the only excusable locality for the terminus of the first section, and even that place is 90 kilometres distant from Karaman, the last town of any importance for some hundreds of miles on the way to the Euphrates valley, the country between the two towns being desolate and sparsely inhabited. But the Bagdad Railway Company1 (the share capital of which is £600,000 half paid up), naturally anxious to earn the whole of the capitalized subvention, completed the construction of the entire 200 kilometres. The line was thus continued to a station taking its name from Bulgurlu, a small straggling village four miles away, between which and Eregli there is not a single habitation. But even this did not quite com- plete the distance, and the line was carried on for still another kilometre and there stopped, " with its pair of rails gauntly pro- jecting from the permanent way " (Fraser, The Short Cut to India, 1909). The outside cost of construction of the first section, which lies entirely in the plains of Konia, is estimated to have been £625,000; the company retained, therefore, a profit of at least I i millions sterling on this first part of the enterprise. In the second section the Taurus range is reached, after which the construction becomes much more difficult and costly. On the 2nd of June 1908 a fresh convention was signed between the government and the Bagdad Railway Company providing, on the same financial basis, for the extension of the line from Bu'.gurlu to Helif and of the con- struction of a branch from Tel-Habesn to Aleppo, covering a total aggregate length of approximately 840 kilometres. The principle of equal sections of 200 kilometres was thus set on one side. The payments to the company were to be made in two lump sums forming " series 2 and 3 " of the " Imperial Ottoman Bagdad railway loan," series 2 amounting to £4,320,000, which was delivered to the company on the signature of the contract, and series 3 to £4,760,000. The Bagdad railway must for much time be a heavy Ottoman Railways worked at end of 1908. Length in Amount .Designation of Main Lines. Miles(including Kilometric branch lines). Guarantees. Turkey in Europe: — £ Oriental Railways2 815 Nil Salonica-Monastir . 137 572 Salonica-Constantinople 317 620 Total European Turkey 1269 Turkey in Asia : — Hamidie Railway of the Hejaz3 .... 932 Nil. Anatolian Railway. £** 635 Varies from £270 to £600. BagdadRailway(Konia- Bulgurlu section)* 124 £620 : Annuity £440 Working Expenses £180. Mudania-Brusa 26 Nil. Smyrna-Aidin . 320 Nil. Smyrna-Cassaba . 322 For main-line and Burnabat and Man- isa-Soma branches the government guarantees £92,400 as ha!f the annual receipts. For the Alashehr-Karahissar extension, there is a kilometric guarantee of £755. Damascus-Hama . 361 520 Mersina-Adana6 42 Nil. Jaffa-Jerusalem . . 54 Nil. Total Asiatic Turkey 2816 Grand Total . 4085 Results of 1908 according to the Nationality of the Capital. Nationality of the Capital. Companies or Societies. Lengths Worked. Gross Receipts for the Year 1908. Guarantees paid by the State for the Year 1908. Rents paid to the State for the Year 1908. Totals per Companies Totals per Nation- alities. Average receipts per mile per Nation- ality. per Company. per Nation- ality. Miles. Miles. £ £ £ £ £ / Ottoman Hejaz Railway .... Salonica-Monastir Railway . 932 137 932 150,435 129,854 243 150,435 129,611 150,435 A> 161 Bagdad Railway .... Mersina-Adana Railway . 124 42 14,578 36,400 108,155 122,733 36,400 German Anatolia — "I • 938 841,081 885 Haidar Pasha-Angora I 209,105 117,030 W^J Eskishehr- Konia 635 102,570 118,755 ^_ 552,337 Hamidie-Adabazar J 4-877 __ English Austro- Aidin Railway. . . ' . 320 320 293,104 — 293,104 293,104 916 German Oriental Railways • Salonica-Constantinople Junc- 8i5 8i5 607,619 — H5.679 491,940 491,940 604 tion Smyrna Kassaba and Exten- 317 H3-505 199,728 — 313,233 French sions 322 - 1-054 223,643 146,980 — — 1,092,957 1,037 Damascus-Hama and Exten- sions (Rayak-Aleppo) . 36i 269,934 94,801 — 364,735 Various Jaffa- Jerusalem .... Mudania-Brusa .... 54 26 26 44,366 15-039 — — 44,366 15,039 15,039 579 Totals 4-085 4-085 2,215,029 785,449 115,922 2,884,556 2^84,556 697 weight on the Turkish budget, the country through which it passes — with the exception of the sections passing from Adana to Osmanieh, through the Killis-Aleppo-Euphrates district (that is, the first point at which the line crosses the Euphrates some 600 m. from Bagdad), and to a lesser extent through the plains of Seruj and Harran — being very sparsely populated, while the financial system adopted offers no inducement to the concessionaire company to work for 1 Specially formed by the Anatolian railway group for the execu- tion, which the Anatolian Railway Company guarantees under the Bagdad Railway Convention, of the Bagdad railway concession. increasing earnings. It should be mentioned that the Bagdad Railway Company has sublet the working of the line to the Ana- tolian Railway Company at the rate of £148 per kilometre, as against the £ 1 80 per kilometre guaranteed by the Turkish government 1 The line from Mustafa-Pasha to Vakarel now lies in the king- dom of Bulgaria. 3 Constructed and worked by the State. ' 4 Extension of Anatolian Railway. 6 The Anatolian Railway group (German) has obtained control of this little railway, which was originally British. FINANCE] TURKEY 44 1 — an additional indication, if any were needed, of the thrift- lessness of the latter in the matter. Moreover, the Anatolian railway receives, under the original Bagdad railway convention (l) an annuity of £14,000 per annum for thirty years as com- pensation for strengthening its permanent way sufficiently to permit of the running of express trains, and (2) a second annuity of £14,000 in perpetuity to compensate it for running express trains — this to begin as soon as the main Bagdad line reaches Aleppo. It was stated in the preface to the budget of 1910 that the government would grant no more railway concessions carrying guarantees. The amount inscribed for railway guarantees in the budget of 1910 was £746,790. The tables on p. 440 show the respective lengths of the various Ottoman railways open and worked at the end of 1908 and the amount of kilometric guaran- tees which they carried — and the lengths, &c., of railways worked by the various companies according to the nationality of the concessionaire groups. Banks. — At the close of the Crimean War a British bank was opened in 1856 at Constantinople under the name of the Ottoman Bank, with a capital of £500,000 fully paid up. In 1863 this was merged in an Anglo-French bank, under a concession from the Turkish government, as a state bank under the name of the Imperial Ottoman Bank, with a capital of £2,700,000, increased in 1865 to £4,050,000 and in 1875 to £10,000,000, one-half of which is paid up. The original concession to the year 1893 was in 1875 extended to 1913, and in 1895 to 1925. The bank acts as banker to the government, for which it has a fixed annual commission, and it is obliged to make a permanent statutory advance to the govern- ment of £Ti, 000,000, against the deposit by the government of marketable securities bearing interest at a rate agreed upon. The bank has the exclusive privilege of issuing bank-notes payable in gold. Its central office is in Constantinople, and it is managed by a director-general and advisory committee appointed by com- mittees in London and Paris. The National Bank of Turkey (a limited Ottoman Company) is a_ purely British concern with a capital of £1,000,000, founded by imperial firman of the nth of April 1909, under the auspices of Sir Ernest Cassel. It is understood that it was originated at the unofficial instigation of both the British and Ottoman governments, j with the idea of forming a channel for the more generous investment I of British capital in Turkey under the new r6gime, so that British financial interests might play a more important part in the Otto- man Empire than has been the case since the state bankruptcy of 1876. This bank brought out the Constantinople municipal loan of 1909 (£1,000,000). Other banks doing business in Constantinople are the Deutscfa Bank, the Deutsche-Orient Bank, the Credit Lyon- nais, the Wiener Bank-Verein, the Russian Bank for Commerce and Industry, the Bank of Mitylene, the Bank of Salonica and the Bank of Athens. Monetary System. — The monetary system presents a spectacle of perplexing confusion, which is a remnant of the complete chaos which prevailed before the reforms initiated in 1844 by Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid. The basis of the system adopted was the double standard with a fixed relation of I to 15-09, and free coinage. The unit was the piastre ( = 2jd.), nominally subdivided into 40 paras. The gold pound (l8s. 2d.) was equivalent to 100 piastres; the gold nieces struck were £Ts, £Tl, £Tj and £TJ; the standard is o-o.l6f fine, and the weight 7-216 grammes. The silver coinage consisted of the mejidie (weight 24-055 grammes, 0-830 fine), equivalent to 20 piastres, and its subdivisions 10, 5, 2, I, and -j piastre pieces. The altilik, beshlik and metallik currencies struck, the first and last in the reign of. Mahmud II. and Abd-ul-Mejid, and the second in the reign of Mahmud only, were not included in the reform; these were debased currencies bearing a nominal value, the altilik of 6, 3 and I J piastres, the beshlik of 5 and 2j piastres, the metallik of I, £ and i piastres; they represented the last degree of an age- long monetary depreciation, the original piastre having had a value of about 5s. 7d., which had fallen to 2jd. The heavy depreciation in silver causing large losses to the government, free coinage was suspended in 1880, and the nominal value of the mcjidie was reduced by decree to 19 piastres (105-26 piastres thus = £Tl), while in the same year the debased currencies were reduced, altilik, the 6-piastre piece to 5 piastres, the 3-piastre piece to 2j piastres, the I i-piastre piece to ij piastre; beshlik, the 5-piastre piece to 2| piastres, the 2j-piastre piece to ij-piastre; metallik, the i-piastre piece to J piastre, the I-piastre piece to £ piastre, the i-piastre piece to | piastre — these values representing approximately the intrinsic value of the silver, at mejidie standard, contained in the debased coins. The copper coinage (113,000,000 piastres) and the paper currency (kaime) (1,600,000,000 piastres) referred to in the above sketch were withdrawn in 1880 by repudiation. The 2O-piastre mejidie currency, in spite of the further enormous depreciation of silver since 1880, has scarcely varied in the Constantinople market, but has always remained at a discount of about 3% (between 108 and 109 piastres to the pound) under government rate; this is doubtless due to the fact that the demand and supply of the coins in that market are very evenly balanced. The parity thus working out at}lO2-6o, gold continued to be held away from the treasury, and in 1909 the government decided to accept the Turkish pound at the last named rate. The fractional mejidie coins (5, 2 and I piastres) are quoted at a separate rate in the market, usually at a premium over the 2O-piastre piece. In the last twelve years of the igth century the altilik currency was almost entirely withdrawn, and replaced by fractional mejidie; a large proportion of the beshlik has also been withdrawn, but the metallik has not _been touched. These debased currencies are usually at a premium over gold owing to the extreme scarcity of fractional coinage. The standard of the altilik is about 0-440 fine, that of the beshlik is 0-185 to 0-225 nne. that of the metallik is 0-170 fine. Foreign gold coins, especially the pound sterling (par value no piastres) and the French 2O-franc piece (par value 875 piastres) have free currency. Throughout Arabia and in Tripoli (Africa) the principal money used is the silver Maria Theresa dollar tariffed by the Ottoman government at 12 piastres. The Indian rupee and the Persian kran are widely circulated through Mesopotamia; in Basra transactions are counted in krans, taking as a fixed exchange £Ti = 34-15 krans. The general monetary confusion is greatly intensified by the fact that the piastre unit varies for almost every province; thus, while the pound at Constantinople is counted at 108 piastres silver, it is at about 127 piastres for one kind of transaction and 1 80 for another in Smyrna, 135 piastres at Adrianople, 140 at Jerusalem, and so forth, accounts being kept in " abusive piastres," which exist no longer. In some towns, e.g. Adrianople, small change is often supplemented by cardboard tickets, .metal discs, &c., put into circulation by private establishments or individuals of good credit. A_ commission (the successor of many) was instituted at the ministry of finance in 1910, to draw up proposals for setting this confusion in order. In his 1910 budget speech the minister of finance, Javid Bey, demanded authority to create a new aluminium coinage of 5, 10, 20 and 40 para pieces, of which he would issue, in the course of three years, a nominal amount of £T 1, 000,000 to those provinces in which there was a great scarcity of small coins. The amounts of Turkish gold, silver and debased coinage in circulation are approximately £Ti6,5oo,ooo, in gold, £T8,7oo,ooo (940,000,000 piastres at 108) in silver mejidies and fractions, and 200,000,000 piastres in beshlik and metallik. Tenure of Property. — Real property is held in one of four various ways: either mulk, emiriyg, vakuf or khaliye. (i) Mulk is the absolute property of its owner, and can be disposed of by him as he wills without restrictions, save those enumerated lower down (General Dispositions) as general for all the four classes. Mulk property is governed chiefly by the Sheri (sacred law). A duty of 10 per mille on its estimated value has to be paid on trans- fer by sale, donation or testament; 5 per mille on transfer by inheritance; and a registration duty on expenses of transfer. (2) Emiriye is practically " public domains." The state may grant land of this category to private persons on payment by the latter of the value of the proprietary right — the tithes, ground-rent (should there be private buildings upon it), and the land-tax. It is administered by imperial functionaries called arazi-memuru; it is with the consent of the latter only that the proprietary rights can be sold. These rights are of simple possession, but they are transmissible in certain degrees to the heirs of the possessor. Emi- riye cannot be mortgaged, but can be given as security for debt on condition that it be restored when the debt has been repaid. The creditor may demand the arazi-memuru to proceed to a forced sale, but the arazi-memuru is not obliged to comply with that de- mand ; no forced sale may take place after the decease of the debtor. Emiriye is not transmissible by will, but may be transferred by dona- tion, which returns to the donor should he outlive the beneficiary. Should a proprietor of emiriye plant trees or vines, or erect buildings upon it, with the consent of the state, they are considered as mulk ; an annual tax representing the value of the tithes on the portions of emiriye thus utilized is levied. The emiriye then becomes mulk, with certain restrictions as to transfer dues. A transfer duty of 5 % on the estimated value of emiriye is paid on transmission by sale, inheritance or donation, of 2\ % on the amount of the debt in case of mortgage or release from mortgage, and of 10 % on expenses of registration. A different scale is established for emiriye with moukataa (rent paid for emiriye with mulk property established upon it). (3) Vakuf is " all property dedicated to God, of which the revenue is consecrated to His poor "; or " pro- perty of which the usufruct, such as tithe, taxes and rents, is attri- buted to a work of charity and of public interest." When once a property has been registered as vakuf it can never be withdrawn. There are two classes of vakuf: (a) Land so declared either directly by the sovereign or in virtue of imperial authority; (6) lands transformed by their proprietors from mulk into vakuf. The laws and regulations concerning vakuf are too intricate to be described ; generally it may be said that they form a great obstruction to dealing with a large proportion of the most valuable property in Turkey, and therefore to the prosperity of the country. The vakufs are administered by a special ministerial department (evkaf nazareti), whose property, on behalf of the state, they theoretically 442 TURKEY [HISTORY are. The effect of the original system was that a vakuf property became the inalienable property of the state, and the original proprietor a mere tenant. All fundamental repairs thus fell to the charge of the state, which could not afford to effect them, and the vakuf revenues decreased so rapidly that already in the reign of Selim I. (1511-1520) a serious effort was made to deal with the difficulty. But this resulted in so heavy a burden upon the public that the law had again to be altered to extend hereditary rights, and to admit a system of mortgage which was assimilated to that for emiriye; but the evils were little more than palliated. The curious gilds called guedik must here be mentioned. They were established at a time when industry was not free, and the govern- ment fixed the number of artisans of every kind of trade in each town, no one having the right to increase that number. The guedik, then, had the right to erect buildings on vakuf property and supply it with the tools, &c., necessary to exercise a trade. The ancient guediks have not been abolished, the government not daring to deprive them of their privileges; but since the Tanzimat no new ones have been created, industry being declared free. The various special dues payable on vakuf form too long a list to be inserted; the highest is 30 per mille. (4) Kkaliye. This property is also styled mevad. It consists of uncultivated or rough lands, such as mountains, stony ground, &c., which are useless without clearance, to which no possession is claimed, and which are at such a distance from the nearest dwelling that the human voice cannot be made to reach them from that dwelling. Any one can obtain a gratuitous permit to clear and cultivate such lands ; the laws governing ordinary agricultural lands then apply to them. The permit is withdrawn if the clearance is not effected within three years. If the clearance is effected without the necessary permit, the land is nevertheless granted on application, and on the payment of the tapu or sum paid by the proprietor to the state for the value of the land. General Dispositions. — By the " protocol of the 7th Sefer 1284 A.H. " foreigners may enjoy the rights of proprietorship on the same conditions as Ottoman subjects throughout the empire, save in the Hejaz. The transmission of property from a foreigner to his heirs is therefore governed by the Ottoman laws, and not those of the country to which he belongs. The real property of a Mussulman does not pass by inheritance to non-Mussulman heirs, but may pass to his Mussulman heirs of a foreign nationality, and vice versa. Property of an individual who has abandoned Ottoman nationality without legal authority so to do does not pass to heirs, whether Ottoman or foreign, but devolves to the state; if legal authority has been granted the government under which the foreign heirs live must have accepted the protocol above cited. An heir who has voluntarily caused the death of the person from whom he should inherit loses all rights of succession. It is not proposed to trace the formalities of transfer and transmission of real property here; they will be found in vol. iii. of the Duslur (Ottoman Code). Minerals are worked according to the law of the 1 4th Sefer 1324 (March 26, 1906). Mines can only be exploited in virtue of an imperial irade. The concessions are to be for 99 years with the exception of chrome, emery, boracite and other minerals found only in the form of deposits, which may be granted for not less than 40 years or more than 99 years. They may be disposed of under certain conditions to third parties, and they may be in- herited. Immovable property, working plant, tools and fixtures, cannot be seized for payment of debts. For the discovery of mines, special permits of research, on which there is a fee of £Ts to £Tis, are necessary; full details of the requisite formalities are given in the law. No researches are permitted in boroughs and villages or in forests, pasturages, &c., if it be considered that they would interfere with public convenience. Two permits are not granted for the same mineral within the same area, until the first has lapsed. Specimens may be sent to Europe for expert examination up to an aggregate weight of 2000 tons, on paying the requisite duties. Explosives are under the control of the local authorities. In order to obtain permits foreigners must first have adhered to the law of 1293 (A.H.). The original discoverer of a mine is entitled to a certain indemnity for " right of discovery " to be paid by the con- cessionaire of that mine, should the discoverer be unable to work it. To obtain a concession, formalities detailed in the law must be complied with, under a penalty of £Tioo to £Tiooo. Should a different mineral from that specified in the imperial firman for a mining concession be discovered in a free state, a fresh firman is necessary to exploit it. Discovered mines not registered by the government, or not worked for a period of 99 years before the pro- mulgation of the law of the 26th of March 1906, are considered as non- discovered. On the promulgation of the firman for the exploitation of a mine, a fee of £T5O to £Tloo becomes payable. Two categories of rent, fixed and proportional, are payable to the state by mine- owners. The fixed rent is 10 piastres per jerib (about 10,000 square metres), to be paid whether the mine is worked or not. The proportional rent is from I % to 5 % on the gross products of mines of vein formation, and from 10% to 20% on those of mines of deposit formation; the percentages are calculated on the value of the mineral after deduction of freight, &c. to Europe and of treatment. The proportional rents are fixed by the Mines Adminis- tration according to the wealth, area and facility of working of the mine, and are inserted in the imperial firman governing the mine, and must be paid before the minerals are exported. Yearly returns, under a penalty of £T5 to £T25, of the results of working have to be rendered to the Mines Administration. If payments due to the government are not made within two months of due date, the mines may be seized by the authorities and sold to the highest bidder. The working of the mine must begin within two years of the date of the delivery of the mine to the conpessionaire. Certain specified plans must be delivered annually, under penalty of £Ts to £T25, to the Mines Administration, and, under similar penalties, all information and facilities for visiting the mines in detail must be afforded to government inspectors. Should a mine-owner, in the course of developing his mine, damage the mine of a neighbouring owner, he must pay him an agreed indemnity. With the exception of the engineer and foreman, the employes must be Ottoman subjects. No part of the subterranean working of a mine may be abandoned without official permission obtained according to formalities specified in the law. Owners of the land in which a mine is located have a prior right to work such mine under imperial firman, on the obtention of which a duty of /T4 is payable ; if they do not work it the concession may be granted to others, on payment of a certain compensation to the landowner. The research of a mine in no way impairs the rights of ownership of the land in which the mine is located. If a mining concession is granted within lands which are private property or which are " real vakuf lands" (arazi- i-mevkufe-i-sahiha) only one-fifth of the proportional rent is payable to the state, the other four-fifths reverting to the land-owner or the vakufs, as the case may be. As to ancient coins, and all kinds of treasure of which the proprietor is unknown, reference must be made to the Dustur, No. 4, p. 89. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — I. Topography, Travels, &c.: The works of J. B. Tavernier, of Richard Knolles and Sir P. Rycaut, of O. G. de Busbecq (Busbequius), Sir T. Hanway, the Chevalier Jean Chardin, D. Sestine and W. Eton (Survey of the Turkish Empire, 3rd ed., 1801) are storehouses of information on Turkey from the i6th century to the end of the i8th. More recent works of value are those of J. H. A. Ubicini, Lettres sur la Turquie (1853-1854, Eng. trans., 2 vols., 1856); D. Urquhart, The Spirit of the East (2 vols., 1838); A. W. Kinglake (especially his Eothen, 1844); A. H. Layard, H. F. Tozer, E. Spencer, Ami Bou6, A. VambeVy, W. M. Rameay and J. G. von Hahn (in " Denkschriften " of the K. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu Wien for 1867-1869). Sir C. Elliot's Turkey in Europe (London, 1907) is comprehensive and accurate. See also P. de Laveleye, La Peninsule des Balkans (Brussels, 1886); V. Cuinet. La Turquie d'Asie (5 vols., Paris, 1891-1894, and index 1900); id. Syrie Liban et Palestine (Paris, 1896-1898); W. Miller, Travels and Politics in the Near East (London, 1898); M. Bernard, Turquie d' Europe et Turquie d'Asie (Paris, 1899) ; M. von Oppenheim, Vom Mittelmeer zum persischen Golfe, &c. (2 vols., Berlin, 1899- 1900) ; Lord Warkworth, Notes from a Diary in Asiatic Turkey (London, 1898); Mark Sykes, Dar-el-Islam (London, 1903); D. Fraser, The Short Cut to India (London, 1909) ; with the books cited under TURKS and in articles on the separate divisions of the empire and on Mahommedan law, institutions and religion. 2. Law, Commerce and Finance: F. Belin, Essais sur I'hisloire cconomique de la Turquie (Paris, 1865); Aristarchi Bey, Legislation ottomane (8 vols., Constantinople, 1868-1876); R. Bourke, Report to the British and Dutch Bondholders (London, 1882); O. Haupt, L'Histoire monetaire de notre temps (Paris, 1886); F. Ongley and H. A. Miller, Ottoman Land Code (London, 1892); Medjelle (Ottoman Civil Code) (Nicosia, 1895); Kendall, Turkish Bonds (London, 1898); V. Caillard, Babington-Smith and Block, Reports on the Otto- man Public Debt (London, 1884-1898, 1899-1902, 1903-1910); Annuaire oriental du commerce (Constantinople); Journal de la chambre de commerce (Constantinople, weekly); Annual Report of the Regie Co-interess6e des Tabacs (Constantinople); Annual Report of the Council of Foreign Bondholders (London); C. Morawitz, Les Finances de la Turquie (Paris, 1902); G. Young, Corps de droit otto- man (7 vols., Oxford, 1905—1906) ; Pech, Manuel des societes anony- mes fonctionnant en Turquie (Paris, 1906) ; Alexis Bey, Statistique des principaux r&sultats des chemins de fer de I'empire ottoman (Constantinople, 1909). 3. Defence: Djevad Bey, Etat militaire ottoman (Paris, 1885); H. A., Die turkische Wehrmacht (Vienna, 1892); L. Lamoucne, L' Organisation militaire de I'empire ottoman (Paris, 1895); Lebrun- Renaud, La Turquie: puissance militaire (Paris, 1895); Haupt- man Rasky, Die Wehrmacht der Turkei (Vienna, 1905). (See also ARMY.) (V.C.*) HISTORY Legend assigns to Oghuz, son of Kara Khan, the honour of being the father of the Ottoman Turks. Their first appearance in history dates from A.D. 1227. In that year a horde, variously estimated at from two to four thousand souls, with their flocks and their slaves, driven originally from their Central Asian homes by the pressure of Mongol invasion, and who had sought in vain a refuge with the Seljukian sultan Ala-ud-din Kaikobad of Konia, were returning under their chief Suleiman Shah to their native HISTORY] TURKEY 443 Ertoghrul, 1230-1288. land. They were crossing the Euphrates, not far from the castle of Jaber, when the drowning of their leader by accident threw confusion into their ranks. Those who had not yet crossed the river refused, in face of this omen, to follow their brethren; the little band, numbering 400 warriors (according to others, consist- ing of 2000 horsemen) decided to remain under Ertoghrul, son of the drowned leader. Ertoghrul first camped at Jessin, east of Erzerum; a second appeal to Ala-ud-din was more successful — the numbers of the immigrants had become too insignificant for their presence to be a source of danger. The lands of Karaja Dagh, near Angora, were assigned to the new settlers, who found there good pasturage and winter quarters. The help afforded by Ertoghrul to the Seljukian monarch on a critical occasion led to the addition of Sugut to his fief, with which he was now formally invested. Here Ertoghrul died in 1288 at the age of ninety, being succeeded in the leader- ship of the tribe by his son Osman. When, ex- nausted by the onslaughts of Ghazan Mahmud Khan, ruler of Tabriz, and one of Jenghiz Khan's lieu- tenants, the Seljukian Empire was at the point of dissolution, most of its feudatory vassals helped rather than hindered its downfall in the hope of retaining their fiefs as independent sovereigns. But Osman remained firm in his allegiance, and by repeated victories over the Greeks revived the drooping glories of his suzerain. His earliest conquest was Karaja Hissar (1295), where first the name of Osman was substituted for that of the sultan in the weekly prayer. In that year Ala-ud-din Kaikobad II. conferred on him the proprietorship of the lands he had thus conquered by the sword, and presented him at the same time with the horse-tail, drum and banner which constituted the insignia of independent command. Osman continued his vic- torious career against the Greeks, and by his valour and also through allying himself with Keusse Mikhal, lord of Harman Kaya, became master of Amegeul, Bilejik and Yar Hissar. His marriage with Mai Khatun, the daughter of the learned sheikh Edbali, has been surrounded by poetical legend; he married his son Orkhan to the beautiful Greek Nilofer, daughter of the lord of Yar Hissar, whom he carried off from her destined bridegroom on her marriage-day; the fruits of this union were Suleiman Pasha and Murad. In 1300 the Seljukian Empire crumbled away, and many small states arose on its ruins. It was only after the death of his protector and benefactor Sultan Ala-ud-din II. that Osman declared his independence, and accordingly the Turkish historian dates the foundation of the Ottoman Empire from this event. Osman reigned as independent monarch until 1326. He pursued his conquests against the Greeks, and established good govern- ment throughout his dominions, which at the time of his death included the valleys of the Sakaria and Adranos, extending southwards to Kutaiah and northwards to the Sea of Marmora. Infirmity had compelled him towards the end of his life to depute the chief command to his younger son Orkhan, by whom in 1326 the conquest of Brusa was at last effected after a long siege. Orkhan's military prowess secured for him the succession, to the exclusion of his elder brother Ala-ud-din, who became his grand vizier. At that time a number of principalities had replaced the Seljukian state. Though Yahsha Bey, grandson of Mahommed Kara- man Oghlu, had declared himself the successor of the Seljukian sultans, the princes of Aidin, Sarukhan, Menteshe, Kermian, Hamid, Tekke and Karassi declined to recognize his authority, and considered themselves independent, each in his own dominions. Their example was followed by the Kizil Ahmedli Emir Shems-ed-din, whose family was afterwards known as the house of Isfendiar in Kastamuni. The rest of the country was split up among Turcoman tribes, such as the Zulfikar in Marash and the Al-i-Ramazan in Adana. At his accession Orkhan was practically on the same footing with these, and* avoided weakening himself in the struggle for the Seljukian inheritance, preferring at first to consolidate his forces at Brusa. There he continued to wrest from the Greeks the lands which their feeble arms were no longer able to defend. He took Aidos, 1326^1359 Nicomedia, Hereke, and, after a siege, Nicaea; Tarakli and Gemlik fell to his arms, and soon the whole of the shore of the Marmora up to Kartal was conquered, and the Byzantines retained on the continent of Asia Minor only Ala Shehr and Biga. These acquisitions were made between 1328 and 1338; in the latter year Orkhan achieved his first conquest from Mussulman hands by the capture of Karassi, the pretext being the quarrel for the succession on the death of. the prince, Ajlan Bey. At this period the state of the Byzantine Empire was such as to render its powers of resistance insignificant; indeed the length of time during which it held out against the Turks is to be attri- buted rather to the lack of efficacious means at the disposal of its assailants than to any qualities possessed by its defenders. In Constantinople itself sedition and profligacy were rampant, the emperors were the tools of faction and cared but little for the interests of their subjects, whose lot was one of hopeless misery and depravity. On the death of the emperor Andro- nicus III. in 1341 he was succeeded by John Palaeologus, a minor; and Cantacuzenus, the mayor of the palace, appealed to Orkhan for assistance to supplant him, giving in marriage to the Ottoman prince his daughter Theodora. Orkhan lent the desired aid; his son Suleiman Pasha, governor of Karassi, crossed into Europe, crushed Cantacuzenus's enemies, and penetrated as far as the Balkans, returning laden with spoil. Thus the Turks learnt the country of the Greeks and their weakness. In 1355 Suleiman crossed over from Aldinjik and captured the fortress of Gallipoli, which was at once converted into a Turkish stronghold; from this base Bulalr, Malgara, Ipsala and Rodosto were added to the Turkish possessions. Suleiman Pasha was killed by a fall from his horse near Bulalr in 1358; the news so affected his father Orkhan as to cause his death two months later. The institution of the Janissaries (7.^.) holds a prominent place among the most remarkable events of Orkhan's reign, which was notable for the encouragement of learning and the foundation of schools, the building of roads and other works of public utility. Orkhan was succeeded by his son Murad. After capturing Angora from a horde of Turkomans encamped there who were attacking his dominions, at first with some success, •\x j • • -r Murad], in 1361 Murad prepared for a campaign in Europe. 1^59-1389 At that time the Greek emperor's rule was con- fined to the shores of the Marmora, the Archipelago and Thrace. Salonica, Thessaly, Athens and the Morea were under independent Greek princes. The Bulgarians, Bosnians and Servians had at different periods invaded and conquered the territories inhabited by them; the Albanians, original natives of their land, were governed by princes of their own. When, on the death of Cantacuzenus, John Palaeo- logus remained sole occupant of the imperial throne, Murad declared war against him and conquered the country right up to Adrianople; the capture of this city, the second capital of the emperors, was announced in official letters to the various Mussul- man rulers by Murad. Three years later, in 1364, Philippopolis fell 'to Lala Shahin, the Turkish commander in Europe. The states beyond the Balkan now began to dread the advance of the Turks; at the instigation of the pope an allied army of 60,000 Serbs, Hungarians, Walachians and Moldavians attacked Lala Shahin. Murad, who had returned to Brusa, crossed over to Biga, and sent on Haji Ilbeyi with 10,000 men; these fell by night on the Servians and utterly routed them at a place still known as the " Servians' coffer." In 1367 Murad made Adrianople his capital and enriched it with various new buildings. He continued to extend his territories in the north and west; the king of Servia and the rulers of Kiustendil, Nicopolis and Silistria agreed to pay tribute to the conquering Turk. Lala Shahin Pasha was appointed feudal lord of the district of Philippopolis, and Timur Tash Pasha became beylerbey of Rumelia; Monastir, Perlepe, and parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina were next taken, a.nd the king of Servia consented to furnish to Murad a fixed contingent of auxiliary troops, besides paying a money tribute. In 1381 Murad's son Yilderim Bayezid married Devlet Shah Khatun, 444 TURKEY [HISTORY daughter of the prince of Kermian, who brought him in dowry Kutaiah and its six dependent provinces. In the same year Bey Shehr and other portions of the Hamid principality were acquired by purchase from their ruler Hussein Bey, as the Karamanian princes were beginning to cast covetous eyes on them; but the Karamanians were unwilling to resign their claims to be heirs of the Seljukian sultans, and not until the reign of Mahommed II. were they finally suppressed. Ali Bey, the prince at this time, took advantage of Murad's absence in Europe to declare war against him; but the Ottoman ruler returning crushed him at the battle of Konia. Meanwhile the king of Bosnia, acting in collusion with the Karamanian prince, attacked and utterly defeated Timur Tash Pasha, who lost 15,000 out of an army of 20,000 men. The princes and kings who had consented to pay tribute were by this success encouraged to rebel, and the Servian troops who had taken part in the battle of Konia became insub- ordinate. Indignant at the severity with which they were pun- ished, Lazarus, king of Servia, joined the rebel princes. Murad thereupon returned to Europe with a large force, and sent Chen- dereli Zade Ali Pasha northwards; the fortresses of Shumla, Pravadi, Trnovo, Nicopolis and Silistria were taken by him; Sisman III., rebel king of Bulgaria, was punished and Bulgaria once more subjugated. Ali Pasha then joined his master at Kos- sovo. Here Lazarus, king of Servia, had collected an army of 100,000 Serbs, Hungarians, Moldavians, Walachians and others. On the 27th of August 1389 the greatest of the battles of Kossovo was fought. A lightning charge of Yilderim Bayezid's dispelled the confidence of the enemy, scattering death and dismay in their ranks. The king of Servia was killed and his army cut to pieces, though the Turks numbered but 40,000 and had all the disadvantage of the position. After the battle, while Murad was reviewing his victorious troops on the field, he was assassinated by Milosh Kabilovich, a Servian who was allowed to approach him on the plea of submission. Murad maintained a show of friendly relations with the emperor John Palaeologus, while capturing his cities. A review held by him in 1387 at Yeni Shehr was attended by the emperor, who, moreover, gave one of his daughters in marriage to Murad and the other two to his sons Bayezid and Yakub Chelebi. These princes were viceroys of Kermian and Karassi respectively; the youngest son, Sauji Bey, governed at Brusa during his father's absence. Led away by evil counsellors, Sauji Bey plotted with Andronicus, son of the emperor, to dethrone their respective fathers. The attempt was foiled; Andronicus was blinded by his father's orders and Sauji was put to death (1387). After being proclaimed on the field of Kossovo, Bayezid's first care was to order the execution of his brother Yakub Chelebi, and so to preclude any repetition of t389-'i4O3.' Sauji's plot. The young prince Andronicus, who had not been completely blinded, sent secretly to Bayezid and offered him 30,000 ducats to dethrone his father John Palaeologus and make him emperor. Bayezid consented; later on John Palaeologus offered an equivalent sum and, since he engaged to furnish an auxiliary force of 12,000 men into the bargain, Bayezid replaced him on 'the throne. By the aid of these auxiliaries the fort of Ala Shehr was captured (1392), Manuel Palaeologus, son of the emperor, being allowed, in common with many other princes, the privilege of serving in the Turkish army, then the best organized and disciplined force extant. The principalities of Aidin, Menteshe, Sarukhan and Kermian were annexed to Bayezid's dominions to punish their rulers for having joined with the Karamanian prince in rebellion. The exiled princes took refuge with the Kizil Ahmedli, ruler of Kastamuni, who persuaded the Walachians to rebel against the Turks. By a brilliant march to the Danube Bayezid subjugated them; then returning to Asia he crushed the prince of Karamania, who had made head again and had defeated Timur Tash Pasha. Bayezid now consolidated his Asiatic dominions by the capture of Kaisarieh, Sivas and Tokat from Tatar invaders, the relics of Jenghiz Khan's hordes. Sinope, Kastamuni and Samsun were surrendered by the prince of Isfendiar, and the conquest of Asia Minor seemed assured. On the death of John Palaeologus in 1391 his son Manuel, who was serving in the Turkish army, fled, without asking leave, to Constantinople, and assumed the imperial dignity. Bayezid determined to punish this insubordination: Constantinople was besieged and an army marched into Macedonia, capturing Salonica and Larissa (1395). The siege of the capital was, how- ever, unsuccessful; the pope and the king of Hungary were able to create a diversion by rousing the Christian rulers to a sense of their danger. An army of crusaders marched upon the Turkish borders; believing Bayezid to be engaged in the siege of Constanti- nople, they crossed the Danube without precaution and invested Nicopolis. While the fortress held out with difficulty Bayezid fell upon the besiegers like a thunderbolt. The first onslaught of the Knights of the Cross did indeed rout the weak irregulars placed in the van of the Turkish army, but their mad pursuit was checked by the steady ranks of the Janissaries, by whom they were completely defeated (1396). King Sigismund of Hungary barely escaped in a fishing boat; his army was cut to pieces to a man; among the prisoners taken was Jean Sans Peur, brother of the king of France. To the usual letter announcing the victory the caliph in Egypt replied saluting Bayezid with the title of " Sultan of the lands of Rum." After the victory of Nicopolis the siege of Constantinople was resumed, and the tower of Anatoli Hissar, on the Asiatic side of the Bosporus, was now built. However, by sending heavy bribes to Bayezid and his vizier, and by offering to build a mosque and a Mussulman quarter, and to allow Bayezid to be named in the weekly prayer, Manuel succeeded in inducing Bayezid to raise the siege. The mosque was destroyed later on and the Mussulman settlers driven out. Between 1397 and 1399 Bayezid overran Thessaly, while in Asia his lieutenant Timur Tash was extending his conquests. Meanwhile Timur (Tamer- lane) had started from Samarkand on his victorious career. With incredible rapidity his hosts spread and plundered from Bagdad to Moscow. After devastating Georgia in 1401 he marched against the Turks. Some of the dispossessed princes of Asia Minor had repaired to Timur and begged him to reinstate them; accordingly Timur sent to Bayezid to request that this might be done. The tone of the demand offended Bayezid, who rejected it in terms equally sharp. As a result Timur's countless hordes attacked and took Sivas, plundering the town and massacring its inhabitants. Then, to avenge an insult sustained from the ruler of Egypt, Timur marched south- wards and devastated Syria, thence turning to Bagdad, which shared the same fate. He then retraced his steps to the north- west. Bayezid had taken advantage of his absence to defeat the ruler of Erzingan, a protege of Timur. All attempts to arrange a truce between the two intractable conquerors were in vain. They met in the neighbourhood of Angora. Timur's army is said to have numbered 200,000, Bayezid's force to have amounted to about half that figure, mostly seasoned veterans. The sultan's five sons were with the army, as well as all his generals; 7000 Servian auxiliaries under Stephen, son of Lazarus, took part in the battle (1402). Prodigies of valour on the part of Bayezid's troops could not make up for the defec- tion of the newly-absorbed levies from Aidin, Sarukhan and Menteshe who went over to their former princes in Timur's camp. The rout of the Turkish army was complete. Bayezid, with many of his generals, was taken prisoner. Though treated with some deference by his captor, who even promised to reinstate him. Bayezid's proud spirit could not endure his fall, and he died eight months later at Ak Shehr. After the disaster of Angora, from which it seemed impossible that the Ottoman fortunes could ever recover, the princes fled each with as many troops as he could induce to jatef. follow him, being hotly pursued by Timur's armies, regaum. Only Mussa was captured. Timur reached Brusa, 1*03-1413. and there laid hands on the treasure of Bayezid; one after another the cities of the Turks were seized and plundered by the Tatars. Meanwhile Timur sent letters after the fugi- tive sons of Bayezid promising to confer on them their father's dominions, and protesting that his attack had been due merely HISTORY] TURKEY 445 to the insulting tone adopted towards him by Bayezid and to the entreaties of the dispossessed princes of Asia Minor. Most of the latter were reinstated, with the object of reducing the Turkish power. Timur did not cross into Europe, and con- tented himself with accepting some trifling presents from the Greek emperor. After capturing Smyrna he returned to Samarkand (1405). Some years of strife followed between the sons of Bayezid, in which three of them fell; Mussa, seizing Adrianople, laid siege to Constantinople, and Manuel Palaeo- logus, the emperor, appealed for aid to Mahommed, the other son, who had established himself at Brusa. In 1413 Mahommed defeated Mussa, and thus remained sole heir to Bayezid 's throne; in seven or eight years he succeeded Mahom- in regaining all the territories over which his father med i., had ruled, whereas Timur's empire fell to pieces 1413-1421. at tne deatij Of j|ts founder. Two years after his accession Mahommed overcame a rebellion of the prince of Kara- mania and recaptured his stronghold Konia (1416), and then, turning northwards, forced Mircea, voivode of Walachia, who in the dispute as to the succession had supported Prince Mussa, to pay tribute. The Turkish dominions in Asia Minor were extended, Amasia, Samsun and Janik being captured, and an insurrection of dervishes was quelled. In 1421 the sultan died. His services in the regeneration of the Turkish power can hardly be over-estimated; all agree in recognizing his great qualities and the charm of his character; even Timur is said to have admired him so much as to offer him his daughter in marriage. The honour was declined, and Mahommed took a bride from the house of Zulfikar. Amid the cares of state he found time for works of public utility and for the support of literature and art; he is credited with having sent the first embassy to a Christian power, after the Venetian expedition to Gallipoli in 1416, and the Ottoman navy is first heard of in his reign. At the time of Mahommed's death his eldest son Murad was at Amasia; and, as' the troops had lately shown signs of insubordi- nation, it was deemed advisable to conceal the news «"/-/«/' of the sultan's death and to send a Part of the army across to Asia. The men, however, refused to march without seeing their sultan, and the singular expedient was resorted to of propping up the dead monarch's body in a. dark room and concealing behind it an attendant who raised the hands and moved the head of the corpse as the troops marched past. Shortly after Murad's accession the emperor Manuel, having applied in vain for the renewal of the annual subsidy paid him by the late sultan for retaining in safe custody Mustafa, an alleged son of Bayezid, released the pretender. Adherents flocked to him, and for a whole year Murad was engaged in suppressing his attempts to usurp the throne. At last the armies of sultan and pretender met at Ulubad (Lopadion) on the Rhyndacus in Asia Minor; Mustafa's troops fled at the first onset; Lampsacus, where the pretender took refuge, was captured with the aid of the Genoese galleys under Adorno. Mustafa, who had crossed the strait and fled north- wards, was taken, brought to Adrianople, and hanged from a tower of the serai (1422). Murad now laid siege to Constanti- nople to avenge himself on the emperor, and on the 24th of August the desperate valour of the defenders succeeded in driv- ing back an assault led by a band of fanatical dervishes. The siege was raised, however, not owing to the bravery of the defence, but because the appearance of another pretender, in the person of Murad's thirteen-year-old brother Mustafa, under the pro- tection of the revolted princes of Karamania and Kermian, called the sultan to Asia. Mustafa, delivered up by treachery, was hanged (1424); but Murad remained in Asia, restoring order in the provinces, while his lieutenants continued the war against the Greeks, Albanians and Walachians. By the treaty signed on the 22nd of February 1424, shortly before his death, the emperor Manuel II., in order to save the remnant of his empire, agreed to the payment of a heavy annual tribute and to surrender all the towns on the Black Sea, except Selymbria and Derkos, and those on the river Strymon. Peace was also made at the same time with the despot of Servia and the voivode of Walachia, on the basis of the payment of tribute. By 1426 the 'princes of Kermian and Karamania had submitted on honour- able terms; and Murad was soon free to continue his conquests in Europe. Of these the most conspicuous was that of Salonica. Garrisoned only by 1 500 Venetians, the city was carried by storm (March i, 1428); the merciful precedent set by Mahommed I. was not followed, the greater part of the inhabitants being massacred or sold into slavery, and the principal churches converted into mosques. The capture of Salonica had been preceded by renewed troubles with Servia and Hungary, peace being concluded with both in 1428. But these treaties, each of which marked a fresh Turkish advance, were short-lived. The story of the next few years is but a dismal record of aggression and of reprisals leading to fresh aggression. In 1432 the Turkish troops plundered in Hungary as far as Temesvar and Hermannstadt, while in Servia Semendria was captured and Belgrade invested. In Tran- sylvania, however, the common peril evoked by the Turkish incursion and a simultaneous rising of the Vlach peasantry had knit together the jarring interests of Magyars, Saxons and Szeklers, a union which, under the national hero, the voivode Janos Hunyadi (q.v.), was destined for a while to turn the tide of war. In 1442 Hunyadi drove the Turks from Hermannstadt and, at the head of an army of Hungarians, Poles, Servians, Walachians and German crusaders, succeeded in the ensuing year in expelling them from Semendria, penetrating as far as the Balkans, where he inflicted heavy losses on the Turkish general. Meanwhile, again confronted by a rebellion of the prince of Karamania, Murad had crossed into Asia and reduced him to submission, granting him honourable terms, in view of the urgency of the peril in Europe. On the i2th of July 1444 a ten years' peace was signed with Hungary, whereby Walachia was placed under the suzerainty of that country; and, wearied by constant warfare and afflicted by the death of his eldest son, Prince Ala-ud-din, Murad abdicated in favour of his son Mahom- med, then only fourteen years of age, and retired to Magnesia (1444). The pope urged the king of Hungary to take advantage of this favourable opportunity by breaking the truce solemnly agreed upon, and nineteen days after it had been concluded a coalition was formed against the Turks; a large army headed by Ladislaus I., king of Hungary, Hunyadi, voivode of Walachia, and Cardinal Cesarini crossed the Danube and reached Varna, where they hoped to be joined by the Greek emperor. In this emergency Murad was implored to return to the throne; to a second appeal he gave way, and crossing over with his Asiatic army from Anatoli Hissar he hastened to Varna. The battle was hotly contested; but, in spite of the prowess of Hunyadi, the rout of the Christians was complete; the king of Hungary and Cardinal Cesarini were among the killed. Murad is said to have abdicated a second time, and to have been again recalled to power owing to a revolt of the Janissaries. In 1446 Corinth, Patras and the north of the Morea were added to the Turkish dominions. The latter years of Murad's reign were troubled by the successful resistance offered to his arms in Albania by Scanderbeg (q.v.). In 1448 Hunyadi, now governor of Hungary, collected the largest army yet mustered by the Hungarians against the Turks, but he was defeated on the famous field of Kossovo and with difficulty escaped, while most of the chivalry of Hungary fell. Little more than two years later Murad died at Adrianople, being succeeded by his son Mahommed. After suppressing a fresh revolt of the prince of Karamania, the new sultan gave himself up entirely to the realization of the long-cherished project of the conquest of Con- nations- stantinople. He began by building on the European medii. the side of the Bosporus the fort known as Rumeli C°^'^' Hissar, opposite that built by his grandfather Bay- ezid. Tradition avers that but forty days were needed for the completion of the work, six thousand men being employed night and day; guns and troops were hurriedly put in, and all naviga- tion of the Bosporus was stopped. After completing his preparations, which included the casting of a monster cannon and the manufacture of enormous engines of assault, Mahommed 446 TURKEY [HISTORY began the siege in 1453. Constantine Palaeologus, the last occu- pant of the imperial throne, took every measure that the courage of despair could devise for the defence of the doomed city; but his appeal to the pope for the aid of Western Christendom was frustrated through the bigoted, anti-Catholic spirit of the Greeks. The defenders were dispirited and torn by sedition and dissen- sions, and the emperor could rely on little more than 8000 fighting men, while the assailants, 200,000 strong, were animated by the wildest fanatical zeal. The siege had lasted fifty-three days when, on the 2gth of May 1453, a tremendous assault was successful; the desperate efforts of the Greeks were unavailing, Constantine himself falling among the foremost defenders of the breach. The sultan triumphantly entered the palace of the emperors, and the next Friday's prayer was celebrated in the church of St Sofia (see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER). After some days' stay in Constantinople, during which he granted wide privileges to the Greeks and to their patriarch, the sultan proceeded northwards and entirely subdued the southern parts of Servia. A siege of Belgrade was unsuccessful, owing to the timely succour afforded by Hunyadi (1456). Two years later internal dissensions in Servia brought about the conquest of the whole country by the Turks, only Belgrade remaining in the hands of the Hungarians. The independent princes of Asia Minor were now completely subjugated and their territories finally absorbed into the Turkish dominions; Wala- chia was next reduced to the state of a tributary province. Venice having adopted a hostile attitude since Turkey's con- quests in the Morea, greater attention was devoted to the fleet; Mytilene was captured and the entrance to the straits fortified. The conquest of Bosnia, rendered necessary by the war with Venice, was next completed, in spite of the reverses inflicted on the Turks by the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus, the son of Janos Hunyadi. The Turks continued to press the Venetians by land and sea; Albania, which under Scanderberg had for twenty-five years resisted the Ottoman arms, was overrun; and Venice was forced to agree to a treaty by which she ceded to Turkey Scutari and Kroia, and consented to pay an indem- nity of 100,000 ducats (Jan. 25, 1478). The Crimea was next conquered and bestowed as a tributary province on the Tatar khan Mengli Girai. Mahommed now endeavoured to strike a blow at Rhodes, the stronghold of the Knights of St John, preparatory to carrying out his long-cherished plan of conquering Italy. A powerful naval expedition was fitted out, but failed, an armistice and treaty of commerce being signed with the grand master, Pierre d'Aubusson (1479). But a land attack on southern Italy at the same time was successful, Otranto being captured and held for a time by the Turks. In 1481 the sultan was believed to be projecting a campaign against the Circassian rulers of Syria and Egypt, when he died at Gebze. He is said to have been of a merry and even jocular disposition, to have afforded a generous patronage to learning, and, strange to say for a sultan, to have been master of six languages. Mahommed II. was the organizer of the fabric of Ottoman administration in the form which it retained practically un- changed until the reforms of Mahmud II. and Abd-ul-Mejid. He raised the regular forces of the country to a total exceeding 100,000; the pay of the Janissaries was by him increased, and their ranks were brought up to an effective of upwards of 12,000. He established the system whereby the lands conquered by the arms of his troops were divided into the different classes of fiefs, or else assigned to the maintenance of mosques, colleges, schools and charitable institutions, or converted into common and pasturage lands. Many educational and benevolent founda- tions were endowed by him, and it is to Mahommed II. that the organization of the ulema, or legist and ecclesiastical class, is due. Upon Bayezid II. succeeding to his father a serious revolt of the troops took place, which led to the institution of the Ba ezldir reSular payment of an accession donative to the 14SI-IS12." Janissaries. At the outset of the reign Bayezid's brother, Prince Jem, made a serious attempt to claim the throne; he was defeated, and eventually took refuge with the knights of Rhodes, whom Bayezid bribed to keep him in safe custody. The unfortunate prince was led from one European stronghold to another, and, after thirteen years' wandering, died at Naples in 1494 (see BAYEZID II.). Freed from the danger of his brother's attacks, the sultan gave himself up to devotion, leaving to his ministers the conduct of affairs in peace and war. But, though of an unambitious and peace-loving temper, the very conditions of his empire made war inevitable. Even when peace was nominally in existence, war in its most horrible forms was actually being waged. On the northern frontier border raids on a large scale were frequent. Thus, in 1492 the Turks made incursions into Carinthia as far as Laibach, and into Styria as far as Cilli, committing unspeak- able atrocities; in 1493 they overran both Styria and Croatia. The Hungarians retaliated in kind, burning and harrying as far as Semendria, torturing and murdering, and carrying off the saleable inhabitants as slaves. In 1494 a crushing victory of the emperor Maximilian drove the Turks out of Styria, which they did not venture again to invade during his reign. In 1496 the temporary armistice between the Poles and Turks, renewed in 1493, came to an end, and John Albert, king of Poland, seized the occasion to invade Moldavia. The efforts of Ladislaus of Hungary to mediate were vain, and the years 1497 and 1498 were marked by a terrible devastation of Poland by the Ottomans; only the bitter winter, which is said to have killed 40,000 Turks, prevented the devastation from being more complete. By the peace concluded in 1500 the sultan's dominions were again ex- tended. Meanwhile, in June 1499, war had again broken out with Venice, mainly owing to the intervention of the pope and emperor, who, with Milan, Florence and Naples, urged the sultan to crush the republic. On the 28th of July the Turks gained over the Venetians at Sapienza their first great victory at sea; and this was followed by the capture of Lepanto, at which Bayezid was present, and by the conquest of the Morea and most of the islands of the archipelago.' By the peace signed on the 24th of December 1502, however, the status quo was practically restored, the sultan contenting himself with receiving Santa Maura in exchange for Cephalonia. Meanwhile in Asia also the Ottoman Empire had been con- solidated and extended; but from 1501 onwards the ambitious designs of the youthful Shah Ismail in Persia grew more and more threatening to its security; and though Bayezid, intent on peace, winked at his violations of Ottoman territory and exchanged friendly embassies with him, a breach was sooner or later inevitable. This danger, together with the growing insubordination of the aged sultan's sons, caused his ministers to urge him to abdicate in favour of Selim, the younger but more valiant. This prince pushed his audacity so far as to attack his father's troops, but the action merely increased his popu- larity with the Janissaries, and Bayezid, after a reign of thirty- one years, was obliged to abdicate in favour of his forceful younger son; a few days later he died. This reign saw the end of the Mussulman rule in Spain, Turkey's naval power not being yet sufficient to afford aid to her co-religionists. It also saw the first intercourse between a Russian tsar and an Ottoman sultan, Ivan III. exchanging in 1492 friendly messages with Bayezid through the Tatar khan Mengli Girai; the first Russian ambassador appeared at Constantinople three years later. When he had ruthlessly quelled the resistance offered to his accession by his brothers, who both fell in the struggle for the throne, Selim undertook his campaign in Persia, having first extirpated the Shia heresy, the prevalent 1512-1520. sect of Persia, in his dominions, where it threatened to extend. After an arduous march and in spite of the mutinous behaviour of his troops, Selim, crushed the Persians at Chaldiran (1515) and became master of the whole of Kurdistan. He next turned against the Mameluke rulers of Egypt, crushed them, and entering Cairo as conqueror (1517), obtained from the last of the Abbasid caliphs,1 Motawakkil, the title of caliph (q.v.) 'After the fall of the caliphs of Bagdad (1258), descendants of the Abbasids took refuge in Cairo and enjoyed a purely titular authority under the protection of the Egyptian rulers. HISTORY] TURKEY 447 for himself and his successors (see EGYPT: History; M ahommedan Period). The sultan also acquired from him the sacred banner and other relics of the founder of Islam, which have since been preserved in the Seraglio at Constantinople. Egypt, Syria and the Hejaz, the former empire of the Mamelukes, were added to the Ottoman dominions. Towards the end of Selim's reign the religious revolt of a certain Jellal, who collected 200,000 adherents, was the cause of much trouble; but he was eventually routed and his force dispersed near Tokat. While preparing an expedition against Rhodes to avenge the repulse sustained forty years before by Mahommed II., the sultan died at Orash- keui, near Adrianople, at the spot where he had attacked his father's troops. His reign of eight years had almost doubled the extent of the Turkish dominions. He was succeeded by his son Suleiman " the Magnificent," in whose long and eventful reign Turkey attained the highest point of her glory. Selim's Asiatic conquests had left his successor free to enter upon a campaign in Europe, after the suppression of a revolt of the governor of Damascus, who had thought to take advantage of the new sultan's accession to restore the independent rule of the Circassian chiefs. In 1521 war was declared against the king of Hungary on the pretext that he had sent no congratulations on Suleiman's accession. Belgrade was besieged and captured, a conquest which Mahommed II. had failed to effect. In the next year an expedition was undertaken against Rhodes, the capture of which had become doubly important since the acquisi- tion of Egypt. The siege, which was finally conducted by the sultan in person, was successful after six months' duration; the forts of Cos and Budrum were also taken. The European war was now renewed; in 1526 the sultan, marching from Bel- grade, crossed the Danube and took Peterwardein and Esseg; on the field of Mohacs he encountered and defeated the Hun- garians under king Louis II., who was killed with the flower of the Hungarian chivalry (see HUNGARY: History). Budapest hereupon fell to the Turks, who appointed John Zapolya king of Hungary (1528). But the crown of Hungary was claimed by the archduke Ferdinand, brother of the emperor Charles V., as being king Louis's brother-in-law. This brought Turkey into collision with the great emperor. Moreover, Francis I. of France, who had just been defeated by Charles, sent to the sultan am- bassadors and messages dwelling on the danger of allowing Charles's power to become too great, and imploring the assis- tance of Suleiman as the only means of preserving the balance of power in Europe. Meanwhile Ferdinand's troops captured Budapest, driving out Zapolya, who at once appealed to Suleiman for aid. Suleiman decided against Charles, and marched north (1529). Zapolya joined the Turks at Mohacs, and a joint attack was made on Budapest. After five days' siege the Austrians were driven out, and Zapolya was reinstated on the throne of Hungary. The Turks then marched on Vienna, which was bombarded and closely invested, but so valiant was the resist- ance offered that after three weeks the siege was abandoned (Oct. 14, 1529). Suleiman now prepared for a campaign in Germany and sought to measure himself against Charles, who, however, withdrew from his approach, and little was done save to ravage Styria and Slavonia. In 1533 a truce was arranged, Hungary being divided between Zapolya and Ferdinand. During the Hungarian campaign the Shia sectaries had been encouraged to revolt, and the Persians had overrun Azerbaijan and recaptured Tabriz. Suleiman, therefore, turned his arms against them, reaching Bagdad in 1534, and capturing the whole of Armenia. The naval exploits of Khair-ed-din Pasha (see BARBAROSSA) are among the glories of the reign, and led to hostilities with Venice. After capturing Algiers, an attack by this famous admiral on Tunis was repulsed with the aid of Spain, but in the Mediterranean he maintained a hotly- contested struggle with Charles's admiral, Andrea Doria. Venice was in alliance with Charles, and her possessions were consequently attacked by Turkey by land and by sea, many islands, including Syra and Tinos, falling before Barbarossa's assaults. Corfu was besieged, but unsuccess- fully. At Preveza Barbarossa defeated the papal and Venetian fleets under Doria. In 1540 the fort of Castelnuovo, the strongest point on the Dalmatian coast, was taken by the Vene- tians and recaptured by Barbarossa. Peace was then made on the terms that Turkey should retain her conquests and Venice should pay an indemnity of 300,000 ducats. Friendly relations had subsisted between Suleiman and Ferdinand during the expedition to Persia; but on the death of Zapolya in 1539 Ferdinand claimed Hungary and besieged Budapest with a large force. Suleiman determined to support the claims of Zapolya's infant son, John Sigismund, and in 1541 set out in person. At the end of August he appeared before Budapest, the siege of which had already been raised by the defeat of the Austrians; the infant John Sigismund was carried into the sultan's camp, and the queen-mother, Isabella, was peremptorily ordered to evacuate the royal palace, though the sultan gave her a diploma in which he swore only to retain Budapest during the minority of her son. On the 2nd of September Suleiman entered the city, and to the ambassadors of Ferdinand, who came to offer a yearly sum if the sultan would recognize his claim to Hungary, he replied that he had taken possession of it by the sword and would negotiate only after the surrender of Gran, Tata, Vise- grad and Szekesfehervar. The war now continued vigorously by sea and land. The great expedition of the emperor Charles V. against Algiers ended in failure, his fleet being destroyed by a sudden storm (Oct. 31, 1541); and his diplo- matic efforts to wean Barbarossa from his allegiance to the sultan fared no better. In 1 542 a formal alfiance was concluded between Suleiman and Francis I. ; the Ottoman fleet was placed at the disposal of the king of France, and in August 1543, the Turks under Barbarossa, and the French under the duke of Enghien, laid siege to Nice. The town surrendered; but the citadel held out until, on the 8th of September, it was reh'eved by Andrea Doria. Meanwhile on land Suleiman had taken full advantage of the European situation to tighten his grip on Hungary. The attempt of the imperialists, under Joachim of Brandenburg, to retake Budapest (September 1542), failed ignominiously; and in the following year Suleiman in person conducted a campaign which led to the conquest of Siklos, Gran, Szekesfehervar and Visegrad (1544). Everywhere the churches were turned into mosques; and the greater part of Hungary, divided into twelve sanjaks, became definitively a Turkish province. A truce, on the basis of uli possidetis, signed at Adria- nople on the igth of June 1547 for five years, between the sultan, the emperor and Ferdinand I. king of Hungary, recognized the Turkish conquests in Hungary; while, for the portion left to- him, Ferdinand consented to pay an annual tribute of 30,000 ducats. John Sigismund was recognized as independent prince of Transylvania and of sixteen adjacent Hungarian counties, Queen Isabella to act as regent during his minority. Suleiman was now free to resume operations against Persia. In the spring of 1548 he set out on his eleventh campaign, which ended in the capture of Erzerum (August 16) and the conquest of Armenia and Georgia. But the Persian War dragged on, with varying fortune, for years, till after Suleiman had ravaged Persia it was concluded by the treaty — the first between shah and sultan — signed at Amasia on the 29th of May 1555. Meanwhile the war in Hungary had been resumed. Neither side had been careful to observe the terms of the treaty of 1 547 ; the Turkish pashas in Hungary had raided Ferdinand's do- minions, while Ferdinand had been negotiating with Frater Georgy (see MARTINUZZI) with a view to freeing Transylvania from the Ottoman suzerainty. When the sultan discovered that Martinuzzi, who was all-powerful in Transylvania, had actually arranged to hand over the country to Ferdinand, he threw the Austrian ambassador into prison, and in September 1551 sent an army, 80,000 strong, under Mahommed Sokolli over the Danube. Several forts, and the important town of Lippa on the Marosch, fell at once, and siege was laid to Temes- var. This was raised after two months, and Martinuzzi took 448 TURKEY [HISTORY advantage of the retirement of the Turks to raise an army and recapture Lippa. Before the surrender of the city, however, he was murdered by Ferdinand's orders on strong suspicion of treachery. The campaign of 1552 was disastrous for the Austrians; the Turks, under the command of Ahmed Pasha, defeated them at Szegedin and captured in turn Veszprem, Temesvar, Szolnok and other places. Their victorious career was only checked, in October, by the raising of the siege of Erlau. In the spring of 1553 the victories of the Persians called for the sultan's presence in the East; a truce for six months was now concluded between the envoys of Ferdinand and the pasha of Budapest, and Austrian ambassadors were sent to Constantinople to arrange a peace. But the negotia- tions dragged on without result; the war continued with hideous barbarities on both sides; and it was not until the ist of June 1562 that it was concluded by the treaty signed at Prague by Ferdinand, now emperor. Suleiman kept the possessions he had won by the sword, Temesvar, Szolnok, Tata and other places in Hungary; Transylvania was assigned to John Sigis- mund, the Habsburg claim to interference being categorically denied; Ferdinand bound himself to pay, not only the annual tribute of 30,000 ducats, but all the arrears that had meanwhile accumulated. Even this treaty, however, was but an apparent settlement. A year passed before the Latin and Turkish texts of the treaty were harmonized; and meanwhile irregular fighting continued on all the borders. In 1 564 Ferdinand died, and was succeeded by Maximilian II. The new emperor attacked Tokaj, which was in Turkish possession; the tribute had been allowed again to fall into arrears; and to all this was added that Mahommed SokoUi, the new grand vizier (1565), pressed for new war to wipe out the disgrace of the failure of the Ottoman attack on Malta (May-September 1565). In May 1566 the war broke out, Suleiman, now seventy-two years old, again leading his army in person. In August he laid siege to Szigetvar with 100,000 men; but on the sth of September, while preparations were being made for a final assault, the sultan died. His death was, however, kept secret, and on the Sth the fortress fell. The reign of Suleiman the Magnificent marked the zenith of the Ottoman pcwer. At the time of his death the Turkish Empire extended from near the frontiers of Germany to the frontiers of Persia. The Black Sea was practically a Turkish lake, only the Circassians on the east coast retaining their independence; and as a result of the wars with Persia the whole Euphrates valley, with Bagdad, had fallen into the sultan's power, now established on the Persian Gulf. The Venetians had been driven from the Morea and the islands of the Archi- pelago; and, except a strip of the Dalmatian coast and the little mountain state of Montenegro, the whole of the Balkan peninsula was hi Turkish hands. In the Mediterranean, Crete and Malta yet survived as outposts of Christendom; but the northern coasts of Africa from Egypt to Morocco acknowledged the supremacy of the sultan, whose sea power in the Mediterranean had become a factor to be reckoned with in European politics, threatening not only the islands, but the very heart of Christen- dom, Italy itself, and capable — as the alliance with France against Charles V. had shown — of being thrown with decisive weight into the balance of European rivalries. The power of the Ottomans at sea was maintained during this period by a series of notable captains, such as Khair-ed-din ^ *"s son Hassan, Piale, Torgud, Sali Reis and *" Reis. Of these the two first are separately noticed (see BARBAROSSA). Piale, a Croatian who had been brought up in the imperial harem and succeeded Sinan as capudan-pasha, crowned a series of victories over the galleys of Andrea Doria by the capture of the island of Jerba, off Tripoli (July 31, 1560). For this he was rewarded with the hand of one of the sultan's grand-daughters. He later became the second vizier of the empire, and, as a supporter of Sokolli, was in power till his death in 1575. Torgud, also the son of Christian parents, was a native of the sanjak of Mentesha in Asia Minor, and began his career as a soldier in the Ottoman, sea service. After spending some time as a Genoese galley-slave, he turned corsair and became the terror of the Mediterranean coasts. He seized Mahdia, a strong post on a tongue of land about 43 m. south of Susa in Tunisia, and made this the centre of his piracies till, during his absence raiding the Spanish coasts, it was bombarded and destroyed by an expedition sent by Charles V. (September 10, 1550). Torgud was now summoned to Constantinople to answer for piracies committed on the friendly galleys of Venice; but he sailed instead to Morocco, and there for two years defied the sultan's authority. But Suleiman, who needed the aid of the corsairs against Malta, pardoned him, and he was given the command of the expedition against Tripoli, which he captured. He now turned against Corsica, captured Bastia (August 1553) and on his return to Constantinople, laden with booty and slaves, chastised the insurgent Albanians. He was rewarded by Suleiman with the governorship of Tripoli, which he held till his death. He was killed during the unsuccessful attack on Malta, which he commanded (1565). Sali Reis, also by birth a Christian of Asia Minor, was likewise successful as a corsair; he distinguished himself especially at the capture of Tunis, and succeeded Hassan Barbarossa as beylerbey of Algiers. Other captains carried the Turkish arms down the Arabian and Persian gulfs far out into the Indian Ocean. Of these the most remarkable was Piri Reis, nephew of Kamil Reis, the famous corsair who, under Bayezid II., had swept the Aegean and Mediterranean. Piri sailed into the Persian Gulf, took Muscat, and laid siege to Ormuz. But the approach of the Portuguese fleet put him to flight; some of his vessels were wrecked; and on his return by way of Egypt he was arrested at Cairo and executed. He had compiled a sea-atlas (the Bahrije) of the Aegean and Mediterranean seas, every nook and cranny of which he had explored, with an account of the currents, soundings, landing-places, inlets and harbours. Another literary seaman of this period was Sidi Ali, celebrated under his poetic pseudonym of Katibi (or Katibi Rumi, to distinguish him from the Persian poet of the same name). He was no more successful than Piri or his successor Murad in fighting the elements and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf; but he was happier in his fate. Driven, with the remnant of his ships, into the Indian Ocean, he landed with fifty com- panions on the coast of India and travelled back to Turkey by way of Sind, Baluchistan, Khorassan and Persia. He wrote an account of this three years' journey, for which he was re- warded by Suleiman with an office and a pension. He was the author also of a mathematical work on the use of the astrolabe and of a book (Muhit, " the ocean ") on the navigation of the Indian seas. At the close of Suleiman's reign the Turkish army numbered nearly 200,000 men, including the Janissaries, whose total he almost doubled, raising them to 20,000. He im- „ i . . . 11-111 Reforms of proved the laws and institutions established by suielmaaL his predecessors and adapted them to the require- ments of the age; to him are due important modifications in the feudal system, aimed at maintaining the fiefs in a really effective condition. The codes of law were by him revised and improved, and he was the first sultan to enter into relations with foreign states. In 1534 Jean de La Foret, a knight of St John of Jerusalem, came to Constantinople as first per- manent French ambassador to the Porte, and in February 1535 were signed the first Capitulations (q.v.) with France. A short sketch of the administration and state of the country at this time may find place here. Successively transferred from Brusa to Adrianople and thence to Constantinop'e, the seat of government was at first little more than the camp of a conqueror. After the conquest of the imperial city the sultans began to adopt the pomp and splendour century of eastern sovereigns, and largely copied the system, ready to hand, of the Byzantine emperors. Affairs of state were at first discussed at the imperial divan, where the great dignitaries were convened at appointed hours. Until the reign of Mahommed the Conqueror the sultan presided in person ; but a rough Anatolian peasant penetrating one day to the council and exclaiming, "Which of you might be the sultan? I've come to make a complaint!" it .. fh HISTORY] TURKEY 449 was thought that in future it would be more consonant with the imperial dignity for the sovereign to remain concealed behind a grating where, unseen, he could hear all that was said. Towards the middle of Suleiman's reign even this practice was abandoned, and the sultans henceforth attended the divans only on the dis- tribution of pay to the troops or the reception of a foreign ambas- sador, which occasions were usually made to coincide. The divan accompanied the sultan on military expeditions. As established by Mahommed II., the officials of the state were divided into four classes: (l) administrative; (2) ecclesiastical; (3) secretarial and (4) military. The administration of kazas, or cantons, was usually entrusted to the cadis and the holders of the more important fiefs; the sanjaks, or departments, were ruled by ala'i beys or ntir-i-livas (colonels or brigadiers), pashas with one horse- tail ; the vilayets, or provinces, by beylerbeys or mir-i-mirans (lord of lords), pashas with two horse-tails; these were all originally military officers, who, in addition to their administrative functions, were charged with the duty of mustering and commanding the feudal levies in war time. Above them were the beylerbeys of Anatolia and Rumelia, who served under the orders of the commander-in-chief. The title of vizier was borne by six or seven persons simultaneously; the grand vizier was the chief of these and exercised supreme authority, being invested with the sultan's signet. He often com- manded an army in person, and was then given the title of serdar- i-ekrem (generalissimo); one of the subordinate viziers remained behind as kaimmakam, or locum tenens. The duties of the other viziers were limited to attending the divan; they were called kubbe or cupola viziers from the fact that the council met under a cupola ; they were pashas with three horse-tails, and were attended by large retinues, having generally achieved distinction as beylerbeys. These officers were usually chosen from among the more promising of the youths selected by the devshurme, or system of forced levy for manning the ranks of the Janissaries: hence so many of the statesmen of Turkey were of non-Mussulman origin. Besides these members of the secretarial class, such as nishanjis and defterdars, as well as regular army officers, and occasionally members of the ecclesiastical class, or ulema, rose to the rank of vizier. The highest dignitaries of the ecclesiastical class were at first the kazaskers, or military judges, of Europe and Asia ; later the office of Sheikh-ul-Islam was created as the supreme authority in matters relating to the Church and the sacred law. Promotion was regular, but was obtainable only by entering at an early age one of the medresses or colleges; the student, after passing through the suc- cessive degrees of danishmend, mulazim and muderris, became first a molla, then a judge, rising to the higher ranks as fortune and opportunity offered. In the time of Bayezid II. the post of nakib- ul-eshraf, or registrar of the sherifs, or descendants of the Prophet, was created. The secretarial class consisted of six categories: the nishanjis, the defterdars, the reis, the defter emini, the shakk-i-sani (or second class) defterdars and the shakk-i-sdlis (or third class) defterdars. The first named were charged with the duty of revising and duly executing the decisions of the divan respecting the assignment of lands to warriors and the apportioning of conquered territories. They were men of great culture, and many historians, poets and writers belong to this class. The defterdar was practically the minister of finance. The reis was the secretary-general of the divan, and in more modern times became minister for foreign affairs. The defter emini kept the registers for the nishanji, whose place he took on emergency, the others acted as secretaries and clerks. The military class was divided into two categories: (i) the regular paid troops who were quartered in barracks and were known as " slaves of the palace "; (2) the feudal levies who received no pay and were called upon to serve only in war-time. The Janissaries (q.v.) belonged to the first category. The rigid regulations for admission to their ranks were soon relaxed : at the close of the Persian war in 1590 their total amounted to 50,000. The regular troops comprised also armourers (jebeji), from 6000 to 8000 men, and six squadrons of cavalry; these were recruited in the same way as the Janissaries, and their numbers were raised by Murad III. to 20,000. There were also bostanjis, or forest-guards, numbering about 5000, besides local troops in distant and frontier provinces, and about 20,000 akinjis, or light troops, in Europe, who carried out forays in the enemies' country. The fiefs were not hereditary, and were held directly from the sultan. On the conquest of a country the lands were apportioned by the nishanjis, who first computed the tithe revenueof each village, its population, woods, pasturage, &c. ; and divided it into the three classes of fief s (khas, ziamet and timar), or into vakuf (pious endow- ments) or pasturage. Any estate with a revenue exceeding 100,000 aspres was a khas, and was conferred on a prince or on a high dignitary as long as he held his post ; for each 5000 aspres of revenue one armed warrior had to be furnished in war. Fiefs with a revenue of from 20,000 to 100,000 aspres were called ziamets and were conferred on similar terms on inferior officers, usually for life or during good behaviour. Fiefs with a revenue of from 3000 to 20,000 aspres were timars, furnishing one armed warrior for every 3000 aspres' revenue ; the grant of a fief was conditional on obligatory residence. The peasants owning the land remained undisturbed in their xxvn. 15 Sellm //., 1566-1574. proprietorship, paying to their feudal lord the tithe, as well as the fixed duties on transfer, &c. Abuses in the system first began in the time of Khosrev Pasha, Suleiman's grand vizier. The governors of the more distant provinces enjoyed a consider- able amount of independence, which in the case of the Barbary states was more or less complete ; these entered into treaties with foreign powers, and by their piratical outrages frequently caused the Porte considerable embarrassment. The sherif of the Hejaz, Abu-'l-berekat, made submission to Sultan Selim I. After the subjugation of the Yemen, the absorption of the holy places was also attempted, and. in Suleiman s reign judges were ap- pointed thither from Constantinople. But it was found politic to continue the office of the grand sherif of Mecca in the sherifian family. The princes of the Crimea were invested with many of the prero- gatives of independence, e.g. that of coining money; the ruler of Transylvania was allowed to retain the royal title, nor were Turkish troops quartered in the country. The Danubian principalities were also ruled by native princes until the Phanariote period (see PHANARIOTES). On the 1 7th of February 1568, two years after the accession of Suleiman's son Selim, peace was concluded with Austria on the basis of the former terms, the emperor Maximilian having sent ambassadors to congratulate the new sultan on his accession. A disastrous attack on Astrakhan, with the object of carrying out Sokolli's plan for uniting the Don and the Volga, first brought the Turks into collision with the Russians. Expeditions against the Yemen and Cyprus were successful, but the loss of Cyprus, accompanied as it was by the barbarous murder of the Venetian commander, Marco Antonio Bragadino, by the seras- kier pasha Mustafa's orders, in violation of the terms of the capitulation of Famagusta (August 1571), roused the bitter resentment of the Venetians, previously incensed by Turkish raids on Crete. Already, on the 2$th of May, had been concluded the holy league between the pope, Venice and Spain for a new crusade against the infidel, in spite of the efforts of France to prevent the adhesion of the republic. Preparations were hurried on and at the end of September the great allied fleet, under Don John of Austria, sailed into the archipelago. On the 7th of October was fought the naval battle of Lepanto, which broke for ever the tradition of the invincibility of the Turks at sea. The immediate results of the battle were not, however, as decisive as might have been expected. In June 1572 a fresh Ottoman fleet of 250 sail took the sea; and the jealousy of the allies and the incompetence of their commanders made any repetition of their former victory impossible. After a series of indecisive engagements Venice broke from the league and, under the mediation of France, concluded a treaty with the Porte practically on the basis of uti possidetis (March 7, !573)- With Spain the war continued, and on the 24th of August 1574 Tunis — which had been taken by Don John of Austria in 1572 — was recaptured by the Turks, who from this new base proceeded, under Sinan Pasha and Kilij Ali, to ravage Sicily.1 In the same year Selim II. died. Known in history as the " Sot," he had allowed his able grand vizier Mahommed Sokolli to rule the country. The character of Murad III., who succeeded his father Selim II. at the age of twenty-eight, was not calculated to arrest the progress of decay within the Ottoman Empire. He was a weakling, swayed by his favourites in the Murad in., harem, especially by his Venetian wife Safi6; and, I574-1S9S. though he kept Sokolli in office, he was suspicious of the too powerful vizier, whose wise influence he allowed his minions to undermine. Thus eminent servants of the state such as Mustafa Pasha, Sokolli's nephew — who for twelve years had ruled the sanjak of Budapest with con- spicuous enlightenment and success — were deposed or executed to make way for the nominees of the harem. In even weightier matters the opinion of the grand vizier was slighted. Thus it was against his advice that, at the beginning of 1578, advantage was taken of the disorders arising on the death of Shah Tahmasp of Persia to attack 1 It was ten years before a formal truce was signed with Spain (1584); two hundred years passed before the signature of a definitive treaty of peace and commerce (Sept. 14, 1782). 45° TURKEY [HISTORY that country. The war lasted for twelve years, during which Tiflis, Shirvan and Daghestan were taken; finally Shah Abbas established himself on the Persian throne and in 1590 made peace with Turkey, who retained her con- quests in Georgia, Azerbaijan and Shirvan. But this short- sighted policy is criticized by Turkish historians, who censure Murad III. for thus weakening the neighbouring Mussulman states such as Persia and Daghestan, thereby facilitating Russia's future expansion at their cost. Sokolli's assassination, on the nth of October 1578, had meanwhile thrown the ccomtry into disorder. There was now no authority left to hold in check the corrupt influences of the harem. The avenues to power were through bribery and yet more unspeakable paths; the fiefs which formed the basis of the feudal array were bestowed on favourites' favourites, or sold to the highest bidder, and the sultan himself shared in the corrupt plunder. At last that final expedient of weak governments, the debasing of the coinage, led to a crisis. In 1589 mutinies of troops took place all over the empire, and in the two following years there were several risings of the Janissaries at Constantinople, the pretext being everywhere that the soldiers were being robbed of their pay. At this juncture a fresh crisis in the relations with Austria arose. The peace concluded in 1568 and thrice renewed (in IS73, J576 and 1584) had not prevented the continuance of raids and forays, from either side of the frontier, that at times assumed the dimensions of regular campaigns. The climax came in 1593. All through the preceding year Hassan " Tilli," beylerbey of Bosnia, had raided in Croatia, taking border fortresses and driving off the inhabitants into slavery. In June 1593, with an army of 30,000 men, he laid siege to Sissek; the Austrian and Hungarian levies hurried to its relief; and on the zznd the Turks were routed with immense slaughter on the banks of the Kulpa, Hassan himself, with many other beys and two of the imperial princes, being among the slain. Though not yet formally declared, the " long war " was now in full progress. In August, Sinan Pasha, the grand vizier — now eighty years of age — took command of the troops for the Hungarian War and left Constantinople, dragging with him the Austrian ambassador in chains. The capture of Veszprem and of Raab (1594) and the failure of the archduke Matthias to take Gran seemed to promise another rapid victory of the Ottoman arms; but Sinan was ill-supported from Constanti- nople, the situation was complicated by the revolt of Walachia and Moldavia, and the war was destined to last, with varying fortunes, for fourteen years. On the i6th of January 1595 Murad III. died. In spite of the internal corruption which, under Murad III., heralded the decay of the empire, the prestige of the Ottomans in Europe was maintained during his reign. Even the emperor had to be content to be treated by the sultan as an inferior and tributary prince; while France had to suffer, with no more than an idle protest, the insult of the conversion of Catholic churches at Constantinople into mosques. In spite of frequent causes of friction, good relations were maintained with Venice, through the influence of the sultana Safie, and the capitulations with the republic of St Mark were renewed in 1589. Those with France were also renewed (July 6, 1581); and capitulations were signed for the first time with the grand duke of Tuscany (1578) and with England (isSo).1 In the following year permanent diplomatic relations were established by England with the Porte by the despatch of William Harebone as ambassador, Queen Elizabeth urging as her special claim to the sultan's friendship their common mission to fight " idolaters." The new sultan, Mahommed III., Murad 's son, succeeded to the throne at a moment when the Turkish arms were suffering reverses in Hungary and in the revolted Danubian provinces; Mahom- the Janissaries, too, were ill-content and mutinous, med in., and to put an end to their murmurings Mahommed 1S9S-1603. was persuaded by Sinan Pasha to lead them to the war in person. The immediate effect was good; Erlau was 1 They were renewed with England in 1593, 1603, 1606, 1622, 1624, 1641, 1662 and 1675. captured in October 1596, and a three days' battle in the plain of Keresztes (Oct. 23 to 26) ended in the disastrous rout of the allied troops under the archduke Maximilian and Sigismund, prince of Transylvania. But the Turks did not profit much by their victory. The new grand vizier, Cicala, by his severity to the soldiers, mainly Asiatics, who had shown cowardice in the battle, drove thousands to desert; and the sultan, who had himself little stomach for the perils of cam- paigning, returned to Constantinople, leaving the conduct of the war to his generals. The campaign of 1598 began with the loss of Raab, and continued unfavourable to the Turks, who lost Totis, Veszprem and Papa, and were hard pressed in Buda- pest. In October want of supplies and a mutiny of the Janis- saries compelled the commander-in-chief to retreat into winter quarters at Belgrade. In 1599 the first peace overtures were made, but came to nothing; and the confused fighting of this and the following year culminated in the capture of Kanizsa by the Turks (September 1600). The attempt of the archduke Ferdinand, at the head of 30,000 men, to retake it a year later was defeated. In August 1602 Szekesfeherv&r again fell into the hands of the Turks; in November the siege of Buda by the archduke Matthias, who had taken Pest by storm, was raised by the grand vizier Hassan. Trouble had, however, meanwhile broken out in other parts of the Ottoman dominions. The deserters from Cicala's army, distributed in armed bands throughout Asia Minor, had become centres round which all the elements of discontent gathered, and formed the mainstay of the Jellali sectaries who, at this time, rose in insurrection and ravaged Anatolia. In Con- stantinople, early in 1603, there was, moreover, a serious rising of the spahis; and, finally, in September Shah Abbas of Persia took advantage of what is known in Turkish history as " the year of insurrections " to declare war and reconquer Tabriz. In the midst of this crisis, on the 22nd of December 1603, Sultan Mahommed III. died, and was succeeded by his elder son, Ahmed I., a boy of fourteen. Though negotiations for peace were at once begun, it was not till three years after Ahmed's accession that the peace of Sitva- torok, concluded on the nth of November 1606, at last put an end to the war in Europe. By this treaty the annual tribute payable by Austria was abolished, but an indemnity of 200,000 florins was paid "once for all " by the emperor, who was henceforth to be given his proper imperial title (padishah) in Turkish official documents. The peace of Sitvatorok (or Zeideva, as it is also called) marks the close of Turkey's period of conquest. No longer haughtily imposed on the vanquished, as was the case with former treaties, it was submitted to the examination and discussion of both parties before being signed. It freed Austria from the humiliating tribute to which the treaty of 1547 had subjected her, and established relations between the two monarchs on a footing of equality. It was thus the first manifest sign of Turkey's decadence from the glory of Suleiman I.'s reign, when King Ferdinand stooped to call the sultan's vizier his brother. For the remainder of the reign the Persian War was continued fitfully, a treaty of peace, signed in 1611, not being observed. In 1617 the sultan died, and was succeeded by his brother Mustafa; but the latter being declared incompetent to reign, his brother Osman took his place on the throne. Mustttlai The war in Persia was terminated by the renewal leir-ieis" in 1618 of the treaty of 1611, whereby all the con- ""I quests effected by Murad III. and Mahommed III. °*™*n6"2" were given up. Peace, however, left the rebellious Janissaries leisure to engage in plots against the sultan, and in order to occupy them and to remove them from the capital advantage was taken of the king of Poland having intervened in the affairs of Transylvania and the principalities to declare war against him. Osman marched against Khotin, but failed to capture it, and his unpopularity with the army was increased by rumours that he designed to collect such troops as were loyal to him, under pretence of going on HISTORY] TURKEY pilgrimage to Mecca, in order to destroy the Janissaries and reform the country. They therefore rose and dethroned him, soon afterwards putting him to death. For a few months Mustafa was replaced on the throne; when he abdicated in Mustafa I favour of nis nephew Murad IV. Turkey seemed to 1&2-1623', be at the point of dissolution. Profiting by the and mutiny of the army, the Persians invaded Turkey, Murad iv., capturing Bagdad; at Constantinople and in the W0" provinces alike anarchy was everywhere prevalent. This continued until the new sultan had acquired age and experience; but, nine years after his accession, he successfully crushed the military rebels, and thereafter ruled with a severity amounting to bloodthirsty cruelty. In 1638 he marched in person against the Persians and succeeded in recapturing Bagdad. Peace was made in 1639, leaving the Turco-Persian frontier practically as it now stands. In the next year the sultan died at the age of thirty-one, being succeeded by his brother Ibrahim. In his reign the Cossacks were driven from Azov and the expedition against Crete was begun, the immediate cause being the plunder of a Turkish vessel by 'u4o'-i648. Maltese corsairs who took their capture to Crete. War was therefore declared against Venice, to whom Crete belonged (1644), and continued in the island for twenty-five years. The anarchy and misgovernment of Turkey now reached such a pitch that Ibrahim was dethroned and murdered, and Mabom- his son Mahommed IV. was proclaimed in his mediv., stead. For the first eight years of his reign suc- 1648-1687. cessive grand viziers were unable to restore order to the country. In 1656 Mahommed Kuprili (q.v.) became grand vizier, and by dint of firmness and resolution repaired the falling fortunes of the country. The fleet was restored, and recaptured Lemnos and other islands which had passed into the hands of the Venetians; the revolts caused by Kuprili's severity were put down, and tranquillity was re- established in Transylvania. After five years' tenure of office the grand vizier died and was succeeded by his son, Ahmed Kuprili. In 1663 the disturbances which had broken out again in Transylvania led to war with Austria. Ahmed Kuprili attacked the Austrians, at first with success, but was routed by Montecuculi at the battle of St Gotthard Abbey and eventually consented to the treaty of Vasvar (Aug. 10, 1664), by which a twenty years' truce was agreed upon; Transylvania was evacuated by both parties, but remained tributary to Turkey. The Kuprilis, both father and son, had by their haughty and uncompromising demeanour done much to alienate the old-standing friendship with France, and at the battle of St Gotthard 6000 French, under Coligny, fought on the Austrian side. The result was that the Turks in retaliation deprived the Catholics, always under the protection of France, of some of their privileges in connexion with the holy places, which were now granted to the Orthodox Church. Meanwhile the Cretan campaign continued, and here also France lent her aid to the Venetians; this assistance could not, however, prevent the capture of Candia in 1669; on the sth of September of that year Morosini, the Venetian commander, signed a treaty of peace with the Turks by which, after twenty-five years' warfare, they were placed in possession of the fortress of Candia, and with it of the effective rule over the whole island, Venice retain- ing only the fortresses of Suda, Grabusa and Spinalonga, and the islets along the coast. Dissensions among the Cossacks led to the recognition by Turkey of Doroshenko, the hetman of the Sari Kamish, as ruler of the Ukraine; the Zaporog Cossacks, his antagonists, applied for aid to Russia. However, Michael Wiesnowiecki, king of Poland, considering the Ukraine as under his protection, sought to intervene, with the result that Turkey declared war against him (1672). The Turks captured Kamenets, Lemberg and Lublin. Hereupon the Poles sued for peace, and a treaty was signed at Buczacs (Oct. 18, 1672) whereby Podolia was ceded to Turkey, the Ukraine was left to the Cossacks, and Poland agreed to pay to Turkey an annual tribute of 22,000 sequins. But John Sobieski, who succeeded shortly afterwards to the throne of Poland, refused to abide by the terms of this treaty; the war was renewed and continued for four years, when the treaty of Buczacs was reaffirmed at Zuravno by both parties, the tribute clause alone being abrogated (Oct. 16, 1676). A few days later Ahmed Kuprili died. Doroshenko now deserted the Turkish alliance for the Russian; in consequence an expedition was sent into the Ukraine which was both costly and useless. In 1678 the Turks succeeded in taking Cehrin, but their losses were very heavy, and on the Sth of January 1681 a treaty was signed at Radzyn whereby the territory in dispute was ceded to Russia. A revolt of the Hungarian Protestants, in consequence of the persecuting policy of the house of Habsburg, now led to a renewal of the war between Turkey and Austria, due in part to the over- weening ambition of Kuprili's successor, Kara Mustafa, who desired to immortalize his tenure of office by some great exploit, and who cherished dreams of founding for himself a western Moslem Empire. The war is blamed by Turkish historians as unjustifiable and untimely, the country needing reform. A vast Turkish army marched to the walls of Vienna and closely beleaguered the imperial city, from which the emperor and his court fled. All hope seemed lost, when by a brilliant feat of arms John Sobieski, king of Poland, drove away the besiegers in hopeless confusion and saved the cause of Christianity, 1683. This was the signal for a general coalition against Turkey; Venice, Poland and the pope allied themselves with the Aus- trians; Russia, Tuscany and Malta joined in the attack. Turkey now sought for a rapprochement with France, and endeavoured to bring about her intervention in return for concessions as regards the holy places. But the French had just before bombarded Algiers and Tripoli, even menacing Chios (Scio), where some pirates had put in with French captives; and the mediation of France was not very actively exercised. One after another the Hungarian forts were captured by the Austrians; the Venetians were equally successful in Greece and the Morea; the Russians pressed on the Crimea, and Sobieski besieged Kamenets. The troops now mutinied and deposed the sultan, placing his brother Suleiman on the throne. But the disorder in the army and the administration continued, and the advance of the Austrians and the Venetians met with little opposition. In this emergency Mustafa _ •v •!• / \ • , • • , fc, \ Sulelmaall., Kuprui (q.v.) was appointed grand vizier (1689). /^JT./^/. His prudent measures at once re-established some degree of order in the army and the fleet, while he sought by a wise tolerance to improve the position and conciliate the sympathies of the non-Moslem subject races. At first eminently successful, he drove the Austrians across the Danube, recapturing Nish, Vidin, Semendria and Belgrade; repulses were also inflicted on the Venetians and the Russians. In the course of the campaign the sultan died, being succeeded by his brother Ahmed. The successes of the Turks were not maintained, the Austrians inflicting on them a crushing defeat at Slankamen, where Mustafa Kuprili was killed, and driving them from Hungary. After four years of disaster Ahmed died; he was succeeded by his nephew 1691-1695. Mustafa. The tide of success now turned again in favour of the Turks, who recaptured Karansebes and Lippa, and at Lugos exterminated by the weight of over- whelming numbers an Austrian force under Field-marshal Count Friedrich von Veterani (1630-1695), the hero of many victories over the Turks, who was killed in the battle. Elsewhere, too, the Ottoman arms were victorious; in February the Venetians suffered a double defeat in the road- stead of Chios, and the island fell into the hands of the Turks. But Prince Eugene's genius restored the Austrian fortunes, and the Turks were utterly routed at Zenta on the Theiss, losing more than 15,000 men (1697). Russia, driven from Azov in 1695, succeeded in capturing it in the following year; Venice continued to press the Turks; in this condition of affairs Hussein Kuprili (q.v.) was called to office; England and Holland urged Turkey to 452 TURKEY [HISTORY make peace, and after long negotiations a series of treaties were concluded in January 1699 at Karlowitz, that with Poland being signed on the i6th and those with Austria and Venice on the 26th. The main provisions of these were, that Turkey retained the Banat, while Austria kept Transyl- vania; Poland restored the places captured in Moldavia, but retained Kamenets, Podolia and the Ukraine; Venice restored her conquests north of Corinth, but kept those in the Morea and Dalmatia. On the 4th, Russia concluded a two years' armistice, but remained in possession of Azov, which was formally ceded to her by the definitive treaty of peace signed at Constantinople on the I3th of June 1700. The peace of Karlowitz marks the definitive termina- tion of Turkey's power of offence in Europe. Apart from the heavy losses which it imposed on her, it constitutes a fresh departure in her history, as putting an end to her splendid isolation and rendering her dependent on the changes of Euro- pean politics. It is noteworthy also as being the first occasion on which representatives of the mediating powers took part in the peace negotiations. The grand vizier's efforts to take advantage of the peace to introduce order in the country were unavailing; he was driven from office, and disorders ensued which led to the sultan's abdication. The troubles were not ended by the accession of Ahmed III., and many high dignitaries of state were sacrificed to the law- lessness and insubordination of the Janissaries. o" Meanwhile Turkey found herself again involved with Russia. After the defeat of Charles XII. of Sweden at Poltava, this monarch took refuge in Turkey, and was allowed to reside at Bender. The Russians pursued him into Turkish territory; which led to a Turkish declara- tion of war (1710). The Turks succeeded in surrounding Peter the Great near the Pruth, and his army was menaced with total destruction, when the Turkish commander, the grand vizier Baltaji Mahommed Pasha, was induced by the presents and entreaties of the empress Catherine to sign the preliminary treaty of the Pruth (July 21, 1711), granting terms of peace far more favourable than were justified by the situation of the Russians. These were: the cession to Turkey of Azov with all its guns and munitions, the razing of all the forts recently built on the frontier by Russia, the renunciation by the tsar of all claim to interfere with the Tatars under the dominion of the Crimea or Poland, or to maintain a representative at Constantinople, and Russia's consent to Charles's return to Sweden.1 It was long, however, before the latter relieved Turkey of his presence. During the campaign Peter had entered into alliance with the hospodars of Moldavia and Walachia, respectively Demetrius Cantemir and Constantine Brancovano, from whom he had received material assistance. These were naturally dismissed after the defeat of the Russians; the former made good his escape to Russia, the latter was executed. The sultan determined henceforth to appoint Greeks to the princi- palities as more likely to be subservient to his will than the natives hitherto appointed. This system was continued until the Greek insurrection of 1821. Russia having thus lost all the advantage gained by the peace of Karlowitz, Venice was next taken in hand, she having invaded the Bosnian frontier and incited the Montenegrins to revolt, besides capturing Turkish ships in the Mediterranean. These acts were held to be infractions of the treaty, and war was declared (1715). The result was the stamping out of the insurrection in Montenegro and the capture of the whole of the Morea. The fleet also took Tinos and Cerigo, as well as the three forts still remaining to the Venetians in Crete. Turkey's action, and the preparations being made for the siege of Corfu, now brought about the intervention of Austria. Charles VI., weary of the war for the Spanish succession, had shortly before concluded the peace of Rastadt (1715) and was anxious that Venice should not be too hardly pressed. He therefore urged Turkey to give up to Venice certain places in Dalmatia as a •The definitive treaty was signed at Constantinople on the i6th of April 1712 (renewed June 5, 1713). compensation for the loss of the Morea. The Porte was at first disposed to comply, but the party of resistance finally prevailed. War was declared against Austria (1716); the fleet sailed for Corfu and the army crossed the Save from Belgrade to Semlin. Near Peterwardein a great battle was fought, in which the Austrians completely routed the Turks; pursuing their advantage they took Temesvar and overran the Banat; in 1717 they captured Belgrade, the Turks retreating to Adrian- ople. England and Holland now urged their mediation, and after negotiations the treaty of Passarowitz (Pozharevats in Servia) was signed (July 21, 1718); Venice ceded the Morea to Turkey but kept the strongholds she had occupied in Albania and Dalmatia; Belgrade, Temesvar and Walachia as far as the Olt were retained by Austria. Meanwhile relations with Russia continued strained. The peace of 1712 had been concluded only for a term of years, and the neglect of the tsar to carry out its provisions had all but led to a fresh outbreak of hostilities when the intervention of the other powers led in 1713 to the renewal of the treaty; and in November 1720 it was superseded by a treaty of " per- petual peace," signed at Constantinople. But, though the questions at issue between Russia and Turkey in Poland and the northern littoral of the Black Sea were thus for the time settled, the aggressive designs of Russia in the Caucasus and in Persia soon caused a renewal of anxiety at Constantinople. Again war all but broke out; but, through the intervention of France, a treaty of partition was signed at Constantinople on the 23rd of June 1724, whereby the shores of the Caspian from the junction of the Kur and the Arras (Araxes) northwards should belong to Russia, while the western provinces of Persia should fall to the share of Turkey. These provinces had not yet been conquered by Turkey; and, when a part of them had been taken, a treaty was concluded with the Afghan Ashraf Shah, who had risen to supreme power in Persia, by which Turkey should retain them on condition of recognizing him as shah (Oct. 23, 1727). But Nadir Kuli Khan came forward as the champion of Shah Tahmasp II., the rightful ruler, and drove the Turks from these provinces, capturing Tabriz. This news caused consternation at Constantinople; the inevit- able revolt of the Janissaries followed, headed this time by one Patrona Khalil, and the sultan was forced to abdicate in favour of his nephew Mahmud. With difficulty the rebellion was suppressed; in 1733 the war with Persia was resumed, and after three years of fighting Nadir succeeded in 1736 in inducing Turkey to recognize him as shah of Persia and to restore the territory captured since the reign of MuradlV. Russia's designs on Poland now brought about war. On the death of Augustus II., king of Poland (1733), France had put forward as candidate Stanislaus Leszczynski, War of Louis XV. 's father-in-law. Austria and Russia Polish supported Augustus III., elector of Saxony, and Succession. the empress Anne marched an army into Poland and com- pelled the election of her candidate, though Russia had bound herself by the treaty of 1711 and again by that of 1720 to abstain from all interference with Poland. France thereupon declared war against Russia and her ally Austria, and her envoy, the marquis de Villeneuve, urged Turkey to join by representing the danger of allowing Russian influence to extend. Turkey had cause of complaint against Russia for refusing to allow the Crimean troops to march through Daghestan during the Persian campaign, and on the 28th of May 1736, war was declared, in spite of the efforts of England and Holland. The Russians had not waited for the formal declaration of war; and on the very day that this was notified by the hanging out of the horse-tails before the Seraglio at Constantinople a Russian army under Marshal Munnich stormed the ancient wall that guarded the isthmus of the Crimea. While Munnich conducted a systematic devastation of the peninsula, forces were detached under his lieutenants Leontiev and Lascy to attack Kinburn (Kiiburun) and Azov. Both these places fell; and in July of the following year Munnich captured Ochakov. HISTORY] TURKEY 453 Meanwhile the western sea-powers had made earnest efforts to restore peace, and in August 1737 the plenipotentiaries of the combatant powers met at Niemirov to arrange terms under their mediation. But Austria, which had made a great show of seconding their efforts, now began to unmask her real aims, which were to take advantage of Turkey's embarrass- ments to push her own claims in the principalities and the Balkan Peninsula. To the refusal of the sultan's representatives to concede any of her demands, Austria replied by revealing the existence of an alliance with Russia, which she threatened to make actively offensive if her terms were refused. In November the conferences broke up; in the spring of the following year Austrian divisions advanced simultaneously into Bosnia, Servia and Walachia; and in July the main army, under the prince of Lorraine, crossed the frontier and captured Nish. In spite of this initial success, however, the campaign proved disastrous to the Austrians; and France, which had meanwhile come to terms with the emperor, endeavoured to mediate a peace in conjunction with Sweden and Holland. But the Ottomans, though the negotiations continued throughout 1738, were in no hurry to come to terms; for the tide of war had turned against both Austrians and Russians; Ochakov and Kinburn were recaptured; and the victorious Turks crossed the Danube and penetrated far into the Banat. Not till the middle of 1739 would they consent to negotiate seriously for peace. The con- ferences were opened at the close of July in the camp of the grand vizier, who was pressing Belgrade hard and demanded the surrender of the city as a sine qua non. This was conceded; on the ist of September, under the mediation of the French ambassador Villeneuve, the preliminaries were signed; on the 4th the grand vizier made his formal entrance into the city, where on the i8th the definitive treaties with Austria and Russia were signed. By the former Austria gave up Belgrade and the places on the right bank of the Save and the Danube which she had gained by the treaty of Passarowitz, together with the Austrian portions of Walachia. The treaty with Russia provided that Azov should be razed and its terri- tory devastated to form a barrier, Russia having the right to erect a new fortress at Cherkask, an island in the Don, near Azov, and Turkey to build one on the border of Kuban near Azov. But Taganrog was not to be refortified, and Russia was to have no war-ships on the sea of Azov or the Black Sea. The Kabardias, great and little, were to remain independent, to serve as a barrier between the two empires. By the 1 2th article the Ottoman government agreed " amicably to discuss " the question of recognizing the tsar's claim to the imperial title, and by the I3th admitted his right to send to Constantinople representatives of whatever rank he might judge fitting (Noradounghian, Recueil, i. 258). Scarcely two years after the signature of the treaty of Belgrade sinister rumours reached Constantinople from Persia, where Nadir Shah, on his return from India, was planning an attack on Mesopotamia. The war, which broke out in 1743, was waged with varying fortunes, and the peace by which it was concluded on the sth of September 1746, beyond stipu- lating for a few privileges for Persian pilgrims to the holy places, altered nothing in the settlement arranged ten years before with Murad IV. In the war of the Austrian Succession, which followed the accession of Maria Theresa to the Habs- burg throne, Turkey, in spite of the urgency of France, would take no share, and she maintained the same attitude in the disorders in Persia following the death of Nadir Shah. In 1754 the Sultan Mahmud died. He was succeeded by - „. his brother Osman, whose three years' reign Osman 111., . , i- • i r 1754-1757. was marked by no political event of special importance. Osman III. was succeeded by his cousin Mustafa. At the outset of his reign negotiations M st f m were act^ve^v pursued for the conclusion of a 1757*1773. " treaty with Prussia, to counteract the alliance between France and Austria contracted in 1756; and these resulted in the signature of Capitulations, or a treaty of friendship and commerce (March 22, 1761). The attitude of the northern powers, however, and especially of Russia, towards Poland was beginning to excite the sultan's liveliest suspicions; and these the accession, in 1762, of the masterful Catherine II. to the Russian throne was not calculated to allay. In 1763, Catherine took advantage of the death of August us II I. of Poland to force her favourite, Stanislaus Poniatowski, on to the vacant throne. From the committee of patriots at Warsaw complaints and warnings were carried to Constantinople; and the cession of Podolia was offered as the price of a Turkish attack on Russia. The sultan, though inclined to take up the cause of the Polish dissidents, was slow to move, and contented himself for a while with protests and threats. But the aggressive policy of Russia in the direction of the Caspian and Black Seas became more and more evident; complaints reached the Porte of a violation of the neutrality of Kabardia, of a seditious propaganda in Moldavia by Russian monks, and of Russian aid given to the malcontents in Servia and Montenegro. Added to all this was the news of the continual Russian military aggressions in Poland, against which the Catholic confederation of Bar continued to appeal for aid. At last, on the 6th of October 176*8, on the refusal of the Russian minister to give guarantees for the withdrawal of the Russian troops from Poland and the abandonment of Russia's claim to interfere with the liberties of the republic, war was declared and the Russian representative was imprisoned in the Seven Towers. The war that followed marks an epoch in the decay of the Ottoman Empire and in the expansion of Russia. When, in the spring of 1769, the first serious campaign was opened by a simultaneous attack by three Russian armies on the princi- palities, the Crimea and the buffer state of Kabardia, the Turks, in spite of ample warning, were unprepared. They were hampered, moreover, by an insurrection in the Morea, where a Russian expedition under Orlov had stirred up the Mainotes, and by risings in Syria and Egypt. It was not, however, till September that the fall of Khotin in Bessarabia marked the first serious Russian success. The following year was more fatal. In May the Ottoman fleet was attacked and destroyed off Cheshme, and the Russian war-ships threatened to pass the Dardanelles. In June Romanzov's victory at Kartal made him master of the principalities, and by November the fortresses of Izmail and Kilia, guarding the passage of the Danube, and those of Akkerman and Bender on the Dniester had fallen into the hands of the Russians. The campaign of 1771, which opened with a gleam of success in the capture of Giurgevo, proved yet more disastrous to the Turks, the Russians passing the Danube and completing the conquest of the Crimea. Prussia and Austria now offered their mediation; and in June conferences were opened at Focshani, which led to no result. In the following year a conference, from which the Austrian and Prussian representatives were excluded, was opened at Bucharest (November 1772). In February 1773 the Russian plenipotentiary delivered his ultimatum, of which the most important demands were the cession of Kerch, Yenikale and KinBurn, the free navigation of the Black Sea and Archipelago for Russian trading and war vessels, and the recognition of the tsar's right to protect the Orthodox subjects of the sultan. These conditions were submitted to Constantinople, and rejected after a stormy debate in the divan. The conference of Bucharest now broke up, and the war continued. The successful defence of Varna and Silistria seemed to justify the stubbornness of the Porte. On the 24th of December 1773 Mustafa III. died, and was succeeded by his brother Abd-ul-Hamid I., a weakling, from whose character nothing could be expected to Abd-ul- retrieve the now desperate fortunes of the war. Hamidi., The exhaustion of the treasury was evidenced by 1773-1789. the absence of the usUal donative to the troops; and the demoralization in both army and court made further resis- tance useless. At the beginning of July the Russians, under Kamenskiy, were before Shumla; and a few days later the grand vizier and his army, their communications with the 454 TURKEY [HISTORY capital severed, were surrounded in the fortress. Negotia- tions for peace were now opened and on the 2ist of July — chosen by the Russian plenipotentiary as the anniversary of the humiliating convention of the Pruth — the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji was signed. Its terms were the most onerous as yet imposed on the Ottoman sultans. The Tatars Treaty of from tne frontier of Poland to the shores of the Kuchuk Caspian, including those of the Crimea and Kuban, Kainarji, were declared independent under their own khan of the race of Jenghiz, saving only the religious rights of the sultan as caliph of Islam. Russia, however, retained the fortresses of Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn, with the desert country between the Bug and the Dnieper, while Ochakov was left to the Turks. Bessarabia, with the fortresses of Akkerman, Izmail and Kilia, was restored to Turkey. Moldavia and Walachia were likewise restored, but under conditions which practically raised them to the position of semi-independent principalities under Russian protection (art. xvi.). Azov and its district were annexed to Russia, and the two Kabardias were transferred subject to the consent of the khan of the Crimea. Russia undertook to evaluate Mingrelia and Georgia. The recognition of the imperial title (podishah) was at last conceded to the Russian tsars. Commerce and navigation in the Black Sea and the Mediter- ranean were free to both countries. Turkey was to pay a war indemnity of 15,000 purses, the Russian fleet was to withdraw and the islands captured by it to be restored. By article vii. of the treaty the Sublime Porte undertook " to pro- tect the Christian religion and its churches " and conceded to the ministers of Russia the specific right to " make representations in favour of the new church " which, under article xiv. of the same treaty, the Russian government was empowered to build, in addition to the embassy chapel " in the street named Bey Oglu." This article is of great historical importance as forming the basis of the later claim of Russia to possess by treaty the right to protect the Orthodox subjects of the Porte.1 Poland, the original cause of the war, was not even mentioned in the treaty, having been partitioned in 1772. After yielding to these hard conditions, Turkey took advan- tage of her respite to strengthen the frontier defences and to put down the rebellions in Syria and Egypt; some effort was also expended on the hopeless task of reforming the Janissaries. It was not long before Russia showed that it was not the in- dependence but the absorption of the Crimea which she desired. In 1779 a rupture on this account was only averted through the mediation of the French ambassador, coupled with the fact that Turkey was in no condition to enter upon hostilities, owing to the outbreak of plague in her army. The Porte, unable to resist, was obliged to consent to the convention of Ainali Kavak (March 10, 1779) whereby the Russian partisan, Shahin Girai, was recognized as khan of the Crimea, the admission of Russian vessels to navigate Turkish waters was reaffirmed and Russia's right of intervention in the affairs of the Danubian principalities was formally recognized. Five years later Potemkin induced the chiefs of the Crimea and Kuban to hold a meeting at which the annexation of their country to Russia was declared, Turkey giving her consent by a convention, signed at Constantinople, on the 8th of January 1784, by which the stipulations as to the liberty of the Tatars contained in the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji and the convention of Ainali Kavak were abrogated. In 1 786 Catherine made a triumphal progress through the Crimea in company with her ally, Joseph II., who had succeeded to the imperial throne on the death of his mother. These events and the fric- tion caused by mutual complaints of infringements of the treaty stirred up public opinion in Turkey, and the British ambassador lent his support to the war party. In 1788 war was declared, but Turkey's preparations were inadequate and the moment was ill-chosen, now that Russia and Austria were in alliance, a fact of which Turkey became aware only when the horse- 1 See G. F. de Martens, Recueil des trailSs, 1st series, vol. ii. p. 286, also Noradounghian, Recueil, p. 319. tails were planted for the campaign. The Turks drove back the Austrians from Mehadia and overran the Banat (1789); but in Moldavia Romanzov was successful and captured Jassy and Khotin. After a long siege Ochakov fell to Potemkin, and all its inhabitant's were massacred. This news affected the sultan so deeply as to cause his death. Selim, the late sultan's nephew, who succeeded, made strenuous preparations for continuing the war, but his generals were incompetent and his army mutinous; expeditions for the relief of Bender and Akkerman failed, Belgrade was taken by the Austrians, Izmail was captured by Suvorov, and the fall of Anapa com- pleted the series of Turkey's disasters. Sultan Selim was anxious to restore his country's prestige by a victory before making peace, but the condition of his troops rendered this hope unavailing; while Prussia, though on the 3ist of January 1790 she had signed an offensive treaty with Turkey,2 gave her no help during the war. Accordingly a treaty was signed with Russia at Jassy (Jan. 9, 1792) by which the Crimea and Ochakov were left to Russia, the Dniester was made the frontier in Europe, and the Asiatic frontier remained unchanged. Joseph II. had died, and his successor, Leopold II., was averse from the Russian alliance. Through the mediation of England, Holland and Prussia, Turkey and Austria concluded on the 4th of August 1791 the treaty of Sistova, by which Belgrade and the other conquests made by Austria were restored. The conclusion of peace was welcomed by Selim as the oppor- tunity for carrying out reforms, of which he thoroughly realized the necessity in every branch of the administration, and especi- ally in the army, to whose defects the disasters of the state were due. Accordingly it was decided to form troops known as nizam-i-jedid, affiliated to the Janissaries so as to disarm the jealousy of the latter, properly drilled and wearing a dis- tinctive uniform. The fleet was reorganized, military schools were established, and skilled instructors were obtained from Europe. These reforms excited much opposition, which was at first unheeded. Meanwhile Turkey came into conflict with France. Throughout all the vicissitudes of the Revolution the relations between the two states had w£h Prancei remained unimpaired, and Turkey had been one of the first countries to recognize the republic. Bonaparte's sudden occupation of Egypt (1798) came therefore as a complete surprise. This expedition was in reality directed against English rule in India. Nelson's destruction of the French fleet at the battle of the Nile disconcerted Bonaparte's plans; he hoped to pursue his designs through Syria, and laid siege to Acre, which, however, successfully held out. Turkey now joined Great Britain and Russia against France.3 The Russian and Turkish fleets attacked and took the Ionian Islands, which had become French by the treaty of Campo Formio, and certain towns, hitherto unconquered, on the Albanian coast. An expeditionary force was also sent against Bona- parte, now practically blockaded in Egypt. This was routed and driven into the sea at Abukir (July 15, 1799). For the subsequent operations in Egypt, which ended in its evacuation by the French after the British victory at Alexandria, see EGYPT: History. Meanwhile in Turkey disorder prevailed in almost every province of the empire, and the local governors in many places became entirely independent, oppressing the people under their rule and often driving them to p^^ig" revolt. This was notably the case in Servia, where the temporary domination of Austria, to which the "treaty of Sistova (1791) put an end, had had the effect of awakening the national spirit of the people. But no armed manifestation of revolt had taken place until the lawless and savage conduct of the Janissaries, who had made themselves masters of the country, assisted by the notorious governor of Vidin, Pasvan Oglu, * Text in Martens, Recueil, 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 466. 8 The treaty of alliance with Russia was signed on the 23rd of December 1798, that with Great Britain on the 5th of January 1799- HISTORY] TURKEY 455 and his band of outlaws, drove the peaceful rayas to rebel. The insurgents chose as their captain one George Petrovich, nicknamed Kara Georgi (i.e. Black George), and under his able leadership succeeded in capturing Belgrade and in breaking the power of the Janissaries. The Porte also sent an army against Pasvan Oglu, but after reducing him to submission reinstated him in his government. A serious outbreak took place at Adrianople in 1804, where 20,000 of the new troops had been sent, ostensibly to put down the revolt in Servia, but really to try to bring about the reform of the European provinces. So strong was the opposition that the troops were recalled, and the anti-reform party was greatly strengthened. The Wahhabi movement in Nejd now began to assume serious proportions. These religious sectaries attacked and plundered all Mussulmans not conforming to their peculiar tenets; they overran Kerbela and the Hejaz, sacking the holy cities and closing the pilgrim routes. Only in the reign of Mahmud II. were they put down (see WAHHABIS). In 1802, by a treaty of peace signed at Paris on the 25th of June, France resumed her former terms of friendship with Complies- Turkey. Russia, desirous of deriving some return tioas wHh for the support which she had given the sultan Russia. during his rupture with the French, induced the Porte to address to her a note in which the right of interven- tion in the affairs of the principalities, conferred on her by the treaty of Kainarji and reaffirmed in the convention of Ainali Kavak, was converted into a specific stipulation that the hospodars should be appointed in future for seven years and should not be dismissed without the concurrence of the Russian ambassador at Constantinople. In pursuance of this agreement Constantine Ypsilanti was appointed to Walachia and Alex- ander Muruzi to Moldavia — both devoted to Russian interests. Their intrigues in favour of the Greek and other revolutionary movements induced the Porte to dismiss them in 1806, contrary to the arrangement of 1802. Russia and England hereupon used threatening language, and Turkey replaced the hospodars. But war was nevertheless declared on the 2 7th of December 1806, and Russia occupied the principalities. The British ambassador sought by every means in his power to induce Turkey to give way to Russia, going so far as to guarantee the withdrawal of the Russian troops from Moldo-Walachia if the Porte remained at peace, and threatening that if Turkey persisted in her opposition England would join with Russia against her. But France's influence, backed by the strong personality of her ambassador, General Sebastiani, was suffi- cient to enable the sultan to withstand these arguments, and the British ambassador broke off relations and withdrew to the fleet at Tenedos (February 1807). Helped by a strong south wind, the British war-ships passed up the straits and anchored off the Seven Towers. An ultimatum was presented order- ing Turkey within twenty-four hours to dismiss the French ambassador, hand over the Turkish fleet, and make peace with Russia. With Sebastiani's encouragement the Porte resisted these demands; in one day a thousand guns were ranged along both sides of the Bosporus; and after a stay of ten days the British fleet was ordered to leave, and was considerably damaged by the fire of the forts while passing down. Meanwhile the sultan's whole efforts were directed towards the reform of the country; the newly-instituted militia was Revolt in every respect a success; it grew in numbers, against and hopes were entertained that it would gain SeIIm- popularity. But the Janissaries and the corrupt officials were fundamentally opposed to the scheme, and the conservatives joined with them against such reforms of European origin. The rulers of the provinces shared these views; the consequence was disquiet and confusion throughout the empire. At this difficult moment the army was obliged to march to the Danube, leaving the government in the hands of men hostile to reform. In 1807 the garrisons of the Black Sea forts at the entrance of the straits rose in rebellion, headed by one Kabakji Mustafa, and killed their officers. The sultan sought to appease them by pacific means, but the movement spread to the Janissaries, who insisted upon the abolition of the new troops. But even this concession did not satisfy them; they dethroned Selim and proclaimed his nephew Mustafa. The new sultan was obliged to abolish all the reforms, and during practically the whole of his fourteen months' reign the Janissaries were in rebellion, even while facing the Russians. All officers who were partisans of the reforms were obliged to take refuge in flight; and Turkey's position would have been desperate but for the conclusion of the peace of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) between Russia and France, to which Turkey also became a party. The army hereupon retired to Adrianople, and the powerful pasha of Rustchuk, Mustafa Bairakdar, who had distinguished, him- self by his resistance to the Russians, and who thoroughly shared Selim's desire for reform, was now induced by the many officers who held similar views to march on Constantinople to restore Selim to the throne. But he arrived too late; Selim had already been killed; the unworthy Mustafa was put to death, and Mahmud, the sole survivor of the house of Osman, became sultan. Mustafa Bairakdar, was now raised to the dignity of grand vizier, suc- ceeded in inspiring the Janissaries with a wholesome respect, due to their dread of the 10,000 irregulars known as kirjolis by whom he was accompanied. The remnants of the abolished new troops were collected and formed into regiments affiliated to the Janissaries under the name of seymen-i-jedid; the dignitaries of state were called upon to take an oath of fidelity and loyalty. The feast of Ramazan hereupon occurring, the grand vizier unwisely allowed his own troops to disperse. Taking advantage of this opportunity, the Janissaries rose by night and besieged the house of the grand vizier, who even- tually blew himself up in the arsenal. Fighting became general and extended to the fleet, which bombarded the capital. The Janissaries slaughtered all the " new troops " whom they met, and finally extorted an amnesty from the terrified government. After the peace of Tilsit an armistice had been agreed upon with Russia (Aug. 24, 1807). Turkey was at this time the only neutral state in Europe; it was of vital im- Treaty of portance that she should not be absorbed into the Bucharest; Napoleonic system, as in that case Russia would Troubles la have been exposed to a simultaneous attack from Servla" France, Austria, Turkey and Persia. Accordingly, though France made every attempt to induce Turkey to adopt her side, the young Stratford Canning succeeded in causing the resumption of the peace negotiations at Bucharest, broken off through Russia's terms being considered too onerous, and followed by the capture of Izmail and Bender. The British diplomatist secured his first triumph in the signature of the treaty of Bucharest (May 28, 1812) whereby Khotin, Bender, Kilia and Akkerman were left to Russia; the frontier was fixed at the Pruth; the Asiatic boundary was slightly modified. The treaties as to the principalities were renewed; and though Servia was restored to the direct rule of Turkey it was stipu- lated that clemency was to be observed in the Forte's dealings with the country, which was given the power of regulating its own affairs. The vagueness of these latter provisions at once gave rise to disputes, and in 1813 the Turkish troops occupied the country. The new pasha of Belgrade appointed one Milosh Obrenovich headman of his own district, but a few years later Milosh raised a successful revolt, drove out the Turks, and re-established Servian semi-independence. Karageorge, who had fled to Austria in 1812, was induced to return, but Milosh caused him to be murdered, and in 1817 was by a popular vote named hereditary prince of Servia. The affairs of Servia, however, were not the only question left unsettled by the treaty of Bucharest. In the course of the war with Persia Russia had received permission from the Ottoman government to use, for a limited time, the easy road from the Black Sea to Tiflis by way of the valley of the Rion (Phasis) for the transport of troops and supplies, and this permission had been several times renewed. Wishing to make 456 TURKEY [HISTORY this important privilege permanent, Russia by secret articles of the Treaty of Bucharest had secured the cession of this dis- trict, in return for an undertaking to destroy the forts of Kilia and Izmail on the Danube. But the sultan refused to ratify these articles, and the relations between Russia and Turkey were therefore determined by the patent treaty only, which positively stipulated for the evacuation by the Russians of every spot occupied by them on Turkish soil in Asia. When the Russians showed no signs of withdrawing from the valley of the Rion, the sultan threatened to renew the war, the sole result of which was to reveal the determination of the tsar not to be bullied into concessions. The dispute, at first of little importance, developed in seriousness during the next year or two, owing to the avowed intention of Russia, which by conquest or treaties with independent chiefs had acquired all the high land between the Caspian and the Black Sea, to take possession of the low lands along the coast, between Anapa and Poti, of which the sultan claimed the sovereignty. Such was the situation when the question of a European guarantee of Turkey was raised at the Congress of Vienna. In view of the multiple dangers to which the Otto- man Empire was exposed, both from without and from within, and of the serious consequences to the world's peace which would result from its break-up, there was a strong feeling among the powers in favour of such a guarantee, and even the emperor Alexander was willing to agree to it in principle. But nothing could be done until the Porte should have come to terms with Russia as to the Treaty of Bucharest; for, as the British ambassador, Sir Robert Listen, was instructed to point out to the Ottoman government, " it is impossible to guarantee the possession of a territory of which the limits are not determined." With the consent of the tsar, it was proposed to submit the questions at issue to the decision of Great Britain, France and Austria ; and the Porte was informed that, in the event of its accepting this arrangement, the powers would at once proceed to guarantee the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. But the sultan could not bend his pride to suffer foreign intervention in a matter that touched his honour, and the return of Napoleon from Elba threw the Eastern Question into the background. The Ottoman Empire thus remained outside the European concert; Russia main- tained her claim to a special right of isolated intervention in its affairs; and the renewal of war between Russia and Turkey was only postponed by the preoccupation of Alexander with his dream of the " Confederation of Europe." Meanwhile, within the Ottoman Empire there was every sign of a rapidly approaching disintegration. In Egypt Mehemet Ali had succeeded in establishing himself as quasi- independent ruler of the country. By his action during Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion, and later when the British fleet after leaving Constantinople in 1807 proceeded to Egypt, he had to some extent acquired the goodwill of the Turkish government. In.iSn he was called upon by the Porte to put down the Wahhabi insurgents (see ARABIA, vol. ii. p. 268), his success in this matter, and especially in the recovery of the holy cities, adding greatly to his prestige. Sultan Mahmud now devoted himself to breaking the over- grown power of the local governors, which had for many years practically annihilated that of the central authority. Their extortions impoverished the whole country, yet the abolition of the system might perhaps have been carried out more gradually and with greater precaution, and Turkey more than once felt the want of their aid, questionable as its value often was. Thus Greek Ali (q.v.), Pasha of lannina, the most famous of Revolt. these, though insubordinate and inclined to intrigue with foreign powers in the hope of making himself indepen- dent, had used his influence to keep the Greeks quiet; and it was only after his power had been broken in 1821 that the agitation of the Helairia issued in widespread dangerous revolt. The first hope of emancipation from the Turkish yoke had been founded by the Greeks on Peter the Great, who had planned the expulsion of the Turks trom Europe and had caused the inscription " Petrus I., Russo-Graecorum Monarcha " to be placed beneath his portrait engraved at Amsterdam. Catherine II. following in his footsteps, aspired to found a Greek empire, the throne of which was to be occupied by her nephew, Constantino, specially so baptized, and brought up by Greek nurses (see CONSTANTINE PAVLOVICH). During the war of 1770 the Greeks had risen in an abortive rebellion, promptly crushed by the Turks. But the idea of liberation continued to grow, and about 1780 the Society of Friends ('EroLpia T&V i\iK£>v) was founded at Bucharest by the fervent patriot and poet, Constantinos Rhigas (q.v.). The secret organization, temporarily checked by Rhigas's arrest and execution in 1798, was revived at Odessa in 1814; it extended throughout Turkey, and in 1820 the insurrection took shape, a favourable opportunity being afforded by the outbreak of hostilities between Ali Pasha and the Porte. (See GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF.) On the 6th of March 1821 Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, son of the hospodar Constantine, and a general in the Russian service, crossed the Pruth, proclaiming the revolt of the Greeks against the sultan and the intention to restore the Greek Empire of the East. But in the principalities, where the Vlach peasants regarded the Phanariots as worse oppressors than the Turks, the movement had little chance of success; it was doomed from the moment that the emperor Alexander disavowed Ypsilanti's claim to his support (see ALEXANDER I.). After some initial successes the Greeks were finally routed at the battle of Dragashani (June 19, 1821). It was far otherwise with the insurrection which broke out at the beginning of April in the Morea. The Mussulman population of the Morea, taken unawares, was practically exterminated during the fury of the first few days; and, most fatal of all, the defection of the Greeks of the islands crippled the Ottoman navy by depriving it of its only effective sailors. The barbarous reprisals into which Sultan Mahmud allowed himself to be carried away only accentuated the difficulty of the situation. The execution of the patriarch Gregorios, as technically responsible for the revolt, was an outrage to all Christendom; and it led at once to a breach of diplomatic relations with Russia. To prevent this breach developing into war was now the chief study of the chanceries. Public opinion throughout Europe was violently excited in favour of the Greeks; and this Philhellenic sentiment was shared even by some of the statesmen who most strenuously deprecated any interference in their favour. For at the outset Metternich was not alone in main- taining that the war should be allowed to burn itself out " beyond the pale of civilization." The mutual slaughter of barbarians in the Levant seemed, even to George Canning, a lesser evil than a renewed Armageddon in Europe; and all the resources of diplomacy were set in motion to heal the rupture between Turkey and Russia. In spite of the emperor Alexander's engagements to the Grand Alliance and the ideal of European peace, this was no easy matter; for the murder of the patriarch was but the culmination of a whole series of grievances accumu- lated since the Treaty of Bucharest. Moreover, the Porte was thrown into a suspicious mood by the contrast between the friendly language of the western powers and the active sympathy of the western peoples for the Greeks, who were supported by volunteers and money drawn from all Europe. But, though the sultan remained stubborn, the emperor Alexander, who since the Congress of Laibach had been wholly under Metternich's influence, resisted the clamour of his people for war, and dismissed his Greek minister Capo d'Istria (f failure in the line of succession an administrator1 was appointed jy the state. But many such foundations fell into disorder, and the ministry was created to exercise the requisite supervision. Though the provisions of the Tanzimat were not fully ob- served, they afforded convincing proof that reform was entirely sracticable in Turkey. Reforms were effected in every direction; the finances and the army were reorganized, military instructors being procured from Europe; the administration was gradually centralized, and good relations were cultivated with the powers, the only serious international controversy arising in 1848-1849 over the refusal by Turkey, with the support of England, to surrender the Hungarian and Polish insurgents who had taken refuge within her borders. It cannot indeed be said that complete tranquillity prevailed throughout the country meanwhile; disturbances in the principalities and in the Lebanon gave serious trouble, while in 1842 the unsettled state of the Turco-Persian frontier nearly led to war. By the mediation of England and Russia the Treaty of Erzerum was signed (1847) and a frontier commission was appointed. But as the frontier was not definitely demarcated the door was left open for controversies which have occurred frequently up to the present day. Turkey's progress in the path of reform was viewed with some uneasiness in Russia, the cardinal principle of whose policy since 1829 had been to maintain her own Russian influence at Constantinople by keeping the Otto- Policy since man government weak. In favour of this view l829' the traditional policy of Peter the Great and Catherine II. had been deliberately given up, and by the secret convention signed at Munchengratz on the i8th of September 1833 the emperor Nicholas had agreed with his brother sovereigns of the revived " Holy Alliance " to maintain the integrity of Turkey, where Russian influence seemed to have been rendered supreme and permanent by the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi. The crisis which ended in 1841, however, materially altered the situation from the Russian point of view. By his concert with the other powers in the affair of Mehemet Ali, the tsar had abdicated his claim to a unique influence at Constantinople, and he began to revive the idea of ending the Ottoman rule in Europe, an idea which he had only unwillingly abandoned in 1829 in response to the unanimous opinion of his advisers. In 1844 he took advantage of his visit to England to propose to British ministers a plan of partition, under which Great Britain was to receive Egypt and Crete, Constantinople was to be erected into a free city, and the Balkan states were to become autonomous under Russian protection. This pro- posal, as might have been expected, only served to rouse sus- picions as to Russia's plans; it was politely rejected, and the whole Eastern Question slumbered, until, early in 1850, it was awakened by an incident trivial enough in itself, but pregnant with future trouble: a quarrel of Catholic and Orthodox monks about the holy places in Palestine. By the Capitulations signed on the 28th of May 1740 on behalf of Sultan Mahmud I. and Louis XV. " emperor of France, " not only French pilgrims to Jerusalem, but all members of " Christian and hostile nations " visiting the Ottoman Empire, had been placed under the protection of the French flag, and by a special article the Frank, i.e. Roman Catholic, ecclesiastics had been guaranteed certain rights in the holy places. These stipulations of the treaty, which were in effect a confirmation of the firman granted in 1620 by Murad IV. to Louis XIII., had fallen into oblivion 460 TURKEY [HISTORY during the age of Voltaire and the turmoil of the Revolution; and meanwhile, every advance of Russia had been marked by further encroachments of the Orthodox clergy in Palestine on the ancient rights of their Latin rivals. The quarrels of these monks might have been left to the contempt they deserved, had not Napoleon III. seen in the situation an opportunity at once for conciliating the clericals in France and for humili- ating Russia, which had given to his title but an equivocal recognition. His ambassador, accordingly, handed in at Con- stantinople a formal demand for the restitution of the Catholics in all their property and rights. The Ottoman government, seeking to gain time, proposed a " mixed commission " of inquiry ; and to this France agreed, on condition that no documents later than 1740 should be admitted as evidence. To this suggestion, which would have excluded the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, the emperor Nicholas replied by a haughty demand that nothing should be altered in the status quo. It was now clear that no less an issue was involved than a contest between France and Russia for paramount influence in the East, a con- test into which Great Britain would inevitably be dragged. The British government did its best to help the Porte to evolve a compromise on the questions immediately at issue, and in March 1852 a firman was issued, which to Protestants and Mahommedans might well seem to have embodied a reasonable settlement. Concessions were made to one side and the other; and the question of the right of " protection " was solved by the Turkish government itself undertaking the duty. But neither Napoleon nor Nicholas desired a settlement. The French emperor wanted a war for dynastic reasons, the tsar because he conceived his honour to be involved, and because he judged the moment opportune for expelling the infidel from Europe. France, he believed, would never come single-handed to the assistance cf Turkey; Austria would be bound at least to benevolent neutrality by " gratitude " for the aid given in 1849; the king of Prussia would sympathize with a Christian crusade; Great Britain, where under the influence of John Bright and Richard Cobden the " peace at any price " spirit seemed to be in the ascendant, would never intervene. Nicholas even hoped for the active sympathy of Britain. Lord Aberdeen made no secret of his dislike for the Turks, and openly expressed his disbelief in the reality of their reforms; and in January 1853 the tsar, in conversation with Sir Hamilton Seymour, the British ambassador at St Petersburg, spoke of the Ottoman Empire as " the Sick Man," and renewed the proposals for a partition made in 1844. Early in 1853 the Russian army was mobilized, and Prince Menshikov, a bluff soldier devoted to the interests of Ortho- doxy and tsardom, was sent to present the emperor's ultimatum at Constantinople. He demanded the recognition of the status quo in the holy places, and of the tsar's right, under the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, to the protectorate of all Orthodox Chris- tians in the Ottoman dominions. The Porte, in alarm, turned to Great Britain for advice and assistance. Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, who reached his post at Constantinople shortly after the arrival of Menshikov, at once grasped the essential facts of the situation. The question of the holy places was insignificant in itself — it might be settled if France were granted political compensation elsewhere; that of the protectorate claimed by Russia over the Christians involved the integrity of the sultan's sovereignty. With great address he succeeded in persuading Menshikov to present the two demands separately. On the zznd of April the French, Russian and British ministers came to an agreement on the question of the holy places; with the result that, when the question of protectorate was raised, Menshikov found himself opposed by the ambassadors of all the other powers. On the sth of May, nevertheless, in obedience to his peremptory instructions, he presented his ultimatum to the Ottoman government, which, backed now by all the other powers, rejected it. On the 22nd Menshikov and the whole of the Russian diplomatic staff left Constan- tinople; and it was announced that, at the end of the month, the tsar's troops would enter the Danubian principalities. On the 22nd of June the Russian army, under Prince Gorchakov, crossed the Pruth, not — as was explained in a circular to the powers — for the purpose of attacking Turkey, but solely to obtain the material guarantees for the enjoyment of the privileges conferred upon her by the existing treaties. The news of this aggression roused intense excitement in England; but the British government still exerted itself to maintain peace. In August a conference of the four powers assembled at Vienna, but the settlement they proposed, which practically conceded everything demanded by Russia except the claim to the protectorate, though accepted by the tsar, was rejected by the Porte, now fallen into a mood of stubborn resentment at the Russian invasion. At the beginning of October Turkey formally declared war; on the 22nd the French and British fleets passed the Dardanelles. Lord Aberdeen still hoped to secure peace, and the Russian government was informed that no casus belli would arise so long as Russia abstained from passing the Danube or attacking a Black Sea port. To the emperor Nicholas this was tantamount to a declaration of war; and in effect it was so. On the 3Oth of November the Russian fleet attacked and destroyed a Turkish squadron in the harbour of Sinope; on the 3rd of January the combined French and British fleets entered the Black Sea, commissioned to " invite " the Russians to return to their harbours. The emperor Nicholas had been singularly misled as to the state of public opinion in Europe. The news of the affair of Sinope, rather wanton slaughter than a battle, Crimean raised excitement in England to fever heat; while w*r' the excellent bearing and consistent successjs of the Turkish troops during the first months of the campaign on land excited the admiration of all Europe. The belief in the rejuvenation of Turkey seemed to be justified; and when, on the 27th of March 1854, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia, the action of. the governments was supported by an overwhelming public opinion. As regards Austria, too, the emperor Nicholas was no less mistaken. If she maintained neutrality, it was due to no impulse of gratitude, and it was far from " benevolent." As the Russians withdrew from the Danubian principalities, Austrian troops occupied them, and by a convention with the Porte the Austrian government undertook to resist by arms any attempt of the Russians to return. So far as the extreme claims of the tsar were concerned, neither Austria nor Prussia was willing to concede them, and both had joined with France and Great Britain in presenting, on the I2th of December 1853, an identical note at St Petersburg, drawn up at the Conference of Vienna, reaffirming the principles of the treaty of 1841. Save for the benevolent neutrality of Prussia, therefore, which enabled her to obtain supplies from the north, Russia was pitted single- handed against a coalition of Turkey, Great Britain and France, to which Sardinia was added later. The events of the war that followed are told elsewhere (see CRIMEAN WAR). The main operations were confined to the Crimea, where the allied troops landed on the I4th of September 1854, and they were not concluded, in spite of the terrible exhaus- tion of Russia, till in December 1855 the threatened active inter- vention of Austria forced the emperor Alexander II. to come to terms. These terms were ultimately embodied in the Treaty of Paris of the 3oth of March 1856. Its provisions, held by some to be so unduly favourable to Russia as to justify the question whether she had not been victorious in the war, were as follows: Russia abandoned all pretensions to exercise a protectorate over the Christians in Turkey, or to an exclusive right of interference in the Danubian principalities, to which Bessarabia was restored; the navigation of the Danube was made free and placed under the supervision of an international commission; the Black Sea was closed to warships, while open to the commercial flags of all countries; the Asiatic frontier between the two empires remained unchanged; Turkey was admitted to the concert of Europe, and all the contracting parties agreed to respect her independence and the integrity of her territory; moreover, the provisions of the Tanzimat were reaffirmed in a fresh decree of the sultan, which was incorporated in the treaty, and further provided for a HISTORY) TURKEY 461 large measure of local autonomy for the Christian communities. It was stipulated that Turkey's promises of reform gave no power the right of interference on behalf of the Christians. The Treaty of Paris was regarded as opening a new era in the progress of Turkey. Admitted on equal terms to the European family of nations, the Ottoman government had The New . J . »•«.•* Bra. given a solemn guarantee of its intention to make the long-promised reforms a reality. But it soon became apparent that the time was scarcely come for liberal measures; and fanatical outbreaks at Jidda (1858) and in Syria (1860) gave proof that the various sections of the popu- lation were not yet prepared to act together in harmony. The Syrian disturbances brought about a French occupa- tion, which Fuad Pasha, ably seconded by Ahmed Vefyk Effendi, the Turkish ambassador in Paris, contrived to restrict, and to terminate as soon as possible. The immediate local result was the institution, by a reglemenl,1 signed at Con- stantinople on the 6th of September 1864, of autonomy for the Lebanon under a Christian governor appointed by the powers with the concurrence of the Porte, an arrangement which has worked satisfactorily until the present day. In 1859 the Danu- bian principalities, deliberately left separate by the Congress of Paris, carried out their long-cherished design of union by electing Prince Cuza both in Moldavia and in Walachia, a contingency which the powers had not taken into account, and to which in the end they gave a grudging assent (see RUMANIA). On the 25th of June 1861 Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid died, being succeeded by his brother Abd-ul-Aziz. The new sultan's reign ^^ . * , marked, if not the beginning, at least the high tide Abd-uI-Azlz. , , . . 1861-1876. °* tnat course of improvident and unrestrained expenditure, facilitated by the enthusiasm created in Europe by Turkey's admission to the ranks of the powers which loosened for her the purse-strings of the foreign in- vestor. The viceroy of Egypt, Ismail Pasha, followed his suzerain's example in this respect, and was lavish in his bribes to his imperial overlord to obtain the extension of his own privileges and the establishment in Egypt of succession from father to son; these concessions were granted to him by the firmans of the 27th of May 1866 and the 8th of June 1867, in the latter of which the viceroy is addressed for the first time as " khedive." Abd-ul-Aziz is said to have yielded the more readily as being desirous of bringing about a similar altera- tion in the succession in Turkey, in favour of his own eldest son, Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din; public opinion was, however, opposed to so sweeping a change, and the succession to the throne in Turkey still goes to the eldest surviving member of the house of Osman. Though the foreign relations of Turkey remained untroubled, disturbances in Servia, Montenegro and Crete continued throughout the " sixties." Servia had long resented the occupation of her fortresses by Turkish troops; frequent collisions arising from this source resulted in June 1862 in the bombardment of Belgrade; some slight concessions were then made to Servia, but it was not until 1867 that, through the mediation of England and other powers, she succeeded in obtain- ing the withdrawal of the Turkish garrisons. The Cretan insurrection rose to a formidable height in 1868-69, and the active support given to the movement by Greece brought about a rupture of relations between that country and Turkey. The revolt was suppressed, the Turko-Greek conflict was settled by a conference of the powers in Paris, and Crete received a charter of local self-government which for a time pacified the island.2 Abd-ul-Aziz had visited the Paris Exhibition of 1867 and had paid his respects to Queen Victoria, who conferred on him the order of the Garter. In 1869 the visit was returned by many sovereigns and princes on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal, among these being the empress Eugenie. An impor- tant event not to be passed over without mention is the grant on the loth of March 1870 of the firman instituting the Bul- garian exarchate, thus severing the Bulgarian Church from 1 Text in Holland, p. 212. 1 " Correspondence . . . respecting the rupture of diplomatic relations between Turkey and Greece, &c.," in State Papers, lix. 584., &c., Protocols of Conferences, p. 813, &c. the jurisdiction of the Greek patriarch of Constantinople. This concession, given under strong pressure from Russia, aroused the deepest resentment of the Greeks, and was the principal factor in the awakening of the Bulgarian national spirit which subsequent events have done so much to develop. Russian influence at Constantinople had been gradually increasing, and towards the end of 1870 the tsar took advantage of the temporary disabling of France to declare himself no longer bound by those clauses of the Treaty of Paris which restricted Russia's liberty of possessing warships on the Black Sea. An international conference convoked in London early in 1871 laid down the principle that treaty engagements were binding, and then proceeded to abrogate this particular engagement. Russia and Turkey thus regained full liberty as regards their naval forces and armaments in the Euxine; the passage of the straits remained interdicted to ships of war. A reform not unworthy of notice was effected by the law promulgated on the i8th of June 1867 whereby foreigners were for the first time allowed to hold landed property throughout the Ottoman Empire (save in the Hejaz) on condition of their being assimilated to Ottoman subjects, i.e. divested of their right to the protection of their own authorities in every respect concerning such property. Meanwhile in Turkey national bankruptcy was brought within measurable distance by the sultan's extravagance and the incompetence of his ministers; it was staved off only by loans contracted almost annually to pay the interest on their predecessors. External influences and latent fanaticism were active ; a serious insurrection broke out in Bosnia and Herze- govina in 1875, and the efforts to quell it almost exhausted Turkey's resources; the example spread to Bulgaria, where abor- tive outbreaks in September 1875 and May 1876 led to those cruel measures of repression which were known as " the Bulgarian atrocities,"3 Mussulman public feeling was inflamed, and an attempt at Salonica to induce a Christian girl who had embraced Islam to return to her faith caused the murder of two foreign consuls by a fanatical mob. The finances of Turkey now col- lapsed, and the inevitable bankruptcy was declared, whereby more than through any other cause she lost such Deposition sympathies as she possessed in western Europe. ofAbd-ui- Turkey's distress was Russia's opportunity; the Atl*~ sultan fell entirely under the influence of General Ignatiev, the tsar's ambassador, and it became evident that the country was hastening to its dissolution. A conspiracy to bring about a change was hereupon formed by certain prominent statesmen, whose leaders were Midhat Pasha, Mehemed Rushdi Pasha and Mahmud Damad Pasha, the husband of a princess of the blood, sister to Prince Murad. These succeeded in gaining over the Sheikh-ul-Islam, and in obtaining from him a fetva for the deposition of Abd-ul-Aziz. In virtue of this judgment of the supreme legal authority, and with the aid of the fleet, Abd-ul-Aziz was deposed, being shortly afterwards found dead, apparently by his own hand. Murad V. reigned in his stead. But the change of sultans brought no relief to the troubled state: Servia and Montenegro declared war, and in less than three months it had become evident that Mura'd was incapable of governing. Murad 's brother Abd-ul-Hamid was accordingly proclaimed sultan on the 313! of August 1876. The diplomacy of Europe had been searching in vain since the autumn Accession of 1875 for the means of inducing Turkey to institute ofAba-ui- effective administrative reforms and to grant to **«*"'<*#•• its European provinces that autonomy which now appeared essential. But the new sultan was as averse from accepting any of the formulae proposed as were his pre- decessors: Servia and Montenegro were with great difficulty pacified, but it was plain that Russia, whose Slavonic and Orthodox sympathies had been strongly aroused, would soon begin hostilities herself. Turkey now made a show of going even beyond the demands formulated by Europe, and the international conference which met at Constantinople during ' See Mr Baring's reports in Parl. Papers (1878), Ixxxi. 462 TURKEY [HISTORY the last days of 1876 was startled by the salvo of artillery which heralded the promulgation of a liberal constitution, not for the European provinces only, but for the whole empire, and the institution of a Turkish parliament. The decisions of the con- ference, moderate though they were, in the end requiring merely the nomination of an international commission to investigate the state of the European provinces of Turkey, and the appointment by the sultan, with the approval of the RUSSO- powers, of governors-general for five years, were Turkish rejected by the Porte. The statesmen of Europe War' still continued their efforts to avert a conflict, but to no purpose. On the 24th of April 1877 Russia declared war and her troops crossed the Turkish frontiers. Hostilities were conducted both in Europe and Asia for nearly a year. Rumania joined the Russians, and in Europe no effective opposition was encountered by the invaders until the assaults on Plevna and the Shipka Pass, where the valiant resistance of the Turks won for them the admiration of Europe. By November the defence of the Turks in Asia Minor had entirely collapsed. Plevna surrendered on the gth of December 1877 after a heroic struggle under Osman Pasha. Thereafter the Russians advanced practically unchecked (see Russo-TuRKisn WARS) . An armistice and preliminaries of peace were signed on the 3ist of January 1878 at Adrianople, and a definitive treaty was concluded at San Stefano on the 3rd of March 1878. Its terms SaAStefano were: the creation of an autonomous tributary principality of Bulgaria extending from the Black Sea to the Aegean; the recognition by Turkey of the independence of Rumania, Servia and Montenegro, with increased territories; the payment of a war indemnity; the introduction of reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina; the cession to Russia of Bessarabia and the Dobruja; the opening of the passage of the straits at all times to the merchant vessels of neutral states; and the razing of the fortresses on the Danube. Great Britain had throughout the war preserved strict neu- trality, but, while making it clear from the outset that she could not assist Turkey, had been prepared for emergencies. Turkey's severity in repressing the Bulgarian insurrection had raised up in England a storm of public opinion against her, of which the Liberal opposition had taken the fullest advantage; moreover the suspension of payments on the Ottoman debt had dealt Turkey's popularity a blow from which it had never recovered. But upon the approach of the Russians to Constantinople the British reserves were called out and the fleet was despatched to the Bosporus. Accordingly, and as her line of retreat might be threatened by Austria, Russia consented to a revision of the Treaty of San Stefano at a congress to be held at Berlin. Congress of Before the meeting of this congress, which assembled Berlin, on the I3th of June 1878, the powers principally i«7«. interested had arrived at an understanding as to the modifications to be introduced in the treaty, and by a conven- tion concluded with Turkey on the 4th of June 1878 England had undertaken to defend the Asiatic dominions of the sultan by force of arms, provided that his majesty carried out all the necessary reforms, to be agreed upon later, and assigned to England the island of Cyprus, which was however to be restored if Turkey fulfilled her engagements as to reforms and if Russia gave back to her Kars, Ardahan and Batum. On the i3th of July 1878 the Treaty of Berlin was signed: the Great Bulgaria of the San Stefano Treaty was diminished to an autonomous province north of the Balkans, the south-eastern portion, no longer extending to the Aegean, was formed into a self-governing tributary province styled Eastern Rumelia; Turkey abandoned all pretension to suzerainty over Montenegro; Servia and Rumania received their independence (but the last named was made to cede Bessarabia to Russia, receiving instead the Dobruja) ; the Asiatic frontier was readjusted, Kars, Ardahan and Batum becoming Russian. It was further provided that Bulgaria should pay to Turkey an annual tribute, and should moreover (as well as the other Balkan states receiving accessions of terri- tory at Turkey's expense) bear a portion of the Ottoman debt. The sums payable by the different countries were to be fixed by the powers; but no effect has so far been given to this reason- able stipulation, which may now be looked upon as null and void. Turkey undertook to pay to Russia a war indemnity of 300,000,000 roubles, and the status of the straits remained unchanged. Measures of reform in Armenia were also provided for, as also the convocation of an international commission for drawing up a reform scheme for .the European provinces left to Turkey. The organic law for Crete was to be carried out, and special laws enacted for other parts of Turkey. Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to the administration of Austria; Montenegro and Greece received accessions of territory to which only strong pressure coupled with a naval demonstra- tion induced Turkey to consent three years later. Peace once restored, some attempt was made by Turkey in the direction of complying with her engagements to institute reform. Financial and military advisers were procured from Germany. English officers were engaged to reform the gen- darmerie, and judicial inspectors of foreign nationality were to travel through the country to redress abuses. It was not long before the unsubstantial character of all these undertakings became apparent; the parliament was dissolved, the constitution was suspended and its author exiled. Egyptian affairs next threatened complications. In May 1879 the misgovernment of Ismail Pasha and the resulting financial crisis rendered the deposition of the khedive inevitable; in order to anticipate the action of England and France, who would otherwise have expelled the erring viceroy, the sultan deposed him himself; the succession devolved upon his son Mahommed Tewfik Pasha. (For the subsequent history of the Egyptian question The see EGYPT: History.) The revolt of Arabi Pasha Egyptian in 1 88 1 broke up the Anglo-French condominium in Question. Egypt and led to outrages at Alexandria followed by a bombard' ment on the nth of July 1882. The occupation of the country by Great Britain gradually took a more permanent form, and though negotiations were more than once entered into with Turkey with a view to its termination, these either proved abortive or were rendered so (as e.g. the Drummond-Wolff convention of 1887) by the action of other powers. The Anglo- French agreement of 1904 left England in undisputed mastery. The financial straits of Turkey after the war became so acute that the sultan was compelled to consent to a measure _ , , . "VT ,. ... PublkDebt. of foreign control over the finances of the country; the administration of the public debt being established in December 1881. (See Finance, above.) In 1885 the practically bloodless revolution of Philippopolis on the i8th of September united Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, severed by the Treaty of Berlin. A conference held at Constan- tinople sanctioned the union on terms which were rendered acceptable to the suitan; but Said Pasha, who had assisted the sultan in centralizing at Yildiz Kiosk the administration of the country, and who had become grand vizier, was a strong adherent of the policy of armed intervention by Turkey, and the conse- quence was his fall from office. His successor in the grand vizierate, Kiamil Pasha, was soon called upon to deal with Armenian unrest, consequent on the non-execution of the reforms provided for in the Treaty of Berlin and the Cyprus Convention, which first found vent about 1890. But Kiamil Pasha was not subservient enough to his imperial master's will, and his place was taken by a military man, Jevad Pasha, from whom no independence of action was to be apprehended. It is from this period that the German ascendancy in Con- stantinople is noticeable. Railway concessions were given to Germans over the heads of British applicants already aerman in possession of lines from which they were expro- Activity to priated, thus affording the nucleus of the Bagdad Turkey. railway (of which Germany obtained the concession in Novem- ber 1899). (See BAGDAD, vol. iii. p. 197.) From 1890 Crete was frequently the scene of disturbance ; the Christian communities in other parts of Turkey began to chafe under the attempted curtailing of their privileges; about Christmas 1893 the Greek patriarch caused all the Orthodox churches to be closed as a protest; and the Armenian agitation HISTORY] TURKEY 463 Armenian Troubles. entered upon a serious phase. The Kurds, the constant oppressors of that people, had received official recognition and almost complete immunity from the control of the civil law by being formed into a yeo- manry frontier-guard known as the Hamidian cavalry. The troubles arising from this cause and from greater energy in the collection of taxes led the Armenians in outlying and mountainous districts to rise against the authorities. The repression of these revolts in the Sassun district in the autumn of 1894 was effected under circumstances of great severity by Turkish troops and Kurdish irregulars. A commission composed of British, French and Russian officials held an inquiry into the events which had occurred, and early in 1895 England, France and Russia entered actively into negotia- tions with a view to the institution of reforms. The scheme propounded by the three powers encountered great objections from the Porte, but under pressure was accepted in October 1895. Its acceptance was however the signal for a series of massacres in almost every town of importance throughout Asia Minor, which there is but too strong evidence for suspecting were com- mitted with the connivance of the authorities, and in which upwards of 200,000 persons are computed to have perished. In 1896 Lord Salisbury induced the other powers to unite in urging the execution of the reforms, but no agreement could be come to for the use of coercion, and Europe could but look on and protest. Changes of ministry at Constantinople were powerless to bring about an improvement, and early in 1896 Cretan affairs became so serious as to call for the intervention of the powers. In September yet another Cretan charter of self-government was promulgated. Shortly before, a revolutionary attack by an Armenian band on the Ottoman bank ut Constantinople brought about a general massacre of Armenians in the capital (where a widespread revolutionary organization undoubtedly existed), in which at least 3000 victims fell, and the persecution of Armenians became the order of the day. The neglect of the Porte to carry out all the stipulations of the Cretan arrangement of 1896 led to a renewal of the disturbances, and Greece began to take steps for the invasion of 0/W97 ar *-ne island; m February 1897 Colonel Vassos sailed from the Piraeus with an armed force, intending to proclaim the annexation of Crete to Greece, and Greek troops were massed on the Thessalian frontier. Diplomacy busied itself with fruitless attempts to avert hostilities; on the lyth of April 1897 war was declared by Turkey. The resistance offered by Greece was feeble in the extreme: Europe was obliged to intervene, and Turkey gained a rectifica- tion of frontier and a war indemnity of £4,000,000, besides the curtailment by the treaty eventually signed of many privi- leges hitherto enjoyed by Hellenic subjects in Turkey. But Europe was determined that the Cretan question should be definitely settled, at least for a period of some years, and, after an outbreak at Candia, in which the lives of British troops were sacrificed, the four powers (Germany and Austria having with- drawn from the concert) who had taken over the island en dtpot handed it over in October 1898 to Prince George of Greece as high commissioner (see CRETE: History). Crete being thus removed from the scope of her action, Turkey found ample occupation in the almost constant turbulence of the Yemen, of Albania and of Macedonia. After Arab/a. J^92 tne rev°lts, frequently renewed, of the so-called imam of Sana, necessitated the despatch of large and costly expeditions to Arabia, in which thousands of Turkish troops have fallen in guerrilla warfare or through the inhospit- able climate; in Albania disturbance became almost endemic, owing to the resistance offered by the intractable population to successive attempts of the central authorities to subject the country to regular taxation and the operation of the laws. Unsettled claims by French citizens led to a breaking off of relations and the occupation of Mitylene by France in November 1901 ; the rupture was of short duration and Turkey soon gave way, according complete satisfaction both in this matter and on certain other French demands. In 1901 and 1902 Turkish encroachments on the hinterland of Aden brought about a dangerous state of tension between Great Britain and Turkey, which had its parallel in 1906 in similar trespasses Dispirits by the Ottoman authorities on the Egyptian land with France frontier near Akaba. In both cases Turkey eventually ""iBrUaia. yielded; a similar question arose in 1906 with France over the boundaries of the African possessions of the two countries. But Macedonia was Turkey's chief source of anxiety. That country, left by the Treaty of Berlin with its status unaltered, was in a continued condition of disturbance. The Chris- tian population, who in common with their Muss man fellow subjects suffered from the defective methods of government of their rulers, had at least before them the example of their brethren — Greeks, Bulgarians or Servians — dwelling in independent kingdoms under Christian governments on the other side of the frontier. The hope of eventual emancipation was stimulated by sedulous propa- gandists from each of these countries; from time to time armed bands of insurgents were manned and equipped in the small neighbouring states, with or without the co-operation of the governments. So long as Stambolov, the energetic Bulgarian statesman, was alive he succeeded in keeping the Bulgarian element quiet, and the peace of the country was less liable to disturbance. But for some years the three rivals in Macedonia, to which a fourth, the Rumanian element, must be added, were in constant strife (see MACEDONIA). A serious Bulgarian insurrection in Macedonia in the autumn of 1903 induced Austria and Russia to combine in formulating the Miirzsteg reform programme, tardily consented to by Turkey, by which Austrian and Russian civil agents were appointed to exercise a certain degree of control and supervision over the three vilayets of Salonica, Monastir and Kossovo. It was also arranged that foreign officers should be named to reorganize the gen- darmerie. An Italian officer, General De Giorgis, was appointed to the chief command in the reorganization, and the three vilayets were apportioned among the great powers into districts, in each of which was appointed a staff officer with a number of subordinate officers of his nationality under his orders. The work of reorganization was efficiently carried out, and the gen- darmerie school at Salonica, under British supervision, showed excellent results. But the achievements of the two civil agents were less noteworthy; and in 1905 it was agreed that, in view of the financial necessities of the provinces, the other great powers should each appoint delegates to a financial commission with extensive powers of control in fiscal matters. The Porte opposed the project, and an international naval demonstration and the occupation of Mytilene by the powers became necessary before Turkey gave way in December 1905. Even so it proved im- possible to fulfil the Miirzsteg programme, though the attempt was prolonged until 1908. The Austro-Russian entente had then come to an end; and after a meeting between King Edward VII. and the tsar Nicholas II. at Reval, a new scheme of reforms was announced, under the name of the " Reval pro- gramme." The enforcement of these reforms, however, was postponed sine die owing to the revolution which transformed the Ottoman Empire into a constitutional state; and the powers, anticipating an improvement in the administration of Macedonia by the new government, withdrew their military officers in the summer of 1908. The Young Turkish party had long been preparing for the overthrow of the old regime. Their central organization was in Paris and their objects were known throughout Europe, but except at Yildiz Kiosk their power was Turks""* almost everywhere underrated. The Porte strove by every means at its disposal to thwart their activity; but elsewhere they were regarded as a body of academic enthusiasts, more noisy than dangerous, who devoted their scanty funds to the publication of seditious matter in Paris or Geneva, and sought to achieve the impossible by importing western institutions into a country fit only to be ruled by the sheriat and the sword. Such was the opinion held even by experienced diplomatists and by historians. It was strengthened by the fact that the Young 464 TURKEY [HISTORY Turks had deliberately abstained from violent action. They had, in fact, learned from events in Russia and Poland that sporadic outbreaks on a small scale would inevitably discredit their cause, and that a successful revolution would require the support of the army. To gain this, an extensive propaganda was carried on by secret agents, many of whom were officers. At the beginning of 1908 a favourable opportunity for action arrived. The Otto- man troops in Arabia were mutinous and unpaid; the Albanians, long the mainstay of Turkish military power in the west, had been irritated by unpopular taxes and by the repressive edicts which deprived them of schools and a printing-press; foreign inter- ference in Crete and Macedonia was resented by patriotic Moslems throughout the empire. In these circumstances the head- quarters of the Young Turks were transferred from 'Paris to Salonica, where a central body, known as the committee of union and progress, was established (1908) to organize the revolution. Most of its members were military officers, prominent among them being Majors Enver Bey and Niazi Bey, who directed the propaganda in Albania and Macedonia. By midsummer the Albanian leaders and the greater part of the Turkish army in Europe had sworn fidelity to the constitution. On the 25th of May an insurrection broke out in Samos, owing to a dispute between the Samian Assembly and Kopassis Effendi, " prince," or governor of the island. After the port of Vathy had been bombarded by Ottoman war-ships the revolt was easily crushed. This affair however was of little more than local importance, and the Young Turks were not directly concerned in it. They The struck their first blow on the 22nd of July 1908, Revolution when Niazi Bey and his troops raised the standard oli908. of revolt at Resna, a town on the road from Monastir to Ochrida. On the 23rd the committee of union and progress, under the presidency of Enver Bey, proclaimed the constitution in Salonica, while the second and third army corps threatened to march on Constantinople if the sultan refused to obey the proclamation. On the 24th the sultan yielded, and issued an trade, restoring the constitution of 1876, and ordering the election of a chamber of deputies. Various other reforms, notably the abolition of the spy system and the censorship, were announced soon afterwards. Some of the more unpopular officials associated with the old regime were assassinated, among them Fehim Pasha, the former head of the espionage department, who had been exiled to Brusa in 1907 at the request of the British and German ambassadors. Otherwise the revolution was effected almost without bloodshed; for a time the insurgent bands disappeared in Macedonia, and the rival " nationalities " — Greek, Albanian, Turk, Armenian, Servian, Bulgarian and Jew — worked harmoniously together for the furtherance of common constitutional aims. On the 6th of August Kiamil Pasha, an advanced Liberal, became grand vizier, and a new cabinet was formed, including a Greek, Prince Mavrocordato, an Armenian, Noradounghian, and the Sheikh-ul-Islam. The success of the Young Turks created a serious situation for the statesmen of Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria. A regene- rated Ottoman Empire might in time be strong enough Bosnia and . , . • r -n • j TI Bulgaria. t° demand the evacuation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and to maintain or extend the nominal suzerainty over Bulgaria which the sultan had exercised since 1878. Accord- ingly, at the beginning of October 1908, the emperor Francis Joseph informed the powers signatory to the treaty of Berlin that the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Dual Monarchy had become necessary, and this decision was formally announced in an imperial rescript dated the 7th of October. The independence of Bulgaria was proclaimed on the 5th. The Ottoman government protested to the powers, but it wisely limited its demands to a claim for compensation. Austria- Hungary had from the first undertaken to withdraw its garrisons from the sanjak of Novibazar — an important concession; after prolonged negotiations and a boycott of all Austrian goods exported to Turkey, it also agreed to pay £2,200,000 as compensation for the Turkish crown lands seized in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This arrangement was sanctioned by the Ottoman parliament, which assented to the annexation on the 6th of April 1909 and recognized the independence of Bulgaria on the igth of April, the Russian government having enabled Bulgaria to pay the indemnity claimed by Turkey on account of the Eastern Rumelian tribute ,and railways (see BULGARIA: History). On the 3rd of February 1910 the Porte accepted a Bulgarian proposal for a mixed commission to delimit disputed sections of the Turco-Bulgarian frontier, and in March King Ferdinand visited Constantinople. Meanwhile the Young Turks were confronted with many difficulties within the empire. After the first fervour of enthu- siasm had subsided the Christian nationalities The Re- in Macedonia resumed their old attitude of mutual action in the jealousy, the insurgent bands began to reappear, fl"»v/oce». and the government was in 1900-1910 forced to undertake the disarmament of the whole civil population of the three vilayets. In Albania serious discontent, resulting in an insur- rection (May-September 1909), was caused by the political rivalry between Greeks and Albanians and the unwillingness of the Moslem tribesmen to pay taxes or to keep the peace with their neighbours, the Macedonian Serbs. In Asia Minor the Kurdish troops under Ibrahim Pasha revolted, and, although they were defeated with the loss of their commander, the Kurds continued to attack indiscriminately the Turks, Nestorians and Armenians; disturbances also broke out among the other reactionary Moslems of this region, culminating in a massacre of the Armenians at Adana. In Arabia Ratib Pasha, the Turkish commander-in-chief, joined the enemies of the new regime; he was defeated and captured in the autumn of 1908, but in the following year frequent raids upon the Hejaz railway were made by Bedouin tribesmen, while a Mahdist rebellion broke out and was crushed in Yemen. More serious than any of these local disturbances was the counter-revolution in Constantinople itself, which began with the revolt of Kiamil Pasha, the grand vizier, against The Con- the authority of the committee of union and pro- stantinopie gress. Kiamil Pasha was forced to resign (Feb. 14, Counter- 1909) and was succeeded by Hilmi Pasha, ex-high revotut">"- commissioner of Macedonia. Strife then arose between the committee and the Liberal Union, a body which mainly represented the Christian electorate, and on the sth of April Hassan Fehmi Effendi, who edited the Serbesti, the official organ of the union, was assassinated. He was an Albanian, and his fellow countrymen in the Constantinople garrison at once made common cause with the opponents of the committee. Mutinous troops seized the parliament house and the telegraph offices; the grand vizier resigned and was succeeded by Tewfik Pasha (April 14); and delegates were sent by the Liberal Union, the association of Ulema and other bodies to discuss terms with the committee. But Abd-ul-Hamid had issued a free pardon to the mutineers, and the committee had now decided that the new regime would never be secure while the sovereign favoured reaction. They refused to treat with the delegates, and despatched 25,000 men under Mahmud Shevket to Constantinople. The senate and chamber met at San Stefano, and, sitting jointly as a National Assembly, issued a proclamation in favour of the committee and its army (April 22, 1909), by which Constantinople was now invested. Part of the garrison remained loyal to the sultan, but after five hours of severe fighting Shevket Pasha was able to occupy the capital (April 25). The National Assembly met in secret session two days later, voted unanimously for the deposition of Abd-ul-Hamid II., and chose his younger brother Mahommed Reshad Effendi (b. Nov. 3, 1844) as his successor, with the style of Mahommed V. Abd-ul-Hamid II. was removed to Salonica on the 28th, and on the loth of May the new sultan was formally invested with the sword of Osman. Hilmi Pasha again became grand vizier, but resigned on the 28th of December 1909, when he was succeeded by Hakki Bey. On the sth of August 1909 the new constitution described above was LITERATURE] TURKEY 465 promulgated by imperial irade; parliament was prorogued for three months on the 27th, and during the recess the committee of union and progress met at Salonica and modified its own rules (Oct. 23), ceasing thenceforward to be a secret association. This was regarded as an expression of confidence in the reformed parliament, which had laid the foundation of the important financial and administrative reforms already described. On the 1 3th of September 1909 the Macedonian international commission of finance met for the last time; its members were reappointed to a higher finance board for the whole empire, under the presidency of Djavid Bey. Ch. Laurent had already been nominated financial adviser to the empire (Sept. 16, 1908), while Sir William Willcocks became head of the irrigation department; the reorganization of the army was entrusted to the German General von der Goltz, that of the navy to Admiral Sir Douglas Gamble (resigned Feb. i, 1910). The evacuation of Crete by the four protecting powers was followed in 1909 by renewed agitation. Turkey was willing Crete, t° concede the fullest local autonomy, but not to (incccand abandon its sovereign rights over the island. In Rumania, jujy 1909, however, the Greek flag was hoisted in Canea and Candia, and it was only lowered again after the war-ships of the protecting powers had been reinforced and had landed an international force. The Cretan administrative com- mittee swore allegiance to the king of the Hellenes in August, and again, after a change of government, at the end of December 1909. This situation had already given rise to prolonged negotiations between Greece and Turkey. It also contributed towards the conclusion of an entente between Turkey and Rumania in the summer of 1910. Both of these powers were interested in preventing any possible accession of territory to the Bulgarian kingdom; and Rumania (q.v.) had for many years been a formidable opponent of Hellenism among the Macedonian Vlachs. Greece and Crete were thus confronted with what was in effect a defensive alliance between Turkey and Rumania. The Cretans had insisted upon their demand for union with Greece and had elected three representatives to sit in the Greek national assembly. Had this act been ratified by the government at Athens, a war between Greece and the Ottoman Empire could hardly have been avoided; but a royal rescript was issued by the king of the Hellenes on the 3oth of September 1910, declaring vacant the three seats to which the Cretan representatives had been elected; the immediate danger was thus averted. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (i) General Historical Works: The monumental Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiclies, by J. von Hammer Purgstall (ist ed., 10 vols., Vienna, 1827-1835; 2nd ed., 4 vols., Pest, 1840; French trans., by J. J. Hellert, 18 vols., Paris, 1835-1843), is still the standard work until the conclusion of the treaty of Kuchuk Kai'narji (1744), at which date it stops. Founded upon it are Sir E. S. Creasy's History of the Ottoman Turks (London, 1878) and S. Lane-Poole s Turkey in the " Story of the Nations Series " (London, 1888); Sutherland Menzies's Turkey, Old and New (2 vols., 1880) is derived chiefly from French sources and is less accurate and unbiased. An excellent and impartial history in Turkish is the Tarikh-i-devlet-i-osmanie, by Abdurrahman Sheref (Constantinople, A.H. 1315-1318 = A. D. 1897-1900). The Balkans, by W. Miller (London, 1899), in the " Story of the Nations Series," deals with Turkey's relations with the Balkan states. Halil Ganem's Les Sultans ottomans (2 vols., Paris, 1902) contains much that is interesting, if not always entirely trustworthy. 2. Monographs: Much information on modern Turkish history and politics will be found in the works dealing primarily with topo- graphy, finance, law and defence, which have been cited above. See also S. Lane-Poole, Life of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe (2 vols., London, 1888) ; A. Vandal, Memoires du marquis de Nointel (French ambassador at Constantinople from 1670 to 1678) ; E. Engelhardt, La Turquie et le Tanzitnat (Paris, 1882); E. Driault, La Question d' orient depuis ses origines jusqu'a nos jours (Paris, 1898); V. Berard, La Turquie et I'Hellenisme (Paris, 1897); idem, Le Sultan, I' Islam et les Puissances (Paris, 1907); idem, La Revolution turque (1909). 3. Official Publications and Collections of Treaties: Sir E. Herts- let s Treaties Regulating the Trade, &c., between Great Britain and Turkey (London, 1875) presents a summary of all the principal treaties between Turkey and other states; see also Gabriel Effendi Noradounghian, Recueil d'actes internationaux de I' empire ottoman, 1300-1789, t. i. (Paris, 1897). Much valuable information is to OU School. be obtained from parliamentary papers. These are too numerous for detailed mention, but the following periods may be cited as the most interesting: 1833-1841 (Egyptian question); 1849-1859 (Crimean War and the events by which it was preceded and followed) ; 1868-1869 (Cretan insurrection); 1875-1881 (Bosnian and Herzego- vinian insurrection, Russo-Turkish War, Berlin treaty and subse- quent events) ; 1885-1887 (union of Eastern Rumelia with Bulgaria) ; 1889-1890 (Cretan disturbances) ; 1892-1899 (Armenian and Cretan affairs) ; 1902-1907 (Macedonia) ; 1908-1910 (revolution and reform). Some analysis of the unpublished documents in the record office, for the period 1815-1841, by W. Alison Phillips, will be found in the bibliographies to chs. vi. and xvii. of vol. x. of the Cambridge Modern History. (X.) Literature. In all literary matters the Ottoman Turks have shown them- selves a singularly uninventive people, the two great schools, the old and the new, into which we may divide their literature, being closely modelled, the one after the classics of Persia, the other after those of modern Europe, and more especially of France. The old or Persian school flourished from the founda- tion of the empire down to about 1830, and still continues to drag on a feeble existence, though it is now out of fashion and cultivated by none of the leading men of letters. These belong to the new or European school, which, in spite of the bitter opposition of the partisans of the old Oriental system, has suc- ceeded, partly thiough its own inherent superiority and partly through the talents and courage of its supporters, in expelling its rival from the position of undisputed authority which it had occupied for upwards of five hundred years. For the present purpose it will be convenient to divide the old school into three periods, which may be termed respectively the pre-classical, the classical and the post-classical. Of these the first extends from the early days of the empire to the accession of Suleiman I., 1301-1520 (700-926); the second from that event to the accession of Mahmud I., 1520-1730 (926-1143); and the third from that date to the accession of "Abd-ul-'Aziz, 1730-1861 (1143-1277). The works of the old school in all its periods are entirely Persian in tone, sentiment and form. We find in them the same beauties and the same defects that we observe in the production of the Iranian authors. The formal elegance and **e conventional grace, alike of thought and of expression, so characteristic of Persian classical literature, pervade the works of the best Ottoman writers, and they are likewise imbued, though in a less degree, with that spirit of mysticism which runs through so much of the poetry of Iran. But the Ottomans did not stop here: in their romantic poems they chose as subjects the favourite themes of their Persian masters, such as Leyli and Mejnun, Khusrev and Shirin, Yusuf and Zuleykha, and so on; they constantly allude to Persian heroes whose stories occur in the Shdh-Nama and other store- houses of Iranian legendary lore; and they wrote their poems in Persian metres and in Persian forms. The mesnevi, the jcaslda and the ghazel — all of them, so far at least as the Ottomans are concerned, Persian — were the favourite verse-forms of the old poets. A mesnevi is a poem written in rhyming couplets, and is usually narrative in subject. The kaslda and the ghazel are both mono- rhythmic ; the first as a rule celebrates the praises of some great man, while the second discourses of the joys and woes of love. Why Persian rather than Arabian or any other literature became the model of Ottoman writers is explained by the early history of the race (see TURKS). Some two centuries before the arrival of the Turks in Asia Minor the Seljuks, then a mere horde of savages, had overrun Persia, where they settled and adopted the civilization of the people they had subdued. Thus Persian became the language of their court and government, and when by-and-by they pushed their conquests into Asia Minor, and founded there the Seljulf Empire of Rum, they carried with them their Persian culture, and diffused it among the peoples newly brought under their sway. It was the descendants of those Persianized Seljuks whom the early Otto- mans found ruling in Asia Minor on their arrival there. What had happened to the Seljuks two centuries before happened to the Otto- mans now: the less civilized race adopted the culture of the more civilized; and, as the Seljulf Empire fell to pieces and the Ottoman came gradually to occupy its place, the sons of men who had called themselves Seljuks began thenceforth to look upon themselves as Ottomans. Hence the vast majority of the people whom we are accustomed to think of as Ottomans are so only by adoption, being really the descendants of Seljuks or Seljukian subjects, who had derived from Persia whatever they possessed of civilization or of literary taste. An extraordinary love of precedent, the result apparently of conscious want of original power, was sufficient to keep their writers loyal to their early guide for centuries, till ra 466 TURKEY [LITERATURE at length the allegiance, though not the fashion of it, has been changed in our own days, and Paris has replaced Shiraz as the shrine towards which the Ottoman scholar turns. While conspicuously lacking in creative genius, the Ottomans have always shown them- selves possessed of receptive and assimilative powers to a remarkable degree, the result being that the number of their writers both in prose and verse is enormous. Of course only a few of the most prominent, either through the intrinsic merit of their work or through the influence they have had on that of their contemporaries, can be mentioned in a brief review like the present. It ought to be premised that the poetry of the old school is greatly superior to the prose. Ottoman literature may be said to open with a few mystic lines, the work of Sultan Veled, son of Maulana Jelal-ud-Din, the author of the great Persian poem the Mathnam. Sultan Veled "",. . flourished during the reign of ' Osman I., though he did not reside in the territory under the rule of that prince. Another mystic poet of this early time was 'Ashik Pasha, who left a long poem in rhyming couplets, which is called, inappropriately enough, his Divdn. The nocturnal expe- dition across the Hellespont by which Suleiman, the son of Orkhan, won Galipoli and therewith a foothold in Europe for his race, was shared in and celebrated in verse by a Turkish noble or chieftain named Ghazi Fazil. Sheikhi of Kermiyan, a contemporary of Mabommed Land Murad II., wrote a lengthy and still esteemed mesnevi on the ancient Persian romance of Khusrev and Shirin ; and about the same time Yaziji-oghlu gave to the world a long versified history of the Prophet, the Mubammediya. The writers mentioned above are the most important previous to the capture of Constanti- nople ; but there is little literature of real merit prior to that event. The most notable prose work of this period is an old collection of stories, the History of the Forty Vezirs, said to have been compiled by a certain Sheikh-zada and dedicated to Murad II. A few years after Constanti- nople passed into the hands of the Ottomans, some ghazels, the work of the contemporary Tatar prince, Mir 'AH Shir, who under the nom de plume of Nevayl wrote much that shows true talent and poetic feeling, found their way to the Ottoman capital, where they were seen and copied by Ahmed Pasha, one of the viziers of Mabommed II. The poems of this statesman, though possessing little merit of their own, being for the most part translations from Nevayl, form one of the landmarks in the history of Ottoman literature. They set the fashion of ghazel-writing; and their appearance was the signal for a more regular cultivation of poetry and a greater attention to literary style and to refinement of language. In Sinan Pasha (d. 1420), another minister of Mahommed the Conqueror, Ottoman prose found its first exponent of ability; he left a religious treatise entitled Tazarru'at (Supplications), which, notwithstanding a too lavish employment of the resources of Persian rhetoric, is as remark- able for its clear and lucid style as for the beauty of many of the thoughtsit contains. The most noteworthy writersof the Conqueror's reign are, after Ahmed and Sinan, the two lyric poets Nejati and Zati, whose verses show a considerable improvement upon those of Ahmed Pasha, the romantic poets Jema.ll and Hamdi, and the poetesses Zeyneb and Mihri. Like most of his house, Mabommed II. was fond of poetry and patronized men of letters. He himself tried versifica- tion, and some of his lines which have come down to us appear quite equal to the average work of his contemporaries. Twenty-one out of the thirty-four sovereigns who have occupied the throne of 'Osman have left verses, and among these Selim I. stands out, not merely as the greatest ruler, warrior and statesman, but also as the most gifted and most original poet. His work is unhappily for the greater part in the Persian language ; the excellence of what he has done in Turkish makes us regret that he did so little. The most prominent man of letters under Selim I. was the legist Kemal Pasha-zada, frequently called Ibn-Kemal, who distinguished himself in_both prose and verse. He left a romantic poem on the loves of Yusuf and Zuleykha, and a work entitled Nigarislan, which is modelled both in style and matter on the Gulistan of Sa'di. His contemporary, Mesihi, whose beautiful verses on spring are perhaps better known in Europe than any other Turkish poem, deserves a passing mention. With the accession of Sellm's son, Suleiman I., the classical period begins. Hitherto all Ottoman writing, even the most highly Classical finished, had been somewhat rude and uncouth ; but Period. now a marked improvement becomes visible alike in the manner and the matter, and authors of greater ability begin to make their appearance. Fuzuli (d. 1563), one of the four great poets of the old school, seems to have been a native of Bagdad or its neighbourhood, and probably became an Ottoman subject when Suleiman took possession of the old capital of the caliphs. His language, which is very peculiar, seems to be a sort of mixture of the Ottoman and Azerbaijan dialects of Turkish, and was most probably that of the Persian Turks of those days. Fuzuli showed far more originality than any of his predecessors; for, although his work is naturally Persian in form and in general character, it is far from being a mere echo from Shiraz or Isfahan. He struck out a new line for himself, and was indebted for his inspiration to no previous writer, whether Turk or Persian. An intense and passionate ardour breathes in his verses, and forms one of the most remarkable as well as one of the most attractive characteristics of his style ; for, while few even among Turkish poets are more artificial than he, few seem to write with greater earnestness and sincerity. His influence upon his successors has scarcely been as far-reaching as might have been expected — a circumstance which is perhaps in some measure owing to the unfamiliar dialect in which he wrote. Besides his Dwdn, he left a beautiful mesnevi on the story of Leyll and Mejnun, as well as some prose works little inferior to his poetry. Baki (d. 1599) of Constantinople, though far from rivalling his contemporary Fuzuli, wrote much good poetry, including one piece of great excel- lence, an elegy on Suleiman I. The Ottomans have as a rule been particularly successful with elegies; this one by Baki has never been surpassed. Ruhi, Lami'i, Nev'I, the janissary Yahya Beg, the mufti Ebu-Su'ud and Selim II. all won deserved distinction as poets. During the reign of Ahmed I. arose the second of the great poets of the old Ottoman school, Nef'i of Erzerum, who owes his pre- eminence to the brilliance of his kasidas. But Nef'i could revile as well as praise, and such was the bitterness of some of his satires that certain influential personages who came under his lash induced Murad IV. to permit his execution. Nef'i, who, like Fuzuli, formed a style of his own, had many to imitate him, of whom Sabri Shakir, a contemporary, was the most successful. Na'ili, Jevri and Fehim need not detain us; but Nabi (d. 1712), who flourished under Ibrahim and Mabommed IV., calls for a little more attention. This prolific author copied, and so imported into Ottoman literature, a didactic style of ghazel-writing which was then being introduced in Persia by the poet Sa'ib ; but so closely did the pupil follow in the footsteps of his master that it is not always easy to know that his lines are intended to be Turkish. A number of poets, of whom Seyyid Vehbi, Raghib Pasha, Rabmi of the Crimea, Kelim and SamI are the most notable, took Nabi for their model. Of these, Sami is remarkable for the art with which he constructed his ghazels. Among the writers of this time who did not copy Nabi are Sabit, Rasikh and Talib, each of whom endeavoured, with no great success, to open up a new path for himself. We now reach the reign of Abmed III., during which flourished Nedim, the greatest of all the poets of the old school. Little appears to be known about his life further than that he resided at Constantinople and was alive in the year 1727 (A.H. 1140). Nedim stands quite alone : he copied no one, and no one has attempted to copy him. There is in his poetry a joyousness and sprightliness which at once distinguish it from the work of any other Turkish author. His ghazels, which are written with great elegance and finish, contain many graceful and original ideas, and the words he makes use of are always chosen with a view to harmony and cadence. His kasidas are almost equal to his ghazels; for, while they rival those of Nef'i in brilliancy, they surpass them in beauty of diction, and are not so artificial and dependent on fantastic and far- fetched conceits. The classical period comes to an end with Nedim ; its brightest time is that which falls between the rise of Nef'i and the death of Nedim, or, more roughly, that extending from the accession of Ahmed I. 1603 (1012), to the deposition of Ahmed III., 173° (ii43)- We will now glance at the prose writers of this period. Under the name of Humdyun Ndma (Imperial Book) 'Ali Chelebi made a highly esteemed translation of the well-known Persian classic Anvdr-i SuheyK, dedicating it to Suleiman I. Classical Sa'd-ud-Din (d. 1599), the preceptor of Murad III., f^?e wrote a valuable history of the empire from the earliest times to the death of Selim I. This work, the Tdj-ut-Tevarikh (Crown of Chronicles), is reckoned, on account of its ornate yet clear style, one of the masterpieces of the old school, and forms the first of an 11 nbroken series of annals which are written, especially the later among them, with great minuteness and detail. Of Sa'd-ud-Din's successors in the office of imperial historiographer the most remark- able for literary power is Na'ima. His work, which extends from 1591 (1000) to 1659 (1070), contrasts strongly with that of the earlier historian, being written with great directness and lucidity, combined with much vigour and picturesqueness. Evliya, who died during the reign of Mahommed IV., is noted for the record which he has left of his travels in different countries. About this time Tash-kopri- zada began and 'Ata-ullah continued a celebrated biography of the legists and sheikhs who had flourished under the Ottoman monarchs. Haji Khalifa, frequently termed Katib Chelebi, was one of the most famous men of letters whom Turkey has produced. He died in 1658 (1068), having written a great number of learned works on history, biography, chronology, geography and other subjects. The Persianizing tendency of this school reached its highest point in the productions of Veysi, who left a Life of the Prophet, and of Nergisi, a miscellaneous writer of prose and verse. Such is the intentional obscurity in many of the compositions of these two authors that every sentence becomes a puzzle, over which even a scholarly Otto- man must pause before he can be sure he has found its true meaning. The first printing-press in Turkey was established by an Hungarian who had assumed the name of Ibrahim, and in 1728 (1141) appeared the first book printed in that country; it was Vankuli's Turkish translation of Jevheri's Arabic dictionary. Coming now to the post-classigal period, we find among poets worthy of mention Beligh, Nevres, Hishmet and Sunbuli-zada Vehbi, each of whom wrote in a style peculiar to himself. Three poets of note — Pertev, Neshet and Sheikh Ghalib — flourished under Selim III. The last-named is the fourth great poet of the old TURKEY 467 school. Husn u 'Ashk (Beauty and Love), as his great poem is called, is an allegorical romance full of tenderness and imaginative power. Ghalib's style is as original as that of Fuzull, i IT I Nefi or Nedim. The most distinguished prose writers classical Q£ ^g perjoj are perhaps Rashid, the imperial historio- grapher, 'Asim, who translated into Turkish two great lexicons, the Arabic Kdmus and the Persian Burhan-i R.a(i', and Kani, the only humorous writer of merit belonging to the old school. When we reach the reign of Mahmud II., the great transition period of Ottoman history, during which the civilization of the ' West began to struggle in earnest with that of the East, we ^"^ tne ch.ange which was coming over all things Turkish affecting literature along with the rest, and preparing the way for the appearance of the new school. The chief poets of the transition are Fazil Bey, Wasif, notable for his not altogether unhappy attempt to write verses in the spoken language of the capital, 'Izzet Molla, Pertev Pasha, 'Akif Pasha, and the poetesses Fitnet and Ley la. In the works of all of these, although we occasionally discern a hint of the new style, the old Persian manner is still supreme. More intimate relations with western Europe and a pretty general study of the French language and literature, together with the steady progress of the reforming tendency fairly School. started under Mahmud II., resulted in the birth of the new or modern school, whose objects are_truth and sim- plicity. In the political writings of Reshid and 'Akif Pashas we have the first clear note of change; but the man to whom more than to any other the new departure owes its success is Shinasi Effendi, who employed it (1859) for poetry as well as for prose. The European style, on its introduction, encountered the most violent opposition, but now it alone is used by living authors of repute. If any of these does write a pamphlet in the old manner, it is merely as a tour de force, or to prove to some faithful but clamorous partisan of the Persian style that it is not, as he supposes, lack of ability which causes the modern author to adopt the simpler and more natural fashion of the West. The whole tone, sentiment and form of Ottoman literature have been revolutionized by the new school: varieties of poetry hitherto unknown have been adopted from Europe; an altogether new branch of literature, the drama, has arisen; while the sciences are now treated and seriously studied after the system of the West. Among writers of this school who have won distinction are Ziya Pasha, Jevdet Pasha, the statesman and historian, Ekrem Bey, the author of a beautiful series of miscellaneous poems, Zemzema, IJamid Bey, who holds the first place among Ottoman dramatists, and Kemal Bey (d. 1878), the leader of the modern school and one of the most illustrious men of letters whom his country has produced. He wrote with conspicuous success in almost every branch of literature — history, romance, ethics, poetry and the drama; and his influence on the Young Turk party of later days was profound. (For the Turkish language see TURKS.) (E. J. W. G.) The magnum opus in English on Turkish poetry is E. J. W. Gibb's History of Ottoman Poetry (5 vols., 1900-8, vol. v. ed. E. G. Browne). TURKEY, an abbreviation for Turkey-Cock or Turkey-Hen as the case may be, a well-known large domestic gallinaceous bird. How it came by this name has long been a matter of discussion, for it is certain that this valuable animal was introduced to Europe from the New World, and in its introduction had nothing to do with Turkey or with Turks, even in the old and extended sense in which that term was applied to all Mahommedans. But it is almost as unquestionable that the name was originally applied to the bird which we know as the guinea-fowl (.). After the death of Jenghiz his conquests were divided, and Transoxiana, Kashgar, Badak- shan, Balkh and Ghazni were given to his second son Chagatai or Jagatai. Jenghiz and his family must have been Mongols, but the name Jagatai passed to the population and language of the countries about the Oxus. It does not appear that they ever ceased to be Turkish in speech and customs. The hordes of Jenehiz must have comprised a considerable Turkish element; the Mongols had no inclination to settle in cities, and Jagatai himself lived near Kulja in the extreme east of his dominions. Though the cities in western Central Asia suffered severely the people were not Mongolized, and Mahommedan learning even flourished. But otherwise the whole history of the Jagatai khanate, which lasted from 1234 to 1370, is a con- fused record of dissensions with frequent intervals of anarchy. In 1321 it split into two khanates, Transoxiana and Dzungaria, and in 1370 collapsed before Timur. This great conqueror (1333-1404), who like Jenghiz had an extraordinary power of collecting and leading the hordes of Central Asia, was a native of the district of Samarkand and a Turk by descent. He con- quered successively Dzungaria (1370), Persia and the Caucasus (1390), the Kipchaks on the Volga (1395), and Northern India (1398). He then invaded Syria and Asia Minor, where he de- feated but did not annihilate the Osmanlis. The house of Timur did not retain his more distant conquests, but they ruled at 472 TURKS Samarkand until 1499 with the usual struggles between different branches of the family. Their possessions included, at least from time to time, the northern parts of Afghanistan and Persia, as well as Transoxiana and Turkestan. They were one of the most enlightened and cultivated of Turkish dynasties. They beautified the cities of Central Asia and were patrons of literature. The literary languages were as a rule Arabic or Persian; Turkish was used more rarely and chiefly for poetry. The Timurids were overthrown and succeeded by the Shaibani dynasty, a branch of the house of Juji, Jenghiz Khan's eldest son, to whom his father had assigned dominions in the region north of the kingdom of Jagatai. About 1465 a number of this clan migrated into the Jagatai khanate. They were given territory on the Chu River and were known as Uzbegs. About 1 500 their chief, Mahommed Shaibani or Shahi Beg, made himself master of Transoxiana and founded the Uzbeg power. The chief opponent of the Uzbegs in their early days was Baber, who represented the house of Timur in the fifth generation, but he ultimately led his armies in another direction and invaded India (1526), where he founded the Mogul Empire, a far more important state than the principalities of the Oxus. The Shaibanis continued to rule in these latter till 1583, and were followed by the houses of Astrakhan and Mangit; but it is not necessary to continue here the complicated chronicles of these dynasties. The Osmanlis, or house of Osman, the founders of the present Turkish Empire, appear to have been a clan similar to the early Seljuks or the present Turkomans of Transcaspia, who migrated into Asia Minor from Khorasan and made the neighbourhood of Brusa their headquarters. Their conspicuous position in history is mainly due to the fact that they attained pre-eminence very late and in districts very near Europe. Except for the invasion of Timur they did not suffer from the attacks of other Turks and they were able to concentrate their strength on the conquest of the decrepit Byzantine Empire. Customs, Civilization, Religion, &c. — The Turks are imitative rather than original, and, in all their branches, have assimilated to some extent the nearest civilization whenever they have settled down. Up to the 7th century their only culture consisted of some scraps of Chinese and Indian civilization. Subsequently both the eastern and western states which they founded adopted Perso- Arabic civilization and Mahommedanism. The Osmanlis have also been affected by Byzantine and west European influences. Chinese historians and the Turkish inscriptions of the Orkhon and Yenisei give us a good deal of information respecting the earlier condition of these tribes. We are told that the Hiung-nu lived on horseback and moved about from place to place in search of fresh pasture. They possessed horses, cattle and sheep and also camels. They had no towns or villages and no agriculture and they never stayed long in one camp, but during their halts a special piece of land was assigned to each tribe and each tent. They were ignorant of writing. The children were taught to ride and shoot, and the adults were expert archers. Their food was flesh and milk and their clothing the skins of animals. They were polygamous and a son married his deceased father's wives, except his own mother. It is expressly stated that old people were despised and neglected, but this barbarous trait disappeared from the manners of the later Turks. Of the Turks in the 6th century the Chinese writers give a rather more flattering account. They had numerous grades of rank, and when their khan was invested with the supreme power he was carried in a carpet. When troops were levied or taxes collected, the required amount was carved on a piece of wood marked with a golden arrow as a sign of authority. Their punishments were severe. Marriage was by arrangement with the parents, not capture. The dead were kept for some time after death and the mourners gashed their faces. They sacrificed to heaven and to the spirits of their ancestors. Their amusements included singing antiphonally, playing dice and drinking koumiss till they were drunk. They had a written alphabet (derived from India or Syria) and a duodenary cycle in which the years were designated by the names of animals. Somewhat similar accounts are given of the Kerkur or Kirghiz and of the Kankli or Kankali. These were perhaps the ancestors of the Uighurs and moved about in carts with high wheels : they are described as a barbarous undis- ciplined people, but capable of concerted action. In the Orkhon inscriptions of the early part of the 8th century a somewhat more civilized branch of the Turks gives an account of itself which tallies with the Chinese descriptions. No Turkish cities are mentioned, only tribes and localities. War is the national occupation. The sovereign or kagan fights himself, and it is interest- ing to see that the names of the various chargers which he mounted are carefully recorded. The spirit of tribal patriotism and desire lor glory which animate these compositions are very noticeable and also the implied obligation of the rulers to see to the prosperity of the people. The existence of the tombs and of inscriptions in Chinese characters as well as in an alphabet of Aramaic origin, and the mention of gold, silver, silk and precious objects show that the builders had looted, so to speak, a certain amount of fragmentary civilization from their neighbours. The chief deity is Heaven or Tangri (still used in Osmanli Turkish as the equivalent of Allah), who gives the kingdom to the kagans and cares for the name and reputation of the Turkish people. There qre also spirits of the earth and waters. All this is very like the earliest Chinese religion. Funeral ceremonies were evidently elaborate and the cycle of years named after animals was used for chronology. The Chinese pilgrim Husan Tsang was entertained by She-hu (perhaps a title), kagan of the Western Turks, near Tokmak about A.D. 630. He left an account of the barbaric splendour of his recep- * tion and alludes to the number of horses, the gold embroidery of the kagan's tent, the silk robes of his retinue, and the use of wine and music. He says the Turks were fire-worshippers and would not sit on wooden seats. It is probable that before they were converted to Islam the Turks practised in a desultory manner Buddhism, fire-worship and Nes- torian Christianity, though they never wholly accepted any of them. An interesting trace of Buddhism remains in the names Shaman and Shamanism. It would appear that the Indian word Sramana or Samana was appjied to the wizards and exorcizers of the older Turkish superstition. Recent investigations have discovered the existence of a considerable Buddhist civilization at Khotan, but at the time when it flourished it would appear that the mass of the population was of Iranian affinities and that the Turkish element was small. The Kudatku Bilik (about 1065) gives a picture of life in Easte.Ti Turkestan after the conversion to Islam, but still showing many traces of Chinese influence. But after this period nearly all the Turks (except a few obscure tribes like the Yakuts) adopted the Perso-Arabic civilization. Some however, such as the Kirghiz, Turkomans and Yuruks of Asia Minor, have not yet abandoned the nomadic life. The Turks seem to be everywhere characterized by their innate sense of discipline and their submissiveness to their own authorities; councils or assemblies have rarely assumed importance among them; sovereigns and even dynasties (except the house of Osman) have often been removed by violence, but the despotic form of government has never failed to secure obedience. But equally important, as explaining their military successes, is the fact, noticed alike by ancient Chinese historians and modern European officers, that the ordinary Turkish soldier has in military matters an unusual resourcefulness and power of initiative which, without impairing discipline, renders him independent of his officers. .Language. — The Turkish or Tatar-Turkish languages belong to the Ural-Altaic family. Both nominal and verbal forms are built up solely by the addition of suffixes, and the law of vowel harmony is strictly observed. Hard and soft vowels cannot occur in the same word, and there is a tendency to assimilate the vowels of the suffix to those of the root ; thus pederiniz, your father, but dostunuz, your friend. From the Mongol-Manchu languages the Turkish group is distinguished by its much more developed system of inflexion, particularly in the verbs, by its free use of pronominal suffixes, and by its more thoroughly agglutinative character. The stem with its suffixes forms a single compound word, whereas in Mongol the suffixes often seem quasi-indepen- dent. In all these features Turkish resembles the Finno-Ugric languages, but it diverges from them in having a much simpler system of cases and different phonetics, in the absence of many peculiarities such as the incorporation of the pronominal object in the verb, and in the development of some special forms, such as the expression of negation by inserting a suffix after the verbal root (yazdim, I wrote, yazmadim, I did not write). The gram- matical forms are more agglutinative and less inflexional than in Finnish; though they are single words, the root does not change and the elements can be easily separated, which is not always the case in Finnish. Compare the Turkish gyordunuz, " you saw," from the root gyor, with the equivalent Finnish naitte from ntike. The fusion between the root and suffixes is much more thorough in the latter. Turkish thus stands midway between Mongol and Finnish in its development of the agglutinative principle. Also, though compounds are not unknown in Turkish (e.g. demiryol, railway) they are much rarer than in Finnish or Hungarian. Despite the apparent divergence between Turkish and Mongol, due perhaps partly to the influence of Chinese on the latter, the affinity between them seems real, though not -superficial. The pronouns, case suffixes, and construction of sentences all show a TURKS 473 general similarity, and the verb in Buriat, which differs from other Mongol languages, exhibits a development parallel to Turkish. The want of resemblance in vocabulary between the three classes of languages is remarkable. The numerals, for instance, in Turkish, Mongol and Finno-Ugric are entirely different, and con- siderable changes have to be assumed before the identity of words can be proved. A comparison of Turkish words with Mongol equivalents makes it probable that the former are in many instances contractions: thus dagh, mountain, yol, road, corre- spond to the Mongol dabaga, yabudal and perhaps represent an earlier tavagh and yawl. The best-known Turkish languages, particularly Osmanli, have borrowed an enormous number of Arabic and Persian words which disguise the characters of the native vocabulary and to some extent affect the grammar. Compared with the Finno-Ugric group, the Turkish languages are remarkably uniform. Indeed, allowing for the lapse of time and the importation of foreign words, it is hardly an exaggeration to say that from the Lena to Constantinople, from the Orkhon inscriptions till now, we have merely one language in different dialects. The native vocabulary and grammar remain sub- stantially the same. The linguistic type is evidently strongly individual and persistent, and its separation from Mongol, &c., is probably very ancient. Radlov divides the Turkjsh languages or dialects into four groups, according to their phonetic system, (i) Eastern: Altai, Baraba, Lebed, Tuba, Abakan, Kiiarik, Soyon, Karagass and Uighur. (2) Western: Kirghiz, Bashkir, Irtysh and Volga dialects. (3) Central Asiatic: Jagatai, Taranji, &c. (4) Southern: Turkmani, Azerbai- jani, Krimmi, Anadoli and Osmanli. But this classification does not seem entirely satisfactory. As one passes across Asia from the Yakuts, through Kashgar, Turkestan and Azerbaijan to Constanti- nople, the pronunciation of the Turkish languages becomes decidedly softer, the suffixes become more intimately united with the words to which they are appended (approaching though not attaining the unity of Finnish inflexions), and the verbal forms grow more numer- ous and more complicated. Thus in the east we find nin, ni, go as suffixes for the genitive, accusative and dative, and man for that of the first personal pronoun (e.g. durman, I stand or I am) correspon- ding to -in, -i, -a and -im in Osmanli, which have clearly assumed the character of inseparable terminations more completely than the older forms. Osmanli possesses more copious verbal forms than the other dialects, some of which (such as the future in -ajak) seem to be recent formations. On the other hand, the dialects of Turkestan use in speaking, though not in writing, forms which indicate a process &f composition followed by contraction, more remarkable than any change which has taken place in the west. For instance, wopti, a contraction of bolup irdi, is said to be currently used in Khokand for " has become." Yakut (which can still be best studied in Boht- lingk's excellent grammar of 1851) is the dialect which is most distinct from the others, but does not appear always to preserve the oldest forms. Thus it has lost the genitive, which is replaced by'a pronominal periphrasis (e.g. oriis bas-a, horse head-his, i.e. horse's head), and has verbal forms like bisabin, I cut, bispappin, I do not cut, apparently standing for bisarbin, bispatbin. The negative suffix is pa not ma. The resemblance between the Turkish dialects is increased by the fact that they are nearly all written in a somewhat artificial and standardized form which imperfectly represents the variety existing in conversational speech. Several alphabets have been employed to write Turkish, (i) Arabic characters are everywhere used by Mahommedan Turks, almost without exception; yet this alphabet is extremely ill suited to represent Turkish sounds. It cannot distinguish the hard and soft vowels, so that oldu, " he was " is written in the same way as oldii, " he died." In some cases the consonants indicate the charac- ter of the vowels which are to be supplied after them, hard consonants being followed by hard vowels and soft by soft. Thus the word spelt with the letters kaf, re, he is pronounced as kara, but that spelt with kef, re, he as kerre. Further the orthography often follows an antiquated pronunciation and the letters have many sounds. Thus the single letter kef can be used to express k, ky, g, gy, y, v, w and n. The result is that pure Turkish words written in Arabic letters are often hardly intelligible even to Turks and it is usual to employ Arabic synonyms as much as possible because there is no doubt as to how they should be read. Osmanli documents are often little more than a string of Arabic words with Turkish terminations. 2. The Uighurs and Eastern Turks used in the middle ages a short alphabet of fourteen letters derived from a Syriac source and prob- ably introduced among them by Nestorian missionaries; similar characters may also have been employed by Manichaeans. The Mongol and Manchu alphabets represent further variations of this writing. Though very like the modern Nestorian, it is in some respects more nearly allied to the Estrangelo and Syro-Palestinian alphabets of the 6th and 7th centuries. The most important document in this alphabet is a MS. preserved at Vienna of the Kudatku Bilik, " The Blessed or Fortunate Knowledge," a poem composed at Kashgar about 1065. A colophon states that the MS. was written at Herat in 1465, and that it is a copy of one written jn 1085. Inscriptions in a similar alphabet have also been found in China. 3. The most interesting forms of Turkish writing are those used on the inscriptions found in Siberia near the Yenisei and Orkhon rivers. For some time it has been known that stones bearing inscrip- tions as well as roughly carved figures and hunting scenes were to be tound on the upper waters of the Yenisei, particularly near its tributary the Abakan in the district of Minusinsk. They are greatly venerated by the Soyotes inhabiting the region. They were first discovered by Messerschmidt in 1722, and some of them were repre- sented in the plates of Strahlenberg's Das nord. und ostliche Theil •von Europa und Asia (1730). They were generally attributed to Scythians or Chudes. The knowledge of them did not much advance until the researches of Castren (1847) and the Finnish Society of Archaeology, which in 1889 published the text of thirty-two, chiefly from the Uibat, Ulukem, Altynkul and Tes. Even more interesting are the monuments discovered in 1889 and known as the Orkhon or Kosho-Tsaidam inscriptions, as they were found in Mongolia to the south of Lake Baikal, between the river Orkhon and Lake Koshp-Tsaidam. The most important are a mortuary inscription in Turkish and Chinese, bearing a date corresponding to 733, in honour of Kul-tegm, and another recounting the exploits of Bilga Kagan. A third inscription at Kara-Balgassun probably dates from 800-805. The inscriptions were deciphered and translated by Thomsen and Radlov, and Donner examined the origin of the alphabet. He came to the conclusion that the Yenisei alphabet is rather older than that of the Orkhon inscriptions, and that both are derived from the Aramaic alphabet and most nearly allied to the variety of it used on the coins of the Assacid dynasty. In the 3rd century A.D. a section of the Kirghiz, who subsequently moved northwards, were in West Sogdiana and in touch with the Yue-Chi, who had been for some time in contact with Persia. The old Turkish characters bear a superficial resemblance to runes; the Yenisei letters have the simplest shapes, those of Kara-Balgassun the most complicated. But they are mostly traceable to Aramaic prototypes and have no connexion with Scandinavia. The vowels are generally omitted, even at the beginning of words, and, as in the modern Turkish method of using the Arabic alphabet, their quality is often indicated by the consonants, many of which have two forms, one used with soft the other with hard vowels. Thus bar and bar are differentiated not by the vowels but by the consonants employed to write them. 4. Turkish-speaking Armenians and Greeks often write it in their own alphabets. Turkish newspapers printed in Armenian charac- ters are published in Constantinople, and Greek characters are similarly employed in several parts of Asia Minor. BIBLIOGRAPHY: (a). — General works on the history and ethno- graphy of the Turks: Deguignes, Histoire des Huns; Vambery, Das Turkenvolk (Leipzig, 1885), Ursprung der Magyaren (Leipzig, 1882), and several other publications; Radlov, Aus Sibirien (Leipzig, 1884); W. Grigoriev, Zemlewjedjenie K. Rittera Wostotschni lit Kitaiski Turkestan; Neumann, Die Volker des siidlichen Russland (Leipzig, 1847). We may add the historians of the Mongols — D'Ohsson, Howorth and others — the numerous journals of travellers amongst Turkish peoples, and several articles in the Russische Revue; Journ. Royal Asiatic Soc.; Revue orientate pour les etudes Oural- altaiques, and other Oriental periodicals; Skrine and Ross, Heart of Asia (1899); Cahun, Turcs et Mongols (Paris, 1896); E. H. Parker, A Thousand Years of the Tartars (1895), and numerous articles, especially in the Asiatic Quarterly by the same author on Chinese accounts of these tribes; Chavannes, Les Tou-kiue occidentaux (St Petersburg, 1903). b. For the study of Turkish dialects the subjoined books may be used, (i) Osmanli: the grammars, dictionaries and chrestomathiea of Wells (1880), A. Wahrmund (1884) and Redhouse (1890). (2) Uighur: the works of Klaproth; Abel R6musat, Recherches sur les langues tatares (Paris, 1820); Vambery, Uigurische Sprachmonumente und das Kudatku Bilik (Innsbruck, 1870), and a newer edition by W. Radlov (St Petersburg, 1900). (3) Jagatai: the dictionary of Pavet de Courteille and Vambdry, Jagata'ische Sprachstudien (Leipzig, 1867). (4) Eastern Turki: Shaw's grammar and vocabu- lary (Journ. Roy. As. Soc. of Bengal, 1877). (5) Tatar dialects: the grammars of Kasimbeg-Zenker (Leipzig, 1848), Ilminski (Kazan, 1869) and Radlov (Leipzig, 1882); Dictionary of Trojanski (Kazan, 1833) ; the chrestomathies of Bdresine (Kazan, 1857), Terentiev and specially Radlov, Proben der Volksliteratur der tiirkischen Stamme Siid-Sibiriens (St Petersburg, 1872). (6) Yakuti: Bohtlingk, Die Sprache der Jakuten (St Petersburg, 1851); Radlov, Yakutische Sprache in ihrent Verhdltniss zu den Turkspjachen (1908). (7) Inscriptions: Soci6t6 finlandaise d'archeologie, Inscriptions de I'lenisei and several works by O. Donner, W. Radlov and V. Thomsen — especially Thomsen, Inscriptions de I'Orkhon dechiffrees (Helsing- fors, 1896); Donner, Sur V origins de V alphabet turc (Helsingfors); Radlov, Die alt-turkische Inschriften der Mongolei (St Petersburg, 1897) ; Marquardt, Chronologie der alt-turkischen Inschriften (1898). (C. EL.) 474 TURLE, JAMES (1802-1882), English organist and composer, was born at Tauaton, Somerset, and started as a choir boy at Wells Cathedral. In 1817 he became a pupil in London of the organist at Westminster Abbey, and after acting as deputy for some years he succeeded to this post himself in 1831 and held it till his death. He and Sir John Goss, the organist at St Paul's, had been fellow-pupils in London as boys. Turle was a great organist in his day, and composed a good deal of church music which is still well known. His son Henry Frederic Turle (1835- 1883) was editor of Notes and Queries. TURMERIC (from Fr. terre merite, turmeric, Lat. terra merita, deserved, i.e. excellent earth; Skeat suggests that it is a barbarous corruption, perhaps of Arabic karkam, kurkum, saffron or cur- cuma), the tuberous root of Curcuma longa, L., an herbaceous perennial plant belonging to the natural order Zingiberaceae. It is a native of southern Asia, being cultivated on a large scale both on the mainland and in the islands of the Indian Ocean. Turmeric has been used from a remote period both as a condi- ment and as a dyestuff , and to a more limited extent as a medicine (now obsolete). In Europe it is employed chiefly as a dye, also as an ingredient in curry powder and as a chemical test for alkalies. The root is prepared by cleaning it and drying it in an oven. There are several varieties (Madras, Bengal, Gopalpur, Java, China and Cochin turmeric), differing chiefly in size and colour and to a slight degree in flavour. Some of these consist exclusively of the ovate central tubers, known as " bulbs," or " round turmeric," and others of the somewhat cylindrical lateral tubers, which are distinguished in trade as " fingers," or " long turmeric." Both are hard and tough, but break with a short resinous or waxy fracture, which varies in tint from an orange brown to a deep reddish brown. The colour is due to cur cumin, CuHieO?, of which the drug contains about 0-3%. When pure it forms yellow crystals having a vanilla odour and exhibiting a fine blue colour in reflected light. It is soluble in alcohol, in chloroform and in alkaline solutions, but only sparingly in water. Paper tinged with a tincture of turmeric exhibits on the addition of an alkali a reddish brown tint, which becomes violet on drying. This peculiarity was pointed out by H. A. Vogel in 1815, and since that date turmeric has been utilized as a chemical test for detecting alkalinity. It is of no therapeutic value. In Sierra Leone a kind of turmeric is obtained from a species of Canna. TURNEBUS, ADRIANUS [ADRIEN TURNEBE] (1512-1565), French classical scholar, was born at Les Andelys in Normandy. At the age of twelve he was sent to Paris to study, and attracted great notice by his remarkable abilities. After having held the post of professor of belles-lettres in the university of Toulouse, in 1547 he returned to Paris as professor (or royal reader), of Greek at the College Royal. In 1552 he was entrusted with the printing of the Greek books at the royal press, in which he was assisted by his friend, Guillaume Morel (?.».). He died of consumption on the I2th of June 1565. His works chiefly consist of philological dissertations, commentaries (on Aeschylus, Sophocles, Theophrastus, Philo and portions of Cicero), and translations of Greek authors into Latin and French. His son, Etienne, published his complete works, in three volumes (Strassburg, 1600), and his son Adrien his Adversaria, containing explanations and emendations of numerous passages in classical authors. See Oratio funebris by L6ger du Chesne (Leodegarius a Quercu) prefixed to the Strassburg edition; L. Clement, De Adriani Turnebi praefationibus et poematis (1899); J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (1908) iii. TURNER, CHARLES (1773-1857), English engraver, was born at Woodstock in 1773. He entered the schools of the Royal Academy in 1795; and, engraving in stipple in the manner of Bartolozzi, he was employed by Alderman Boydell. His finest plates, however, are in mezzotint, a method in which he engraved J.M.W. Turner's " Wreck " and twenty-four subjects of his Liber studiorum, Reynolds's " Marlborough Family," and many of Raeburn's best portraits, including those of Sir Walter Scott, Lord Newton, Dr Hamilton, Professors Dugald Stewart and John Robinson, and Dr Adam. He also worked after Lawrence, TURLE— TURNER, J. M. W. Shee and Owen. He was an admirable engraver, large, broad and masterly in touch; and he reproduced with great fidelity the characteristics of the various painters whose works he translated into black and white. In 1828 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy. He died on the ist of August 1857. TURNER, SIR JAMES (1615-1686), Scottish soldier and military writer, was educated with a view to hi? entering the Church, but early showed his preference for the profession of arms by enlisting in the Swedish army, then the most famous training- school in Europe. He saw considerable service in the Thirty Years' War, and in 1640 returned to Scotland as a captain. It was not long before he secured employment, and as a major he accompanied the Scottish army in its invasion of England in the same year, successfully avoiding the imposition of the " Covenant " as a test. With Lord Sinclair's regiment Major Turner served in Ulster, and subsequently, after failing to join Montrose's army, accompanied the Scottish army until Naseby practically ended the Civil War. Turner was often with Charles I. during his detention at Leslie's headquarters, and continually urged him to escape. Up to this time he had served against the king, but always with some repugnance, and he welcomed the opportunity when in 1648 the cause of the king and the in- terests of the Scottish nation for the moment coincided. In the disastrous campaign which followed Turner was at Hamilton's headquarters, and it was owing to the neglect of his advice that the rout of Preston took place. Taken in the final surrender at Uttoxeter, he spent some time in captivity, but in 1649 was re- leased and sent abroad. He was unable for want of means to reach Montrose in time to join in the final venture of the noblest of the Royalist commanders, but he landed in Scotland on the day before Dunbar, and in the grave crisis that followed was a welcome ally. As a colonel and adjutant-general of foot he was with Charles II. at Worcester. In that battle he was captured, but regained his liberty, and after many adventures escaped to the Continent, where for some years he was engaged in various Royalist intrigues, conspiracies and attempted insurrections. At the Restoration he was knighted, and in 1662 he became a major in the Royal Guards. Four years later, as a district com- mander in Scotland, he was called upon to deal severely with Covenanter disturbances. Though not, it appears, unjust, his dragooning methods eventually led to his being deprived of his command. The rest of his life was spent in retirement. A pension was granted to him by James II. in 1685. In 1683 he had published his Pallas armata, Military Essayes of the Ancient Grecian, Roman and Modern Art of War, one of the most valuable authorities for the history of military sciences. TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM (1775-1851), English painter, was born in London on the 23rd of April 1775. His father, William Turner, a native of Devonshire, kept a bar- ber's shop at 26 Maiden Lane, in the parish of St Paul's, Covent Garden. Of the painter's mother, Mary Marshall or Turner, little is known; she is said to have been a person of ungovernable temper and towards the end of her life became insane. Apparently the home in which Turner spent his child- hood was not a happy one, and this may account for much that was unsociable and eccentric in his character. The earliest known drawing by Turner, a view of Margate Church, dates from his ninth year. It was also about this time that he was sent to his first school at New Brentford. Of education, as the term is generally understood, he received but little. His father taught him to read, and this and a few months at New Brentford and afterwards at Margate were all the schooling he ever had; he never mastered his native tongue, nor was he able in after life to learn any foreign language. Notwithstanding this lack of scholarship, one of his strongest characteristics was a taste for associating his works with personages and places of legendary and historical interest, and certain stories of antiquity seem to have taken root in his mind very strongly. By the time Turner had completed his thirteenth year his schooldays were over and his choice of an artist's career settled. In 1788-1789 he was receiving lessons from Palice, '' a floral drawing master; " from T. Malton, a perspective draughtsman; TURNER, J. M. W. and from Hardwick, an architect. He also attended Paul Sandby's drawing school in St Martin's Lane. Part of his time was employed in making drawings at home, which he exhibited for sale in his father's shop window, two or three shillings being the usual price. He coloured prints for engravers, washed in backgrounds for architects, went out sketching with Girtin, and made drawings in the evenings for Dr Munro " for half a crown and his supper." When pitied in after life for the miscellaneous character of his early work, his reply was " Well! and what could be better practice? " In 1789 Turner became a student of the Royal Academy. He also worked for a short time in the house of Sir Joshua Reynolds, with the idea, apparently, of becoming a portrait painter; but, the death of Reynolds occurring shortly afterwards, this intention was abandoned. In 1790 Turner's name appears for the first time in the catalogue of the Royal Academy, the title of his solitary contribution being " View of the Archbishop's Palace, Lambeth." About 1792 he received a commission from Walker, the engraver, to make drawings for his Copper-Plate Magazine, and this topographical work took him to many interesting places. The natural vigour of his constitu- tion enabled him to cover much of the ground on foot. He could walk from 20 to 25 m. a day with ease, his baggage at the end of a stick, making notes and memoranda as he went. He rose early, worked hard all day, wasted no time over his simple meals, and his homely way of living made him easily contented with such rude accommodation as he chanced to find on the road. A year or two after he accepted a similar commission to make drawings for the Pocket Magazine, and before his twentieth year he had travelled over many parts of England and Wales. None of these magazine drawings is remarkable for originality of treatment or for artistic feeling. Up to this time Turner had worked in the back room above his father's shop. His love of secretiveness and solitude had already begun to show itself. An architect who of ten employed him to put in backgrounds to his drawings says, " he would never suffer me to see him draw, but concealed all that he did in his bedroom." On another occasion, a visitor entering unannounced, Turner instantly covered up his drawings, and, in reply to the intimation, " I've come to see the drawings for ," the answer was, " You shan't see 'em, and mind that next time you come through the shop, and not up the back way." Probably the increase in the number of his engagements induced Turner about this time to set up a studio for himself in Hand Court, not far from his father's shop, and there he continued to work till he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy (1799). Until 1792 Turner's practice had been almost exclusively confined to water colours, and his early works show how much he was indebted to some of his contemporaries. There are few of any note whose style he did not copy or adopt. His first exhibited oil picture appeared in the Academy in 1793. In 1794- 1795 Canterbury Cathedral, Malvern Abbey, Tintern Abbey, Lincoln and Peterborough Cathedrals, Shrewsbury, and King's College Chapel, Cambridge, were among the subjects exhibited, and during the next four years he contributed no less than thirty- nine works to the Academy. In the catalogue of 1798 he first began to add poetic quotations to the titles of his pictures; one of the very first of these — a passage from Milton's Paradise Lost — is in some respects curiously prophetic of one of the future characteristics of his art: — " Ye mists and exhalations that now rise From hill or steaming lake, dusky or grey Till the sun paints your fleecy skirts with gold, In honour of the world's great author rise. ' This and several other quotations in the following years show that Turner's mind was now occupied with something more than the merely topographical element of landscape, Milton's Paradise Lost and Thomson's Seasons being laid under frequent contri- bution for descriptions of sunrise, sunset, twilight or thunder- storm. Turner's first visit to Yorkshire took place in 1797. It seems to have braced his powers and possibly helped to change the etudent into the painter. Until then his work had shown very little of the artist in the higher sense of the term: he was little more than a painstaking and tolerably accurate topographer; but 475 even under these conditions he had begun to attract the notice of his brother artists and of the critics. England was, at the time, at a low point both in literature and art. Among the artists De Loutherbourg and Morland were almost the only men of note left. Hogarth, Wilson, Gainsborough and Reynolds had passed away. Beechey, Bourgeois, Garvey, Farington — names well- nigh forgotten now— were the Academicians who painted land- scape. The only formidable rivals Turner had to contend with were De Loutherbourg and Girtin, and after the death of the latter in 1802 he was left undisputed master of the field. It is not, therefore, surprising that the exhibition of his works in 1798 was followed by his election to the associateship of the Royal Academy. That he should have attained to this position before completing his twenty-fourth year says much for the wisdom and discernment of that body, which further showed its recognition of his talent by electing him an Academician four years later. Turner owed much to the Academy. Ruskin says, " It taught him nothing." Possibly it had little to teach that he had not already been able to learn for himself; at all events it was quick to see his genius and to confer its honours, and Turner, naturally generous and grateful, never forgot this. He enjoyed the dignity of Academician for nearly half a century, and during nearly the whole of that period he took an active share in the direction of the Academy's affairs. His speeches are described as " confused, tedious, obscure, and extremely difficult to follow "; but at council meetings he was ever anxious to allay anger and bitter controversy. His opinions on art were always listened to with respect; but on matters of business it was often difficult to know what he meant. His friend Chantrey used to say, " He has great thoughts, if only he could express them." When appointed professor of perspective to the Royal Academy in 1808, this painful lack of expression stood greatly in the way of his usefulness. Ruskin says, " The zealous care with which Turner endeavoured to do his duty is proved by a series of large drawings, exquisitely tinted, and often completely coloured, all by his own hand, of the most difficult perspective subjects, illustrating not only directions of line, but effects of light, with a care and comple- tion which would put the work of any ordinary teacher to utter shame." In teaching he would neither waste time nor spare it. With his election to the associateship of the Academy in 1799 Turner's early strugglps may be considered to have ended. He had emancipated himself from hack work, had given up making topographical drawings of castles and abbeys for the engravers — drawings in which mere local fidelity was the principal object — and had taken to composing as he drew. Local facts had become of secondary importance compared with effects of light and colour. He had reached manhood, and with it he abandoned topographical fidelity and began to paint his dreams, the visionary faculty — the true foundation of his art — asserting itself, nature being used to supply suggestions and materials. His pictures of 1797-1799 had shown that he was a painter of no ordinary power, one having much of the poet in him, and able to give expression to the mystery, beauty and inexhaustible fullness of nature. His work at this period is described by Ruskin as " stern in manner, reserved, quiet, grave in colour, forceful in hand." Turner's visit to Yorkshire in 1797 was followed a year or two later by a second, and it was on this occasion that he made the acquaintance, which afterwards ripened into a long and staunch friendship, of Fawkes of Farnley Hall. From 1803 till 1820 Turner was a frequent visitor at Farnley. The large number of his drawings still preserved there — English, Swiss, German and Italian, the studies of rooms, outhouses, porches, gateways, of birds shot while he was there, and of old places in the neighbourhood — prove the frequency of his visits and his affection for the place and for its hospitable master. A caricature, made by Fawkes, and " thought by old friends to be very like," shows Turner as " a little Jewish- nosed man, in an ill-cut brown tail-coat, striped waistcoat, and enormous frilled shirt, with feet and hands notably small, sketching on a small piece of paper, held down almost level with his waist." It is evident from all the accounts 476 TURNER, J. M. W. given that Turner's personal appearance was not of a kind to command much attention or respect. This may have pained his sensitive nature, and led him to seek refuge in the solitude of his painting room. Had he been inclined he had abundant opportunity for social and friendly intercourse with his fellow men, but he gradually came to live more and more in a state of mental isolation. Turner could never make up his mind to visit Farnley again after his old friend's death, and his voice would falter when he spoke of the shores of the Wharfe. Turner visited Scotland in 1800, and in 1801 or 1802 he made his first tour on the Continent. In the following year, of the seven pictures he exhibited, six were of foreign subjects, among them " Bonneville," " The Festival upon the Opening of the Vintage of Macon," and the well-known " Calais Pier " in the National Gallery. The last-named picture, although heavily painted and somewhat opaque in colour, is magnificently composed and full of energy. In 1802, the year in which Turner became a Royal Academi- cian, he took his father, who still carried on the barber business in Maiden Lane, to live with him. The old man lived in his son's house for nearly thirty years, making himself useful in various ways. It is said that he used to prepare and strain his son's canvases and varnish them when finished, which may explain a saying of Turner's that " his father used to begin and finish his pictures for him." He also attended to the gallery in Queen Anne Street, showed in visitors, and took care of the dinner, if he did not himself cook it. Turner was never the same man after his father's death in 1830, living a life of almost complete isolation. In 1804 Turner made a second tour on the Continent, and in the following year painted the " Shipwreck " and " Fishing Boats in a Squall " (in the Ellesmere collection), seemingly in direct rivalry of Vandervelde, in 1806 the " Goddess of Discord in the Garden of the Hesperides " (in rivalry of Poussin), and in 1807 the " Sun rising through Vapour " (in rivalry of Claude).1 The last two are notable works, especially the " Sun." In after years it was one of the works he left to the nation, on the special condition of its being hung beside the Claudes in the National Gallery. In this same year (1807) Turner commenced his most serious rivalry. Possibly it arose out of a desire to break down Claude worship — the then prevailing fashion — and to show the public that there was a living artist not unworthy of taking rank beside him. That the Liber studiorum was suggested by the Liber veritatis of Claude, and was intended as a direct challenge to that master, is beyond doubt. There is, however, a certain degree of unfairness to Claude in the way in which the challenge was given. Claude made drawings in brown of his pictures as they left the easel, not for publication, but merely to serve as private memoranda. Turner's Liber drawings had no such purpose, but were intended as a direct appeal to the public to judge between the two artists. The first of the Liber drawings was made in the autumn of 1806, the others at intervals till about 1815. They are of the same size as the plates and carefully finished in sepia. He left over fifty of these to the National Gallery. The issue of the Liber began in 1807 and continued at irregular intervals till 1819, when it stopped at the fourteenth number. Turner had resolved to manage the publishing business himself, but in this he was not very successful. He soon quarrelled with his engraver, F. C. Lewis, on the ground that he had raised his charges from five guineas a plate to eight. He then employed Charles Turner, who agreed to do fifty plates at the latter sum, but, after finishing twenty, he too wished to raise his price, and, as a matter of course, this led to another quarrel. Reynolds, Dunkarton, Lupton, Say, Dawe and other engravers were afterwards employed — Turner himself etching 1 This spirit of rivalry showed itself early in his career. He began by pitting himself against his contemporaries, and afterwards, when his powers were more fully developed, against some of the old masters, notably Vandervelde and Claude. During these years, while he kept up a constant rivalry with artists living and dead, he was continuing his study of nature, and, while seemingly a mere follower of the ancients, was accumulating that store of knowledge which in after years he was to use to such purpose. and mezzotinting some of the plates. Each part of the Liber contained five plates, the subjects, divided into " historical," " pastoral," " marine," &c., embracing the whole range of land- scape art. Seventy-one plates in all were published (including one as a gift of the artist to his subscribers) ; ten other plates — more or less completed — intended for the fifteenth and sixteenth numbers were never published, the work being stopped for want of encouragement. Absence of method and business habits may account for this. Turner is said to have got up the numbers in his own house with the help of a female servant. The plates, which cost the subscribers only five shillings apiece, were so little esteemed that in the early quarter of the ipth century they were sometimes used for lighting fires. So much has fashion, or public taste, changed since then that a fine proof of a single plate has sold for £210. The merit of the plates is unequal; some — for example, " Solway Moss," " Inverary Pier," " Hind Head Hill," " Ben Arthur," " Rizpah," " Junction of the Severn and Wye " and " Peat Bog " — are of great beauty, while a few are compara- tively tame and uninteresting. Among the unpublished plates " Stonehenge at Daybreak," " The Stork and Aqueduct," " The Via Mala," " Crowhurst," and " Moonlight off the Needles " take a high place. The Liber shows strong traces of the influence of Cozens and Girtin, and, as a matter of course, of Claude. In most of the designs the predominant feeling is serious; in not a few, gloomy, or even tragic. A good deal has been written about Turner's intention, and the " lessons " of the Liber studiorum. Probably his only intention in the beginning was to show what he could do, to display his art, to rival Claude, perhaps to educate public taste, and at the same time make money. If lessons were intended they might have been better conveyed by words. " Silent always with a bitter silence, disdaining to tell his meaning " — such is Ruskin's explanation ; but surely Turner had little reason for either silence or contempt because the public failed to see in landscape art the means of teaching it great moral lessons. The plates of the Liber contain an almost complete epitome of Turner's art. It is sup- posed that his original intention had been that the Liber should consist of one hundred plates, and drawings for that number exist, but there was no public demand for them. Already in this work are seen strong indications of one of his most remarkable charac- teristics— a knowledge of the principles of structure in natural objects; mountains and rocks are drawn, not with topographical accuracy, but with what appears like an intuitive feeling for geological formation; and trees have also the same expression of life and growth in the drawing of stems and branches. This instinctive feeling in Turner for the principles of organic structure is treated of at considerable length in the fourth volume of Modern Painters, and Turner is there contrasted with Claude, Poussin, and some of the Dutch masters, greatly to their disadvantage. After 1797 Turner was little concerned with mere topo- graphical facts: his pictures might be like the places represented or not; much depended on the mental impression produced by the scene. He preferred to deal with the spirit, rather than with the local details of places. A curious example of the reason- ableness accompanying his exercise of the imaginative faculty is to be found in his creations of creatures he had never seen, as, for example, the dragon 2 in the " Garden of the Hesperides " and the python in the " Apollo," exhibited in 1811. Both these monsters are imagined with such vividness and reality, and the sense of power and movement is so completely expressed, that the spectator never once thinks of them as otherwise than repre- sentations of actual facts in natural history. It needs but a little comparison to discover how far Turner surpassed all his con- temporaries, as well as all who preceded him, in these respects. The imaginative faculty he possessed was of the highest order, and it was further aided by a memory of the most retentive 2 " The strange unity of vertebrated action and of a true bony contour, infinitely varied in every vertebra, with this glacial outline, together with the adoption of the head of the Ganges crocodile, the fish-eater, to show his sea descent (and this in the year 1806, when hardly a single fossil saurian skeleton existed within Turner's reach), renders the whole conception one of the most curious exertions of the imaginative intellect with which I am acquainted in the arts " (Ruskin, Mod. Painters, v. 313). TURNER, J. M. W. and unerring kind. A good illustration of this may be seen at Farnley Hall in a drawing of a " Man-of-War taking in Stores." Some one, who had never seen a first-rate, expressed a wish to know what it looked like. Turner took a blank sheet of paper one morning after breakfast, outlined the ship, and finished the drawing in three hours, young Fawkes, a son of the house, sitting beside him from the first stroke to the last. The size of this drawing is about 16 in. by n in. Ruskin thus describes it:— " The hull of a first-rate occupies nearly one half of the picture to the right, her bows toward the spectator, seen in sharp perspective from stem to stern, with all her port-holes, guns, anchors and lower rigging elaborately detailed, two other ships of the line in the middle distance drawn with equal precision, a noble breezy sea, full of delicate drawing in its waves, a store ship beneath the hull of the larger vessel and several other boats, and a complicated cloudy sky, all drawn from memory, down to the smallest rope, in a drawing- room of a mansion in the middle of Yorkshire." About the year 1811 Turner paid his first visit to Devonshire, the county to which his family belonged, and a curious glimpse of his simple manner of 'life is given by Redding, who accom- panied him on some of his excursions. On one occasion they spent a night together in a small road-side inn, Turner having a great desire to see the country around at sunrise. " Turner was content with bread and cheese and beer, tolerably good, for dinner and supper in one. In the little sanded room we conversed by the light of an attenuated candle and some aid from the moon until nearly midnight, when Turner laid his head upon the table and was soon fast asleep. Three or four hours' rest was thus obtained, and we went out as soon as the sun was up to explore the surrounding neighbourhood. It was in that early morning Turner made a sketch of the picture ' Crossing the Brook.' " In another excursion to Borough Island, " the morning was squally and the sea rolled boisterously into the Sound. Off Stakes Point it became stormy; our Dutch boat rode bravely over the furrows. Two of the party were ill. Turner was all the while quiet, watching the troubled scene. Bolt Head, to seaward, against which the waves broke with fury, seemed to absorb his entire notice, and he scarcely spoke a syllable. While the fish were getting ready Turner mounted nearly to the highest point of the island rock, and seemed writing rather than drawing. The wind was almost too violent for either purpose." This and similar incidents show how careless of comfort Turner was, and how devoted to his art. The tumult and discomfort by which he was surrounded could not distract his powers of observation; and some thirty years later there is still evidence of the same kind. In the catalogue of the exhibition of 1842 one of his pictures bears the following title, " Snow-Storm: steam-boat off a harbour's mouth making signals in shallow water, and going by the lead. The author was in that storm the night the ' Ariel ' left Harwich." From 1813 till 1826, in addition to his Harley Street residence, Turner had a country house at Twickenham. He kept a boat on the river, also a pony and gig, in which he used to drive about the neighbouring country on sketching expeditions. The pony, for which Turner had a great love, appears in his well-known " Frosty Morning " in the National Gallery. He appears to have had a great affection for animals, and one instance of his tender- ness of heart is given by one who often joined him in the amuse- ment of fishing, of which Turner was very fond. " I was often with him when fishing at Petworth, and also on the banks of the Thames. His success as an angler was great, although with the worst tackle in the world. Every fish he caught he showed to me, and appealed to me to decide whether the size justified him to keep it for the table or to return it to the river; his hesitation was often almost touching, and he always gave the prisoner at the bar the benefit of the doubt." In 1813 Turner commenced the series of drawings, forty in number, for Cooke's Southern Coast. This work was not completed till 1826. The price he at first received for these drawings was £7, 105. each, afterwards raised to £13, 2S. 6d. " Crossing the Brook " appeared in the Academy of 1815. It may be regarded as a typical example of Turner's art at this period, and marks the transition from his earlier style to that of his maturity. It represents a piece of Devonshire scenery, a view on the river Tamar. On the left is a group of tall pine- 477 trees, beautifully designed and drawn with great skill and know- ledge of structure; in the foreground a couple of children, with a dog carrying a bundle in its mouth across the brook; and beyond, a vast expanse of richly-wooded country, with glimpses of a winding river, an old bridge, a mill, and other buildings, and, in the far distance, the sea. Both in design and execution this work is founded upon Claude. Some critics consider it one of Turner's greatest works; but this is open to question.1 It can hardly be called a work in full colour: it is limited to greys and quiet greens for the earth and pale blues for the sky. It is a sober but very admirable picture, full of diffused daylight, and in the painting of its distance better than any master who had preceded him. The fascination of the remote, afterwards so distinctive an element in Turner's pictures, shows itself here. Perhaps nothing tests the powers or tries the skill of the land- scape painter more severely than the representation of distant effects. They come and go so rapidly, are often in a high key of light and colour, and so full of mystery and delicacy, that anything approaching to real imitation is impossible. Only the most retentive memory and the most sensitive and tender feeling will avail. These qualities Turner possessed to a remark- able degree, and as his powers matured there was an ever- increasing tendency in his art to desert the foreground, where things were definite and clear, in order to dream in the infinite suggestiveness and space of distances. " Dido Building Carthage " also belongs to this period. It hangs beside the Claudes in the National Gallery. It pertains to the old erroneous school of historical painting. Towering masses of Claudesque architec- ture piled up on either side, porticoes, vestibules, and stone pines, with the sun in a yellow sky, represent the Carthage of Turner's imagination. With all its faults it is still the finest work of the class he ever painted. Carthage and its fate had a strange fascination for him. It is said that he regarded it as a moral example to England in its agricultural decline, its increase of luxury, and its blindness to the insatiable ambition of a power- ful rival. He returned again to this theme in 1817, when he exhibited his " Decline of the Carthaginian Empire: Hostages Leaving Carthage for Rome " — a picture which Ruskin describes as " little more than an accumulation of academy student's outlines coloured brown." In 1818 Turner was in Scotland making drawings for the Provincial Antiquities, for which Sir Walter Scott supplied the letterpress, and in 1819 he visited Italy for the first time. One of the results of this visit was a great change in his style, and from this time his works became remarkable for their colour. Hitherto he had painted in browns, greys and blues, using red and yellow sparingly. He had gradually been advancing from the sober grey colouring of Vandervelde and Ruysdael to the mellow and richer tones of Claude. His works now begin to show a heightened scale of colour, gradually increasing in richness and splendour and reaching its culminating point in such works as the " Ulysses," " Childe Harold's Pilgrimage," " The Golden Bough," and "The Fighting Tem6raire." All these works belong to the middle period of Turner's art (1820-1839), when his powers were entirely developed and entirely unabated. Much of his mcst beautiful work at this period is to be found in his water-colour drawings: those executed for Whitaker's History of Richmondshire (1819-1821), for Cooke's Southern Coast (1814-1826), for The Rivers of England (1824), for England and Wales (1829-1838), Provincial Antiquities (1826), Rogers's Italy (1830), Scott's Works (1834), and The Rivers of France (1833-1835) are in many instances of the greatest beauty. Of the Richmondshire drawings Ruskin says, " The foliage is rich and marvellous in composition, the rock and hill drawing insuperable, the skies exquisite in complex form." But perhaps one of the greatest services Turner rendered to the art of England was the education of a whole school of 1 " Crossing the Brook " was a great favourite with Turner. It was painted for a patron, who, dissatisfied with it, left it on the painter's hands. The price asked (£500) seems to have been part of the objection. Turner subsequently refused an offer of £1600 for it. TURNER, J. M. W. engravers. His best qualities as a teacher came from the union of strength and delicacy in his work; subtle and delicate tonality was almost a new element for the engraver to deal with, but with Turner's teaching and careful supervision his engravers by degrees mastered it more or less successfully, and something like a new development of the art of engraving was the result. No better proof can be found of the immense advance made than by comparing the work of the landscape engravers of the pre- Turnerian period with the work of Miller, Goodall, Willmore, Cooke, Wallis, Lupton, C. Turner, Brandard, Cousen, and others who worked under his guidance. The art of steel engraving reached its highest development in England at this time. Rogers's Italy (1830) and his Poems (1834) contain perhaps the most beautiful and delicate of the many engravings executed after Turner's drawings. They are vignettes,1 a form of art which Turner understood better than any artist ever did before — perhaps, we might add, since. " The Alps at Daybreak," " Columbus Discovering Land," and " Datur Hora Quieti " may be given as examples of the finest. In 1828 Turner paid a second visit to Italy, this time of considerable duration, on the way visiting Nimes, Avignon, Marseilles, Genoa, Spezzia and Siena, and in the following year he exhibited the " Ulysses Deriding Polyphemus," now in the National Gallery. It marks the beginning of the central and best period of Turner's power. This work is so well known that description is hardly needed. The galley of Ulysses occupies the centre of the picture; the oars are being thrust out and the sailors flocking up the masts to unfurl sail, while Ulysses waves the blazing olive tree in defiance of the giant, whose huge form is seen high on the cliffs above; and the shadowy horses of Phoebus are traced in the slanting rays of the rising sun. The impression this picture leaves is one of great power and splendour. The painting throughout is magnificent, especially in the sky. Leslie speaks of it as " a poem of matchless splendour and beauty." From this period onward till about 1840 Turner's life was one of unceasing activity. Nothing is more astonishing than his prodigious fertility; he rose early, worked from morning till night, entirely absorbed in his art, and gradually became more and more solitary and isolated. Between 1829 and 1839 he sent fifty-five pictures to the Royal Academy, painted many others on private commission, made over four hundred drawings for engravers, besides thousands of studies and sketches from nature. His industry accounts for the immense quantity of work he left behind him. There is not the slightest evidence to show that it arose from a desire to make money, which he never cared for in comparison with his art. He has been accused, perhaps not without some cause, of avarice and meanness in his business dealings, and many stories are told to his discredit. But in private he often did generous things, although owing to his reserved disposition his virtues were known only to a few. His faults on the other hand — thanks to the malice, or jealousy, of one or two individuals — were freely talked about and, as a matter of course, greatly exaggerated. " Keep it, and send your children to school and to church," were the words with which he declined repayment of a considerable loan to a poor drawing-master's widow. On another occasion, when interrupted in his work, he roughly chid and dismissed the applicant, a poor woman ; but she had hardly left his door before he followed her and slipped a £5 note into her hand. His tenants in Harley Street were in arrears for years, but he would never allow his lawyer to distrain; and if further proof of his generosity were needed his great scheme for bettering the condition of the unfortunate in his own profession should suffice. On one occasion he is known to have taken down a picture of his own from the walls of the Academy to make room for that of an unknown artist. 1 " Of all the artists who ever lived I think it is Turner who treated the vignette most exquisitely, and, if it were necessary to find some particular reason for this, I should say that it may have been because there was nothing harsh or rigid in his genius, that forms and colours melted into each other tenderly in his dream-world, and that his sense of gradation was the most delicate ever possessed by man " (Hamerton). The first of Turner's Venetian pictures (" Bridge of Sighs, Ducal Palace and Custom House, Venice, Canaletti Painting ") appeared in the Academy in 1833. Compared with the sober, prosaic work of Canaletti, Turner's pictures of Venice appear like poetic dreams. Splendour of colour and carelessness of form generally characterize them. Venice appeared to him " a city of rose and white, rising out of an emerald sea against a sky of sapphire blue." Many of these Venetian pictures belong to his later manner, and some of them, " The State Procession bearing Giovanni Bellini's Pictures to the Church of the Redeemer " (exhibited in the Royal Academy, 1841), " The Sun of Venice Going to Sea " (1843), " Approach to Venice " (1844), and "Venice, Evening, Going to the Ball" (1845), to his latest. As Turner grew older his love of brilliant colour and light became more and more a characteristic. In trying to obtain these qualities he gradually fell into an unsound method of work, treating oil as if it had been water-colour, using both indiscriminately on the same canvas, utterly regardless of the result. Many of his finest pictures are already in a ruined state, mere wrecks of what they once were. " The Fighting Temeraire Tugged to her Last Berth to be Broken Up " was exhibited in the Academy of 1839. By many it is considered one of his finest works. Turner had all his life been half a sailor at heart : he loved the sea, and shipping, and sailors and their ways; many of his best pictures are sea pieces; and the old ships of Collingwood and Nelson were dear to him. Hence the pathetic feeling he throws around " The Fighting Teme- raire." The old three-decker, looking ghostly and wan in the evening light, is slowly towed along by a black, fiery little steam tug — a contrast suggesting the passing away of the old order of things and the advent of the new; and behind the sun sets red in a thick bank of smoke or mist. " The Slave Ship," another important sea picture, was exhibited in the following year, and in 1842 " Peace: Burial at Sea," commemorative of Wilkie. Turner had now reached his sixty-seventh year, but no very marked traces of declining power are to be seen in his work. Many of the water-colour drawings belonging to this period are of great beauty, and, although a year or two later his other powers began to fail, his faculty for colour remained unimpaired almost to the end. He paid his last visit to the Continent in 1843, wandering about from one place to another, and avoiding his own countrymen, an old and solitary man. At his house in Queen Anne Street they were often ignorant of his whereabouts for months, as he seldom took the trouble to write to any one. Two years later (1845) his health gave way and with it both mind and sight began to fail. The works of his declining period exercised the wit of the critics. Turner felt these attacks keenly. He was naturally kind-hearted and acutely sensitive to censure. " A man may be weak in his age," he once remarked, " but you should not tell him so." After 1845 all the pictures shown by Turner belong to the period of decay — mere ghosts and shadows of what once had been. In 1850 he exhibited for the last time. He had given up attending the meetings of the Academicians; none of his friends had seen him for months; and even his old house- keeper had no idea of his whereabouts. Turner's mind had evidently given way for some time, and with that love of secrecy which in later years had grown into a passion he had gone away to hide himself in a corner of London. He had settled as a lodger in a small house in Chelsea, overlooking the river, kept by his old Margate landlady, Mrs Booth. To the children in the neighbourhood he was known as " Admiral Booth." His short, sailor-like figure may account for the idea that he was an impoverished old naval officer. He had been ill for some weeks, and when his Queen Anne Street housekeeper at last discovered his hiding-place she found him sinking, and on the following day, the igth of December 1851, he died. He was buried in St Paul's Cathedral, in deference to a wish he had himself expressed. He left the large fortune he had amassed (about £140,000) to found a charity for the " maintenance and support of male decayed artists, being born in England, and of English parents only, and of lawful issue." His pictures he TURNER, N.— TURNER, W. bequeathed to the nation, on condition that they were exhibited in rooms of their own, and that these rooms were to be called " Turner's Gallery." The will and its codicils were so confused that after years of litigation, during which a large part of the money was wasted in legal expenses, it was found impossible to decide what Turner really wanted. A compromise was effected in which the wishes of everybody, save those of the testator, were consulted, his next-of-kin, whom he did not mean to get a single farthing, inheriting the bulk of his property. The nation got all the pictures and drawings, and the Royal Academy £20,000. If Turner had died early his reputation as an artist would have been very different from what it ultimately became. He would not have been recognized as a colourist. It was only after the year 1820 that colour began to assert itself strongly in his work. He painted for many a year in greys and greens and browns, went steadily through " the subdued golden chord," and painted yellow mists and suns rising through vapour; but as time went on that was no longer enough, and he tried to paint the sun in his strength and the full glories of sunshine. The means at the painter's disposal are, however, limited, and Turner, in his efforts after brilliancy, began to indulge in reckless experiments in colour. He could not endure even the slightest restraints which technical limitations impose, but went on trying to paint the unpaintable. As a water-colour painter Turner stands pre-eminent; he is unquestionably the greatest master in that branch of art that ever lived. If his work is compared with that of Barrett, or Varley, or Cozens, or Sandby, or any of the earlier masters, so great is Turner's superiority that the art in his hands seems to be lifted altogether into a higher region. In 1843 a champion, in the person of John Ruskin, arose to defend Turner against the unjust and ignorant attacks of the press, and what at first was intended as a " short pamphlet, reprobating the manner and style of these critics," grew into the five volumes of Modern Painters. Ruskin employed all his eloquence and his great critical faculty to prove how immeasur- ably superior Turner was to all who had ever gone before, hardly restricting his supremacy to landscape art, and placing him among the " seven supreme colourists of the world." Like most men of note, Turner had his enemies and detractors, and it is to be regretted that so many of the stories they set in circulation against his moral character should have been repeated by one of his biographers, who candidly admits having " spared none of his faults," and excuses himself for so doing by " what he hopes " is his " undeviating love of truth." The immense quantity of work accomplished by Turner during his lifetime, work full of the utmost delicacy and refinement, proves the singularly fine condition of his nervous system, and is perhaps the best answer that can be given to the charge of being excessively addicted to sensual gratification. In his declining years he possibly had recourse to stimulants to help his failing powers, but it by no means follows that he went habitually to excess in their use. He never lost an opportunity of doing a kind- ness, and under a rough and cold exterior there was more good and worth hidden than the world imagined. " During the ten years I knew him," says Ruskin, " years in which he was suffering most from the evil-speaking of the world, I never heard him say one depreciating word of any living man or. man's work; I never saw him look an unkind or blameful look; I never knew him let pass, without sorrowful remon- strance, or endeavour at mitigation, a blameful word spoken by another. Of no man, but Turner, whom I have ever known could I say this." Twice during his earlier days there are circumstances leading to the belief that he had the hope of marriage, but on both occasions it ended in disappointment, and his home after his father died was cheerless and solitary. Two biographies of Turner have been written, one by Thornbury, the other by P. G. Hamerton. The work of the latter deserves the highest commendation ; it gives a clear and consistent history of the great artist, and is characterized by refined thought and critical insight. An excellent little book by W. Cosmo Monkhouse may also 479 be noticed. Books upon Turner continue to appear, although it is scarcely to be expected that they can add t9 the facts already known about him. Turner and Ruskin, an exposition of the work of Turner from the writings of Ruskin, edited with a biographical note on Turner by Frederick Wedmore, in two volumes, with ninety-one illustrations, was published by George Allen in 1900. Perhaps the most important recent work upon his art is Sir Walter Armstrong's Turner (1901), which deals at considerable length with the events of his life, and with his pictures in oil and his drawings in water-colour. It also gives so far as possible a list of his oil pictures, and for the first time a pretty full list of his water colours, although the great painter's works in both media are so numerous that it would be impossible to say that either is complete. See also J. M. W. Turner, by W. L. Wyllie, A.R.A. (1905). The great authority on the Liber Studiorum is W. G. Rawlinson (Turner s Liber Studiorum, 2nd ed., 1906). (G. RE.) TURNER, NAT (1800-1831), the negro leader of a slave insurrection in Virginia, known as the " Southampton Insur- rection," was born in Southampton county, Virginia, in 1800. From his childhood he claimed to see visions and hear voices, and he became a Baptist preacher of great influence among the negroes. In 1828 he confided to a few companions that a voice from heaven had announced that " the last shall be first," which was interpreted to mean that the slaves should control. An insurrection was planned, and a solar eclipse in February 1831 and peculiar atmospheric conditions on the I3th of August were accepted as the signal for beginning the work. On the night of the 2ist of August 1831, with seven companions, he entered the home of his master, Joseph Travis, and murdered the inmates. After securing guns, horses and liquor they visited other houses, sparing no one. Recruits were added, in some cases by compul- sion, until the band numbered about sixty. About noon on the 22nd they were scattered by a small force of whites, hastily gathered. Troops, marines and militia were hurried to the scene, and the negroes were hunted down. In all thirteen' men, eighteen women, and twenty-four children had been butchered. After hiding for several weeks Nat was captured on the 3Oth of October and was tried and hanged, having made, meanwhile, a full confession. Nineteen of his associates were hanged and twelve were sent out of the state. The insurrection, which was attributed to the teachings of the abolitionists, led to the enactment of stricter slave codes. See S. B. Weeks, " Slave Insurrections in Virginia," in Magazine of American History, vol. xxxi. (New York, 1891), and W. S. Drewry, The Southampton Insurrection (Washington, 1900). TURNER, SHARON (1768-1847), English historian, was born in Pentonville, London, on the 24th of September 1768. His parents came from Yorkshire. He was educated at a private school kept by Dr Davis in Pentonville, and was articled to a solicitor in the Temple in 1783, and when his master died in 1789 he continued the business. He remained in business at first in the Temple, and later in Red Lion Square till 1829, when failing health compelled him to retire. He settled for a time at Winchmore Hill, but afterwards returned to London, and died in his son's house on the i3th of February 1847. In early boyhood he had been attracted by a translation of the " Death Song of Ragnar Lodbrok," and was led by this boyish interest to make a study of early English history in Anglo-Saxon and Ice- landic sources. He devoted all the time he could spare from his business to the study of Anglo-Saxon documents in the British Museum. The material was abundant and had hitherto been neglected. When the first volume of his. History of England from the earliest times to the Norman Conquest appeared in 1799, it was at once recognized as a work of equal novelty and value. The fourth volume appeared in 1805. He also published a continuation (History of England during the Middle Ages), a Modern History of England, a Sacred History of the World, and a volume on Richard III. (1845), and he was the author of pamphlets on the copyright laws (1813). His son, Sydney Turner (1814-1879), educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, took orders, was known as a strong partisan of reformatory schools, and died rector of Hempstead in Gloucestershire. TURNER, WILLIAM (d. 1568), English divine, botanist and physician, was born at Morpeth in Northumberland, and was 480 TURNHOUT— TURNSTONE educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he was elected junior fellow in 1530. He learnt Greek from Nicholas Ridley, and, hearing Hugh Latimer preach, threw in his lot with the new faith. In 1538 he published his Libellus de re herbaria, and in 1540 set out to preach in different places. For doing this without a licence he suffered imprisonment, and on his release travelled in Holland, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, always increasing his knowledge of botany and medicine, collecting plants, and writing books on religion which were so popular in England that they were forbidden by proclamation in July 1546. On the accession of Edward VI. he became chaplain and physician to the duke of Somerset and in 1550 prebendary of York. In November 1550 he was made dean of Wells, but in 1553 was deprived, and during Queen Mary's reign lived at various places in Germany, mostly along the Rhine. Returning to England in 1558 he regained his deanery, and did all he could to disparage episcopacy and ceremonial, and to bring the Anglican Church into conformity with the Reformed Churches of Germany and Switzerland. On the complaint of his bishop, Gilbert Berkeley, he was suspended for Noncon- formity in 1564. He passed his last days in Crutched Friars, London, and died on the 7th of July 1568. Turner was a sound and keen botanist, and introduced lucerne into England. He was a racy writer, a man of undoubted learning, and a vigorous controversialist. TURNHOUT, a town of Belgium, in the province of Antwerp, 26 m. N.E. of that city. Pop. (1904), 22,162. It carries on an active industry in cloth and other manufactures. There is a breeding establishment for leeches. The hotel de ville was formerly a palace of the dukes of Brabant. Two miles west of Turnhout is the curious penal or reformatory colony of Merxplas (pop. in 1904, 2827). The system of this establish- ment is to allow certain approved prisoners to follow their usual occupations within a defined area. The persons detained have complete liberty of movement, subject to the two condi- tions that they are under the supervision of guardians and are not allowed to cross the boundaries of the settlement. They also wear a distinct dress, and each prisoner bears a number. TURNIP, Brassica campestris, var. Rapa, a hardy biennial, found in cornfields in various parts of England. It has been cultivated from a remote period for its fleshy roots. The tender growing tops are also used in spring as a green vegetable. The so-called " root " is formed by the thickening of the primary root of the seedling together with the base of the young stem (hypocotyl) immediately above it. The great mass of the " root " consists of soft " wood " developed internally by the cambium layer and composed mainly of thin-walled, unlignified, wood-parenchyma. The stem remains short during the first year, the leaves forming a rosette-like bunch at the top of the " bulb "; they are grass-green and bear rough hairs. In the second season the bud in the centre of the rosette forms a strong erect branched stem bearing somewhat glaucous smooth leaves. The stem and branches end in corymbose racemes of small, bright yellow flowers, which are succeeded by smooth, elongated, short-beaked pods. The varieties of turnip are classified according to their shape as (i) long varieties, with a root three or more times as long as broad; (2) tankard or spindle-shaped varieties, with a root about twice as long as broad; (3) round or globe varieties with an almost spherical root; (4) flat varieties with a root broader than long; there are also many intermediate forms. Turnips are also grouped according to the colour of the upper part of the root which comes above ground, and according to the colour of the flesh, which is white or yellow. The yellow-fleshed varieties, many of which are probably hybrids between the turnip and swede, are mote robust, of slower growth and superior feeding value to the white-fleshed turnips, and are less injured by frost. The swede-turnip, Brassica campestris, var. Napo-brassica, differs from the turnip proper in having the first foliage-leaves glaucous, not grass-green, in colour, and the later leaves smooth and glaucous; the root bears a distinct neck with well-marked leaf-scars, the flesh is yellow or reddish-orange, firmer and more nutritious, and the roots keep much better during winter. The flowers are larger and buff-yellow or pale orange in colour and the seeds are usually larger and darker than in the turnip. Turnips should be grown in a rich friable sandy loam, such as will produce medium-sized roots without much aid from the manure heap, and are better flavoured if grown in fresh soil. In light dry soils well decomposed hotbed or farmyard manure is the best that can be used, but in soils containing an excess of organic matter, bone dust, superphosphate of lime, wood-ashes or guano, mixed with light soil, and laid in the drills before sowing the seed, are bene- ficial by stimulating the young plants to get quickly into rough leaf, and thus to grow out of reach of the so-called turnip fly or turnip flea (Phyllotreta). To get rid of this pest, it has been found beneficial to dust the plants with quicklime, and also to draw over the young plants nets smeared with some sticky substance like treacle, by which large numbers will be caught and destroyed. It has been also recom- mended as a palliative to sow thick in order to allow for a percentage of loss from this and other causes, but this is inadvisable, as over- crowding is apt to render the plants weak. As a preventive, gas-lime may be scattered over the surface after the seed has been sown. Lime is also effective against the disease known as " finger and toe " (q.v.). The first sowing should be made on a warm border, with the pro- tection of a frame or matted hoops, in January or February; the second on a well-sheltered border in March, after which a sowing once a month will generally suffice. In May and June the plot should be in a cool moderately shaded position, lest the plants should suffer from drought. The principal autumn and winter sowings, which are the most important, should be made about the end ofjune in the northern districts, and in the beginning of July in warmer districts ; a small sowing may be made at the end of August to come in before the spring-sown crops are ready. If the weather is showery at the time of sowing, the seed speedily germinates, and the young plants should be kept growing quickly by watering with rain or pond water and by surface stirrings. The drills for the earliest sorts need not be more than 15 in. apart, and the plants may be left moderately thick in the row; the late crops should have at least 2 ft. between the rows, and be thinned to 12 in. in the row, a free circulation of air about them being very important in winter. As a provision against prolonged periods of severe weather it has been recommended to lay the finest roots in rows, covering them well with soil, and leaving intact the whole of the foliage. The very latest sown crops of half-grown roots will prolong the supply until the earliest spring-sown crops are fit for use. TURNPIKE, a pike or pointed bar or stake which turns or revolves, hence the name given to a form of barrier consisting of three or more horizontal bars, with one end sharpened, revolving on a pivot. Such barriers were used across roads, and, when tolls were exacted from passengers along highways to raise the money for the upkeep of the roads, the name, though not the form, was given both to the toll-gates set up at different places where the tolls were collected, and to the highways repaired under the system (see HIGHWAY). A " turnstile," consisting of a vertical post with projecting, revolving arms, is another form of barrier, placed by the side of a gate across a road, or across a path to prevent the passage of all except foot passengers, or at the entrance to any building, park or other place as a means of controlling the admission of people, of collecting admission money and the like. TURNSTONE, the name long given l to a shore-bird, from its habit of turning over with its bill such stones as it can to seek its food in the small crustaceans or other animals lurking beneath them. It is the Tringa interpret* of Linnaeus and Strepsilas inlerpres of most later writers, and is remarkable as being perhaps the most cosmopolitan of birds; for, though properly belonging to the northern hemisphere, there is scarcely a sea-coast in the world on which it may not occur: it has been obtained from Spitzbergen to the Strait of Magellan and from Point Barrow to the Cape of Good Hope and New Zealand — examples from the southern lemisphere being, however, almost invariably in a state of plumage that shows, if not immaturity, yet an ineptitude for reproduction. It also, though much less commonly, resorts 1 The name seems to appear first in F. Willughby's Ornithologia (p. 231) in 1676; but he gave as an alias that of Sea-Dottrel, under which name a drawing, figured by him (pi. 58), was sent to him by Sir Thomas Browne. 1 Linnaeus (Oel. och GoMdndska Resa, p. 217), who first met with this bird on the island of Gottland (July I, 1741), was under the mistaken belief that it was there called Tolk (=interpres). But that name properly belongs to the REDSHANK (o.i>.), from the cry of warning to other animals that it utters on the approach of danger. TURNU MAGURELE— TURPENTINE 481 to the margins of inland rivers and lakes; but it is very rarely seen except near water, and salt water for preference. The turnstone is about as big as an ordinary snipe; but, compared with most of its allies of the group Limicolae, to which it belongs, its form is somewhat heavy, and its legs are short. Still it is brisk in its movements, and its variegated plumage makes it a pleasing bird. Seen in front, its white face, striped with black, and broad black gorget attract attention as it sits, often motionless, on the rocks; while in flight the white of the lower part of the back and white band across the wings are no less conspicuous even at a distance. A nearer view will reveal the rich chestnut of the mantle and upper wing-coverts, and the combination of colours thus exhibited suggests the term " tor- toise-shell " often applied to it — the quill-feathers being mostly of a dark brown and its lower parts pure white. The deeper tints are, however, peculiar to the nuptial plumage, or are only to be faintly traced at other times, so that in winter the adults— and the young always — have a much plainer appearance, ashy-grey and white being almost the only hues observable. From the fact that turnstones may be met with at almost any season in various parts of the world, and especially on islands as the Canaries, Azores, and many of those in the British seas, it has been inferred that these birds may breed in such places. In some cases this may prove to be true, but in most evidence to that effect is wanting. In America the breeding-range of this species has not been defined. In Europe there is good reason to suppose that it includes Shetland ; but it is on the north-western coast of the Con- tinent, from Jutland to the extreme north of Norway, that the greatest number are reared. The nest, contrary to the habits of most Limicolae, is generally placed under a ledge of rock which shelters the bird from observation,1 and therein are laid four eggs, of a light olive-green, closely blotched with brown, and hardly to be mistaken for those of any other bird. A second species of turnstone is admitted by some authors and denied by others. This is the S. melanocephalus of the Pacific coast of North America, which is on the average larger than S. interpres, and never exhibits any of the chestnut colouring. Though the genus Strepsilas seems to be rightly placed among the Charadriidae (sec PLOVER), it occupies a somewhat abnormal position among them, and in the form of its short pointed beak and its variegated coloration has hardly any very near relative. (A. N.) TURNU MAGURELE, the capital of the department of Teleor- man, Rumania; 2\ m. N.E. of the confluence of the Olt and Danube, at the terminus of a branch railway. Pop. (1900), 8668. A ferry plies across the Danube to the Bulgarian fortress of Nico- polis. Large quantities of grain are shipped in lighters to Braila. There are some vestiges of a Roman bridge across the Danube, built (c. A.D. 330) by Constantine the Great. TURNU SEVERIN, the capital of the department of Mehe- dintzi, Rumania, on the main Walachian railway, and on the left bank of the river Danube, below the Iron Gates cataracts. Pop. (1900), 18,628. It is a modern commercial town, having a school of arts and crafts, several churches, and large government yards for the building of river steamers, lighters and tug-boats. There is a considerable trade in livestock, preserved meat, petroleum and cereals. The town, which was originally called Drobetae by the Romans, took its later name of Turris Severi, or the " Tower of Severus," from a tower which stood on a small hill surrounded by a deep fosse. This was built to commemorate a victory over the Quadi and Marcomanni, by the Roman emperor Severus (A.D. 222-235). Near Turnu Severin are the remains of the cele- brated Trajan's bridge, the largest in the Roman Empire, built in A.D. 103 by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. The river is about 4000 ft. broad at this spot. The bridge was composed of twenty arches supported by stone pillars, several of which are still visible at low water. TURPENTINE (in M. Eng. lurbentine, adapted through the 0. Fr. turpentine or terebentine from Lat. terebinthina, sc. resina, resin of the terebinth, Gr. Tfpt{3i.vOos or rkpnivQos), the oleo-resins which exude from certain trees, especially from some conifers — 1 There is little external difference between the sexes, and the brightly contrasted colours of the hen-bird seem to require some kind of concealment. XXVII. 16 such as Pinus syhestris—und from the terebinth tree, Pistacia lerebinthus, L. It was to the product of the latter, now known as Chian turpentine, that the term was first applied. The tere- binth tree and its resin were well known and highly prized from the earliest times. The tree is a native of the islands and shores of the Mediterranean, passing eastward into Central Asia ; but the resinous exudation found in commerce is collected in the island of Chios. Chian turpentine is a tenacious semi-fluid transparent body, yellow to dull brown in colour, with an agreeable resinous odour and little taste. On exposure to the air it becomes dry, hard and brittle. In their natural characters, turpentines are soft solids or semi-fluid bodies, consisting of resins dissolved in turpentine oil, the chief constituent of which is pinene. They are largely used in the arts, being separated by distillation into rosin or colophony (see ROSIN), and oil or spirit of turpentine. Crude or common turpentine is the commercial name which embraces the oleo-resin yielded by several coniferous trees, both European and American. The principal European product, some- times distinguished as Bordeaux turpentine, is obtained from the cluster pine, Pinus Pinaster, in the Landes department of France. Crude turpentine is further yielded by the Scotch fir, P. sylvestris, throughout northern Europe, and by the Corsican pine, P. Laricio, in Austria and Corsica. In the United States the turpentine- yielding pines are the swamp pine, P. australis, and the loblolly, P. Taeda, both inhabiting North and South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. Venice turpentine is yielded by the larch tree, Larix europaea, from which it is collected principally in Tirol. Strass- burg turpentine is obtained from the bark of the silver fir; but it is collected only in small quantities. Less known turpentines are obtained from the mountain pine, P. Pumilio, the stone pine, P. Cembra, the Aleppo pine, P. halepensis, &c. The so-called Canada balsam, from Abies balsamea, is also a true turpentine. Oil of Turpentine, or Turps, as a commercial product is obtained from all or any of these oleo-resins, but on a large scale only from crude or common turpentine. The essential oil is rectified by redis- tillation with water and alkaline carbonates, and the water which the oil carries over with it is removed by a further distillation over calcium chloride. Oil of turpentine is a colourless liquid of oily consistence, with a strong characteristic odour and a hot disagree- able taste. It begins to boil at about 155° C., and its specific gravity is between 0-860 and 0-880. It rotates the plane of polarized light both to right and left in varying degrees according to its sources, the American product being dextrorotatory and the French laevo- rotatory. It is almost insoluble in water, is miscible with absolute alcohol and ether, and dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, resins and caoutchouc. On exposure to the air it dries to a solid resin, and absorbing oxygen gives off ozone — a reaction utilized in the disinfec- tant called " Sanitas." Agitated with successive quantities of sul- phuric acid and distilled in a current of steam, it yields terebene, a mixture of dipentene and terpinene mainly, which is used in medicine. Chemically, oil of turpentine is a more or less complex mixture of hydrocarbons generically named terpenes (q.v.). Oil of turpentine is largely used in the preparation of varnishes and as a medium by painters in their "flat " colours. Pharmacology and Therapeutics. — Oil of turpentine (Oleum terebinthinae) is administered internally as an antnelmintic to kill tapeworm. Applied externally it possesses, in higher degree than any of its fellows; the properties of the volatile oils. It acts as a rubefacient, an irritant and a counter-irritant. It is also an antisep- tic and, in small quantities, a feeble anaesthetic. It is absorbed by the unbroken skin. The drug is largely employed as a counter- irritant, the pharmacopoeia! liniments being very useful applications. Such conditions as myalgia, bronchitis, " chronic rheumatism " and pleurisy are often relieved by its use. It may also be employed as a parasiticide in ringworm and similar conditions. In large doses oil of turpentine causes purging and may induce much haemorrhage from the bowel ; it should be combined with some trustworthy aperient, such as castor oil, when given as an anthel- mintic. It is readily absorbed unchanged and has a marked con- tractile action upon the blood vessels. This gives it the rare and valuable property of a remote haemostatic, erroneously supposed to be possessed by so many useless drugs. It must not be used to check haemorrhage from the kidneys (naematuria) owing to its irri- tant action on those organs, but in haemoptysis (haemorrhage from the lungs) it is often an invaluable remedy. In large doses it has a depressant action on the nervous system, leading even to coma and total abolition of reflex action. The drug is excreted partly by the bronchi — which it tends to disinfect — and partly in the urine, which it causes to smell of violets. Glycuronic acid also appears in the urine. A small portion of the drug is removed by the skin, in which it may give rise to an erythematous rash. It must not be given to the subjects of Bright's disease. Perhaps the most valuable of all the medicinal applications of turpentine, and one which is rarely, if ever, mentioned in therapeutic textbooks — owing to the fact that gynaecology has been so ex- tremely specialized — is in inoperable cancer of the uterus. Quite 482 TURPIN (OF REIMS)— TURQUOISE 90% of these cases are seen too late for operation, and nearly all recur after operation. The exhausting pain, the serious haem- orrhages, and the abdominal septicity associated with a repulsive odour and the absorption of toxic products, which are the chief and ultimately fatal symptoms of that disease, are all directly combated by the administration of oil of turpentine. So beneficial is the action that for years there prevailed the unfortunately erroneous belief that Chian turpentine is actually curative in this condition. But it undoubtedly prolongs life, lessens suffering, and by checking the growth of bacteria upon the cancer reduces the fetid odour and the symptoms of septic intoxication. Old turpentine and French oil of turpentine are antidotes to phosphorus, forming turpentine-phosphoric acid, which is inert. TURPIN (d. c. 800), archbishop of Reims, was for many years regarded as the author of the legendary Historia de vita Caroli Magni el Rolandi, and appears as one of the twelve peers in a number of the chansons de geste. He is probably identical with Tilpin, archbishop of Reims in the 8th century, who is alluded to by Hincmar, his third successor in the see. According to Flodoard, Charles Martel drove Rigobert, archbishop of Reims, from his office and replaced him by a warrior clerk named Milo, afterwards bishop of Trier. The same writer represents Milo as discharging a mission among the Vascones, or Basques, the very people to whom authentic history has ascribed the great disaster which befell the army of Charlemagne at Roncesvalles. It is thus possible that the warlike legends which have gathered around the name of Turpin are due to some confusion of his identity with that of his martial predecessor. Flodoard says that Tilpin was originally a monk at St Denis, and Hincmar tells how after his appointment to Reims he occupied himself in securing the restora- tion of the rights and properties of his church, the revenues and prestige of which had been impaired under Mile's rule. Tilpin was elected archbishop between 752 and 768, probably in 755; he died, if the evidence of a diploma alluded to by Mabillon may be trusted, in 794, although it has been stated that this event took place on the 2nd of September 800. Hincmar, who composed his epitaph, makes him bishop for over forty years, and from this it is evident that he was elected abcut 753, and Flodoard says that he died in the forty-seventh year of his archbishopric. Tilpin was present at the Council of Rome in 769, and at the request of Charlemagne Pope Adrian I. sent him the pallium and confirmed the rights of his church. The Historia Caroli Magni was declared authentic in 1122 by Pope Calixtus II. It is, however, entirely legendary, being rather the crystallization of earlier Roland legends than the source of later ones, and its popularity seems to date from the latter part of the I2th century. Gaston Paris, who made a special study of the Historia, considers that the first five chapters were written by a monk of Compostella in the nth century and the remainder by a monk of Vienne between 1109 and 1119. The popularity of the work is attested by the fact that there are at least five French translations of the Historia dating from the I3th century and one into Latin verse of about the same time. According to August Potthast there are about fifty manuscripts of the story in existence. The Historia was first printed in 1566 at Frankfort; perhaps the best edition is the one edited by F. Castets as Turpini historia Karoli magni et Rotho- landi (Paris, 1880). It has been translated many times into French and also into German, Danish and English. The English translation is by T. Rodd and is in the History of Charles the Great and Orlando, ascribed to Turpin (London, 1812). See G. Paris, De pseudo-Turpino (Paris, 1865), and Histoire poetique de Charlemagne, new ed. by P. Meyer (1905) ; and V. Friedel, " Etudes compostellanes " in Otia Merceiana (Liverpool, 1899). TURPIN, FRANCOIS HENRI (1709-1799), French man of letters, was born at Caen. He was first a professor at the univer- sity of his native town, then went to seek his fortunes in Paris, where he made some stir in philosophical circles, and especially in that of the magnificent Helvetius; but he was only enabled with difficulty to earn a livelihood by putting his pen at the ser- vice of the booksellers. He translated, or rather adapted from the English, Edward W. Montague's Histoire du gouvernement des anciennes republiques (1769), and wrote a continuation of Father Pierre Joseph d'Orleans, Histoire des revolutions d' Angleterre (1786). His Histoire naturelle et civile du royaume de Siam (1771) is an interesting but faulty adaptation of the observations of a vicar-apostolic who had lived for a long time in that country, and who accused Turpin of having misrepresented his ideas. His chief work, La France illustre, ou Le Plutarque franf ais, contains the biographies of generals, ministers, and eminent officers of the law (5 vols., 1777-1790), in which, however, as La Harpe said, he showed himself to be " ni Plutarque ni Frangais." He also wrote an Histoire des hommes publics tires du tiers Hat (1789). TURPIN, RICHARD [DICK] (1706-1739), English robber, was born in 1706 at Hempstead, near Saffron Walden, Essex, where his father kept an alehouse. He was apprenticed to a butcher, but, having been detected at cattle-stealing, joined a notorious gang of deer-stealers and smugglers in Essex. This gang also made a practice of robbing farmhouses, terrorizing the women in the absence of their husbands and brothers, and Turpin took the lead in this class of outrage. On the gang being broken up Turpin went into partnership with Tom King, a well-known high- wayman. To avoid arrest he finally left Essex for Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, where he set up under an assumed name as a horse dealer. He was convicted at York assizes of horse-stealing and hanged on the 7th of April 1739. Harrison Ainsworth, in his romance Rookwood, gives a spirited account of a wonderful ride by Dick Turpin on his mare, Black Bess, from London to York, and it is in this connexion that Turpin's name has been generally remembered. But as far as Turpin is concerned the incident is pure fiction. A somewhat similar story was told about a certain John Nevison, known as " Nicks," a well-known highwayman in the time of Charles II., who to establish an alibi rode from Gad's Hill to York (some 190 m.) in about 15 hours. Both stories are possibly only different versions of an old north road myth. TURQUOISE, a mineral much used as an ornamental stone for the sake of its blue or bluish-green colour. It is generally held that the name indicates its source as a stone from Turkey, the finest kinds having come from Persia by way of Turkey, whence it was called by the Venetians who imported it turchesa, and by the French turquoise. The old form turkis, used by Tennyson, agrees with the German Turkis. Some authorities have suggested that the word may be a corruption of the Persian name of the stone piruzeh. Turquoise is a crypto-crystalline mineral, occurring in small reniform nodules or as an incrustation, or in thin seams and disseminated grains. Its mode of occurrence suggests its formation by deposition from solution, and indeed it is sometimes found in stalactitic masses. The typical colour is a delicate sky- blue, but the blue passes by every transition into green. In some cases the colour deteriorates as the stone becomes dry, and may be seriously affected by exposure to sunlight; whilst with age there is often a tendency to become green, as seen in examples of ancient turquoise. The mineral is always opaque in mass, but generally translucent in thin splinters. Turquoise takes a fair polish, but the lustre is feeble, and inclines to be waxy; the hard- ness is nearly 6, the specific gravity between 2-6 and 2-8. Much discussion has arisen as to the chemical composition of turquoise. It is commonly regarded as a hydrous aluminium phosphate having the composition 2A12OYP2CV5H2O or rather Al2HPO.i(OH)4, coloured with a variable proportion of a copper phosphate, or perhaps partly with an iron phosphate. Pro- fessor S. L. Penfield, however, has been led by careful analysis of turquoise from Nevada to propose the general formula: [Al(OH)2,Fe(OH)2,Cu(OH),H]3PO4. Hence turquoise may be regarded chemically as derived from orthophosphoric acid by replacement of the hydrogen by the univalent radicles A1(OH)2, &c. An ingenious counterfeit of turquoise has been formed by compressing a precipitate of cupriferous aluminium phosphate. Turquoise is usually cut as an ornamental stone in circular or elliptical form, with a low convex surface. In the East, where it is used not only for personal ornament but for the decoration of dagger-handles, horse-trappings, &c., the pieces are not unusually of irregular shape; and when worn as amulets the turquoise is often engraved with Oriental inscriptions, generally passages from the Koran, the incised characters being gilt or inlaid with gold wire. The turquoise has always been associated with curious superstitions, the most common being the notion that it changes colour with variations in the state of the owner's health or even in sympathy with his affections. It is commonly held to be a " lucky stone." TURRET— TURRIS LIBISONIS 483 In Persia, where the finest turquoise is found, the mines have been worked for at least eight centuries. The workings have been described by General Houtum Schindler, an Austrian, who was at one time in charge of the mines. The principal locality is north-west of the village of Madan, on the southern slopes of Mt Ali-Mirsai, a peak near Nishapur, in the province of Khorasan. Here the turquoise occurs in narrow seams in a brecciated trachyte-porphyry. It is found also in some other localities in Persia and in Turkestan. Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1605-1689) states that the best turquoise, reserved for the sole use of the shah, was obtained from the Vieille Roche, whilst inferior stones were got from the Nouvelle Roche. These terms still survive, for turquoise of fine colour is sometimes said in trade to be from the " oid rock," and that of pale tint or of unstable colours is described as from the " new rock." The latter is sometimes not true Oriental turquoise, but the material called " bone-turquoise " or odontolite, and known also as " occidental turquoise." This is merely fossil bone or ivory coloured by iron phosphate (viyianite) or perhaps stained in some cases by cupriferous solutions, and is readily distinguished from true turquoise by showing organic structure under the microscope. Bone-turquoise occurs in Europe; and it may be noted that mineral turquoise also is known from certain localities in Saxony and Silesia, but the quantity is very limited and the quality poor, so that it has no commercial impor- tance. Chrysocolla has been sometimes mistaken in various parts ot the world for turquoise. In 1849 turquoise was found by Major C. Macdonald in Wadi Maghara and Wadi Sidreh in the Sinaitic Peninsula ; and a large series of the specimens was shown in the Great Exhibition of 1851. Accor- ding to H. Bauerman, who described the locality geologically, the turquoise occurs in a red sandstone, in the form of embedded nodules and as an incrustation lining the joint-faces. The turquoise was worked for some time by Macdonald, and many years afterwards workings were resumed on a systematic scale by an English company, but without great success. Relics of extensive ancient mining operations for turquoise show that the rock was at one time worked with flint implements. The locality was examined by Professor Flinders Petrie in 1905. In ancient Mexico much use was made of turquoise as an inlay for mosaic work,, with obsidian, malachite, shell ana iron pyrites. Such work is illustrated by fine specimens in the ethnographical gallery of the British Museum and elsewhere. Relics of extensive workings are found in the mountains of Los Cerillos near Santa F6 in New Mexico, where mining for turquoise is now actively carried on. One of the hills in which old workings occur has been called Mt Chalchihuitl, since it is believed that the turquoise was known by the name chalchihuitl, which in some places was applied also to jade. Another of the Cerillos hills in which workings have been opened up is called Turquoise Hill. The matrix at Los Cerillos is described by D. VV. Johnson as an altered angite-andesite, in which the turquoise occurs in thin veins and in small nodules in patches of kaolin. It appears probable that the alumina of the turquoise was derived from the alteration of felspar, and the phosphorus from apa- tite in the rock, whilst the copper was brought up by heated vapours which altered the andesite. Turquoise is found also at Turquoise Mountain, Cochise county, Arizona, and at Mineral Park, Mohave county, in the same state; it occurs in the Columbus district, southern Nevada; in Fresno county, California; and near Idaho, Clay county, Alabama. Mexican turquoise is known from the state of Zacatecas. Turquoise was discovered in 1894 near Bodalla, in New South Wales; and it has also been found in Victoria. Turquoise is sometimes termed by mineralogists callaite, since it is believed to be the callais of Pliny — a stone which he describes as resembling lapis lazuli, but paler, and in colour more like the shal- low sea. The callaina of Pliny was a pale green stone from beyond India, whilst his cattaica was a kind of turbid callaina. The name callainite was suggested by Professor J. D. Dana for a bright green mineral which was found in the form of beads, with stone hatchets, in ancient graves near Mane'-er-H'roek (Rock of the Fairy), near Locmariaquer in Brittany, and which A. Damour sought to identify with Pliny's callais. The mineral in question seems to be identical with variscite, a hydrous aluminium phosphate named by A. Breithaupt, and occurring as a beautiful green amor- phous mineral, sometimes polished as an ornamental stone; fine examples occur in Utah. Somewhat allied to turquoise is the blue mineral called lazulite (to be distinguished from lazurite, see LAPIS LAZULI), which has the formula (Fe2Mg)AU(OH)(PO4), and has occasionally been used as an ornamental stone. (F. W. R.*) TURRET (from O. Fr. tourette, diminutive of tour, tower, mod. Fr. tourelle), a small tower, especially at the angles of larger buildings, sometimes overhanging and built on corbels, when it is often called a " bartizan " (q.v.), and sometimes rising from the ground. TURRETIN, or TURRETINI, the name of three Swiss divines. BENOIT TURRETIN (1588-1631), the son of Francesco Turretini, a native of Lucca, who settled in Geneva in 1579, was born at Zurich on the Qth of November 1588. He was ordained a pastor in Geneva in 1612, and became professor of theology in 1618. In 1620 he represented the Genevan Church at the national synod of Alais, when the decrees of the synod of Dort were introduced into France; and in 1621 he was sent on a successful mission to the states-general of Holland, and to the authorities of the Hanseatic towns, with reference to the defence of Geneva against the threatened attacks of the duke of Savoy. He published in 1618- 1620 (2 vols.) a defence of the Genevan translation of the Bible, Eine Verteidigung der genfer Bibelubersetzung (Defense de la fidelite des traductions de la Bible faites d Geneve), against P. Cotton's Geneve plagiaire. He died on the 4th of March 1631. FRANCOIS TURRETIN (1623-1687), son of the preceding, was born at Geneva on the i7th of October 1623. After studying theology in Geneva, Leiden and France, he became pastor of the Italian congregation in Geneva in 1647 ; after a brief pastorate at Lyons he again returned to Geneva as professor of theology in 1653, having modestly declined a professorship of philosophy in 1650. He was one of the most influential supporters of the Formula Consensus Helvetica, drawn up chiefly by Johann Heinrich Heidegger (1633-1698), in 1675, and of the particular type of Calvinistic theology which that symbol embodied, and an opponent of the theology of Moses Amyraut and the school of Saumur. His Institutio theologicae elencticae (3 vols., Geneva 1680-1683) has passed through frequent editions, the last reprint having been made in Edinburgh in 1847-1848. He was also the author of volumes entitled De satisfactione Christi disputationes (Geneva, 1666) and De necessaria secessione nostra ab ecclesia romana (Geneva, 1687). He died on the 28th of September 1687. JEAN ALPHONSE TURRETIN (1671-1737), son of the preceding, was born at Geneva on the i3th of August 1671. He studied theology at Geneva under L. Tronchin, and after travelling in Holland, England and France was received into the " Venerable Compagnie des Pasteurs " of Geneva in 1693. Here he became pastor of the Italian congregation, and in 1697 professor of church history, and later (1705) of theology. During the next forty years of his life he enjoyed great influence in Geneva as the ad- vocate of a more liberal theology than had prevailed under the preceding generation, and it was largely through his instrumen- tality that the rule obliging ministers to subscribe to the Formula Consensus Helvetica was abolished in 1706, and the Consensus itself renounced in 1725. He also wrote and laboured for the promotion of union between the Reformed and Lutheran Churches, his most important work in this connexion being Nubes testium pro moderato et pacifico de rebus theologicis judi- cio, et instituenda inter Protestantes concordia (Geneva, 1729). Besides this he wrote Cogitationes et disserlationes theologicae, on the principles of natural and revealed religion (2 vols., Geneva, 1737; in French, Traiti de la virile de la religion chrftienne) and commentaries on Thessalonians and Romans. He died on the ist of May 1737. See E. de Bud6, Francois et J. AlpJtonse Turretini (2 vols., 1880). and Lettres incites d Jean Alphonse Turretini (3 vols., 1887-1888); F. Turretini, Notice biographique sur Benedict Turretini (1871); C. Borgeaud, Histoire de I'universite de Geneve (1900). TURRIFF, a municipal and police burgh of Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 2273. It lies near the Deveron, 385 m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway, via Inveramsay. In the choir of the ancient church, now in ruins, is a fresco painting of St Ninian. On the i4th of May 1639 the national struggle for civil and religious h'berty was inaugurated in the county with the skirmish known as the Trot of Turriff. Some 4 m. south are the remains of the castle of Towie Barclay, the seat of the old family of the Barclays. TURRIS LIBISONIS (mod. Porto Torres, q.v.), an ancient seaport town of Sardinia, situated at the north-western extremity of the island, and connected with Carales by two roads, which diverged at Othoca, one (the more important) keeping inland and the other following the west coast. It was probably of purely Roman origin, founded apparently by Julius Caesar, as it bears the title Colonia Julia; and in Pliny's time it was the only colony in the island. It is noteworthy that it apparently belonged to one of the urban tribes, the Collina; Puteoli, which belonged to the Palatina is the only other TURSHIZ— TUSCANY exception to the rule that municipia and coloniae were not enrolled in the urban tribes. A Roman bridge of seven arches, somewhat restored in modern times, the ruins of a temple (now known as II Palazzo del Re Barbaro), which an inscription found there shows to have been restored (A.D. 247-249) by the praefectus of the province, together with the basilica, an aque- duct, various buildings (S. Valero Usni in Notizie degli scavi (1882), 121, A. Taramelli,ibid. (1904), 145) and some rock tombs, still exist. The inscriptions from Turris Libisonis are given by Th. Mommsen in Corp. inscr. lat, x. 826 ; V. DessJ in Notizie degli scavi ( 1 898) , 260 ; A. Taramelli, ibid. (1904), 141. One of them (C.I.L. No. 7954) mentions the construction of a fountain basin, another the construc- tion of a quay (ripa turritana) : substructions may still be seen under water when the sea is clear. (T. As.) TURSHIZ, a district of the province of Khorasan in Persia, lying E. of the great salt desert. It has a population of nearly 20,000 and pays a yearly revenue of about £7000. It produces and exports wool, cotton, silk and much dried fruit, of the latter particularly raisins and Alu Bukhara, " Bokhara prunes." The chief place and capital of the district is Sultanabad, gener- ally called Turshiz, like the district, situated 225 m. south-east by east from Shahrud and 100 m. south-west from Meshed, in 35° 10' N. 58° 34' E., at an elevation of 2200 ft. It is surrounded by a dilapidated wall and has a population of about 8000. TURTON, an urban district in the Westhoughton parlia- mentary division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. N. of Bolton, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 12,355. Its modern growth is the result of the development of the cotton trade in its various branches; and there are large stone quarries in the vicinity. There remains in the township a curious building named Turton Tower, dating principally from the i6th century, and containing some fine contemporary woodwork. TUSCALOOSA, a city and the county-seat of Tuscaloosa county, Alabama, U.S.A., in the west-central part of the state, on the Black Warrior river, about 55 m. S.W. of Birmingham and about 100 m. N.W. of Montgomery. Pop. (1900), 5094; (local census, 1908), 7140 (3551 negroes); (1910 U.S. census), 8407. It is served by the Alabama Great Southern and the Mobile & Ohio railways. The Black Warrior river, formerly not navigable beyond Tuscaloosa, has been improved by the United States government, and there are three locks in or near the city. Tuscaloosa lies between the foothills of the Appalachians to the north-east and the low alluvial valley of the Black Warrior. It has many old-fashioned residences and gardens, and a fine Federal building. It is the seat of the university of Alabama; of the Alabama Central Female College (Baptist, 1858), which occupies the old state capitol; of the Tusca- loosa Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South, 1860); of Stillman Institute (Presbyterian, 1876; originally the Tuscaloosa Institute for the Education of Coloured Ministers; named in honour of its founder, Dr Charles A. Stillman, in 1897); and of Alabama Bryce Hospital for the Insane (1861). The university of Alabama was founded by an act of the state legislature of 1820, the United States government having donated 46,080 acres of public lands for this purpose in the preceding year; in 1831 the university was opened at Tuscaloosa, then the state capital. On the 4th of April 1865 all the buildings of the university, except the observatory, were burned by a body of Federal cavalry, and the university was closed thereafter until 1869; in 1884 the United States govern- ment gave another 46,080 acres of public lands in restitution, and in 1907 the state legislature appropriated $445,000 for new buildings. The university is a part of the public school system of the state, and is governed by a board of trustees, consisting of the governor and the superintendent of education of the state, of two members from the congressional district in which the university is situated, and of one member from each of the other congressional districts of the state. The university includes, besides a college and a graduate school, departments of engineer- ing, law, medicine (formerly the Medical College of Alabama, established in 1859) and pharmacy (the two last in Mobile), and a summer school for teachers, and in 1908-9 had 60 instructors and 887 students. In the city there are several manufacturing establishments, principally cotton and lumber mills; and in the immediate vicinity there are important coal, coke and iron interests — there is a large iron furnace, pipe foundry and coking plant at Holt, about 4 m. north-east of the city. Tuscaloosa derives its name from an Indian chief, who, after a desperate battle with De Soto at Mauvilla (the site of which is not definitely known) in 1540, is said to have hanged himself in order to escape capture, and is commemorated by a granite monolith in the Court House Square; the name is said to mean " black warrior." The first settlement of whites was made in 1815. The city was chartered in 1819, and in 1826-1846 it was the capital of Alabama. TUSCANA (mod. Toscanella, q.v.), an ancient town of Etruria, about 15 m. N.E. of Tarquinii. It is hardly mentioned in ancient literature; it was a station on the road from Blera to Saturnia, a prolongation of the Via Clodia. On the hill of S. Pietro are remains of walling of the Roman period. A number of Etruscan tombs were found by the Campanari brothers in the igth century, and their valuable contents are in various European museums. TUSCANY (Toscand). a territorial division of Italy, consisting of the western part of the centre of the peninsula, bounded N.W. by Liguria and Emilia, E. by the Marches and Umbria, S.E. by the province of Rome and W. by the Mediterranean. It con- sists of eight provinces, Arezzo, Firenze (Florence), Grosseto, Livorno (Leghorn), Lucca, Massa-Carrara, Pisa and Siena, and has an area of 9304 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,566,741. The chief railway centre is Florence, whence radiate lines to Bologna (for Milan and the north), Faenza, Lucca, Pisa and Leghorn, and Arezzo for Rome. Siena stands on a branch leaving the Florence-Pisa line at Empoli and running through the centre of Tuscany to Chiusi, where it joins the Florence-Rome railway. The line from Rome to Genoa runs along the coast throughout the entire length of Tuscany, and at Montepescali throws off a branch joining the Empoli-Chiusi line at Asciano, and at Follonica another to Massa Marittima. Except towards the coast and around Lucca, Florence and Arezzo, where the beds of prehistoric lakes form plains, the country is hilly, being intersected with sub-Apennine spurs. The most fertile country in Tuscany is in the valley of the Arno, where the plains and slopes of the hills are highly culti- vated. In strong contrast with this is the coast plain known as the Maremma, 850 sq. m. in extent, where malaria has been prevalent since the depopulation of the country in the middle ages. Here in the first half of the igth century the grand duke Leopold II. of Tuscany began an elaborate system of drainage, which was gradually extended until it covered nearly the whole of the district. The greater part of the Maremma now affords pasture to large herds of horses and half-wild cattle, but on the drier parts corn is grown, the people coming down from the hills to sow and to reap. The hill country just inland, especially near Volterra, has poor soil, largely clayey, and subject to land- slips, but is rich in minerals. But for the Maremma, Tuscany is one of the most favoured regions of Italy. The climate is temperate, and the rainfall not excessive. The Apennines shelter it from the cold north winds, and the prevailing winds in the west, blowing in from the Tyrrhenian Sea, are warm and humid, though Florence is colder and more windy than Rome in the winter and hotter in summer, owing to its being shut in among the mountains. Wheat, maize, wine (especially the red wine which takes the name of Chianti from the district S.S.W. of Florence), olive oil, tobacco, chestnuts and flowers are the chief products of Tuscany. Mules, sheep and cattle are bred, and beeswax is produced in large quantities. But the real wealth of Tuscany lies in its minerals. Iron, mercury, boracic acid, copper, salt, lignite, statuary marble, alabaster and Sienese earth are all found in considerable quantities, while mineral and hot springs abound, some of which (e.g. Montecatini and Bagni di Lucca) are well known as health resorts. The industries of Tuscany are exceedingly varied and carried on TUSCANY 485 with great activity. There are universities at Pisa and Siena. Viareggio and Leghorn are much frequented for sea-bathing, while the latter is a prosperous port. The main art centres of Tuscany are Florence, Pisa and Siena, the headquarters of the chief schools of painting a.nd sculpture from the i3th century onwards. While the former city, however, bore as prominent a part as any in Italy in the Renaissance, the art of Pisa ceased, owing to the political decline of the city, to make any advance at a comparatively early period, its impor-. tance being in ecclesiastical architecture in the i2th, and in sculpture in the i3th century. Siena, too, never accepted the Renaissance to the full, and its art retained an individual character without making much progress. The language of Tuscany is remarkable for its purity of idiom, and its adoption by Dante and Petrarch probably led to its becoming the literary language of Italy. (See ITALIAN LANGUAGE, vol. xiv. p. 895.) See E. Repetti, Dizionario geografico fisico storico della Toscana (6 yols., Florence, 1834-1846). See also G. Dennis, Cities and Ceme- teries of Etruria (2 vols., London, 1883). On medieval and Renais- sance architecture and art there are innumerable works. Among those on architecture may be mentioned the great work of H. von Geymuller and A. Widmann, Die Architektur der Renaissance in Toscana. (T. As.) History. — Etruria (q.v.) was finally annexed to Rome in 351 B.C., and constituted the seventh of the eleven regions into which Italy was, for administrative purposes, divided by Augustus. Under Constantine it was united into one province with Umbria, an arrangement which subsisted until at least 400, as the Notitia speaks of a " consularis Tusciae et Umbriae." In Ammianus Marcellinus there is implied a distinction between " Tuscia suburbicaria " and " Tuscia annonaria," the latter being that portion which lies to the north of the Arno. After the fall of the Western empire Tuscia, with other provinces of Italy, came successively under the sway of Herulians, Ostrogoths, and Greek and Lombard dukes. Under the last-named, " Tuscia Langobardorum," comprising the districts of Viterbo, Corneto and Bolsena, was distinguished from " Tuscia Regni," which lay more to the north. Under Charlemagne the name of Tuscia or Toscana became restricted to the latter only. One of the earliest of the Frankish marquises was Boniface, either first or second of that name, who about 828 fought with success against the Saracens in Africa. Adalbert I., who succeeded him, in 878 espoused the cause of Carloman as against his brother Louis III. of France, and suffered excommunication and im- prisonment in consequence. Adalbert II. (the Rich), who married the ambitious Bertha, daughter of Lothair, king of Lorraine, took a prominent part in the politics of his day. A sub- sequent marquis, Hugo (the Great), became also duke of Spoleto in 989. The male line of marquises ended with Boniface II. (or III.), who was murdered in 1052. His widow, Beatrice, in 1055 married Godfrey, duke of Lorraine, and governed the country till her death in 1076, when she was succeeded by Matilda (q.v.), her only child by her first husband. Matilda died in 1114 without issue, bequeathing all her extensive possessions to the Church. The consequent struggle between the popes, who claimed the inheritance, and the emperors, who maintained that the countess had no right to dispose of imperial fiefs, enabled the principal cities of Tuscany gradually to assert their indepen- dence. The most important of these Tuscan republics were Florence, Pisa, Siena, Arezzo, Pistoia and Lucca. The Return of the Medici. — After the surrender of Florence to the Imperialists in August 1530 the Medici power was re- established by the emperor Charles V. and Pope Clement VII., although certain outward forms of republicanism were preserved, and Alessandro de' Medici was made duke of Florence, the dignity to be hereditary in the family. In the reign of Cosimo III. Siena was annexed (1559); the title of grand duke of Tuscany wa.s conferred on that ruler in 1567 by Pope Pius V. and recog- nized in the person of Francis I. by the emperor Maximilian II. in 1576. Under a series of degenerate Medici the history of Tuscany is certainly not a splendid record, and few events of importance occurred save court scandals. The people became more and more impoverished and degraded, a new and shoddy nobility was created and granted wide privileges, and art and letters declined. Giovan Gastone was the last Medicean grand duke; being childless, it was agreed by the treaty of Vienna that at his death Tuscany should be given to Francis, duke of Lorraine, husband of the archduchess Maria Theresa, afterwards empress. In 1737 Giovan Gastone died,1 and Francis II., after taking possession of the grand duchy, appointed a regency under the prince of Craon and departed for Austria never to return. Tuscany was governed by a series of foreign regents and was a prey to adventurers from Lorraine and elsewhere; although the administration was not wholly inefficient and introduced some useful reforms, the people were ground by taxes to pay for the apanage of Francis in Vienna and for Austrian wars, and reduced to a state of great poverty. Francis, who had been elected emperor in 1745, died in 1765, and was succeeded on the throne of the grand duchy by his younger son, Leopold I. Leopold resided in Tuscany and proved one of the most capable and remarkable of the reforming princes of the i8th century. He substituted Tuscans for foreigners in government fhe offices, introduced a system of free trade in food- Reforms or stuffs (at the suggestion of the Sienese Sallustio Leopold II. Bandini), promoted agriculture, and reclaimed wide areas of marshland to intensive cultivation. He reorganized taxation on a basis of equality for all citizens, thereby abolishing one of the most vexatious privileges of the nobility, reformed the administration of justice and local government, suppressed torture and capital punishment, and substituted a citizen militia for the standing army. His reforms in church matters made a great stir at the time, for he curbed the power of the clergy, suppressed some religious houses, reduced the mortmain and rejected papal interference. With the aid of Scipione de' Ricci, bishop of Pistoia, he even attempted to remove abuses, reform church discipline and purify religious worship; but Ricci's action was condemned by Rome. Ricci was forced to resign, and the whole movement came to nothing. (See PISTOIA, SYNOD OF.) The grand duke also contemplated granting a form of constitution, but his Teutonic rigidity was not popular and many of his reforms were ahead of the times and not appreciated by the people. At the death of his brother, Joseph II., in 1790, Leopold became emperor, and repaired to Vienna. After a brief regency he appointed his second son, Ferdinand III., who had been born and brought up in Tuscany, grand duke. During the French revolutionary wars Ferdinand tried to maintain neutrality so as to avoid foreign invasions, but in 1799 a French force entered Florence and was welcomed by a small number of republicans. The occupation grand duke was forced to fly, the " tree of liberty " was set up, and a provisional government on French lines established. But the great mass of the people were horrified at the irreligious character of the new regime, and a counter- revolution, fomented by Pope Pius VII., the grand ducalists and the clergy, broke out at Arezzo. Bands of armed peasants marched through the country to the cry of " Viva Maria!" and expelled the French, not without committing many atrocities. With the assistance of the Austrians, who put an end to disorder, Florence was occupied and the grand ducalists established a government in the name of Ferdinand. But after Napoleon Bonaparte's victory at Marengo the French returned in great force, dispersed the bands, and re-entered Florence (October 1800). They too committed atrocities and sacked the churches, but they were more warmly welcomed than before by the people, who had experienced Austro-Aretine rule. Joachim Murat (afterwards king of Naples) set up a provisional government, and by the peace of Luneville Tuscany was made a part of the Spanish dominions and erected into the kingdom of Etruria under Louis, duke of Parma. (1801). The new king died in 1803, leaving an infant son, Charles Louis, under the regency of his widow, Marie Louise of Spain. Marie Louise ruled with 'The history of Tuscany from 1530 to 1737 is given in greater detail under MEDICI. 486 TUSCARORA— TUSCULUM reactionary and clerical tendencies until 1807, when the emperor Napoleon obliged Charles IV. of Spain to cede Tuscany to him, compensating Charles Louis in Portugal. From 1807 to 1809, when Napoleon's sister, Elisa Baciocchi, was made grand duchess, Tuscany was ruled by a French administrator-general; the French codes were introduced, and Tuscany became a French department. French ideas had gained some adherents among the Tuscans, but to the majority the new institutions, although they produced much progress, were distasteful as subversive of cherished traditions. After Napoleon's defeats in 1814 Murat seceded from the emperor and occupied Tuscany, which he afterwards handed over to Austria, and in September Ferdinand III. returned, warmly welcomed by nearly everybody, for French rule had proved oppressive, especially on account of the heavy taxes and the drain of con- scription. At the Congress of Vienna he was formally reinstated with certain additions of territory and the reversion of Lucca. On Napoleon's escape from Elba Murat turned against the Austrians, and Ferdinand had again to leave Florence temporarily; but he returned after Waterloo, and reigned until his death in 1824. The restoration in Tuscany was unaccompanied by the excesses which characterized it elsewhere, and much of the French legisla- tion was retained. Ferdinand was succeeded by his Restoration. son> Leopold II., who continued his father's policy of benevolent but somewhat enervating despotism, which produced marked effects on the Tuscan character. In 1847 Lucca was incorporated in the grand duchy. When the political excitement consequent on the election of Pius IX. spread to Tuscany, Leopold made one concession after another, and in February 1848 granted the constitution. A Tuscan contingent took part in the Piedmontese campaign against Austria, but the increase of revolutionary agitation in Tuscany, culminating in the proclamation of the republic (Feb. 9, 1849) , led to Leopold's departure for Gaeta to confer with the pope and the king of Naples. Disorder continuing and a large part of the population being still loyal to him, he was invited to return, and he did so, but accepted the protection of an Austrian army, by which act he forfeited his popularity (July 1849). In 1852 he formally abrogated the constitution, and three years later the Austrians departed. When in 1859 a second war between Piedmont and Austria became imminent, the revolutionary agitation, never completely quelled, broke out once more. There was a division of opinion between the moderates, who favoured a constitutional Tuscany under Leopold, but forming part of an Italian federation, and the popular party, who aimed at the expulsion of the house of Lorraine and the unity of Italy under Victor Emmanuel. At last a compromise was arrived at and the grand duke was requested to abdicate in favour of his son, grant a constitution, and take part in the war against Austria. Leopold having rejected these demands, the Florentines rose as one man and obliged him to quit Tuscany (April 27, 1859). A provisional government, led by Ubaldino Beruzzi and afterwards by Bettino Ricasoli, was established. It declared war against Austria and then handed over its authority to Boncompagni, the Sar- i dinian royal commissioner (May 9). A few weeks later a French ! force under Prince Napoleon landed in Tuscany to threaten Austria's flank, but in the meanwhile the emperor Napoleon made peace with Austria and agreed to the restoration of Leopold and other Italian princes. Victor Emmanuel was obliged to recall the royal commissioners, but together with Cavour he secretly encouraged the provisional governments to resist the return of the despots, and the constituent assemblies of Tuscany, Romagna and the duchies voted for annexation to Sardinia. A Central Italian military league and a customs union were formed, and Cavour having overcome Napoleon's opposition by ceding Nice and Savoy, the king accepted the annexations and appointed his kinsman, Prince Carignano, viceroy of Central Italy with Ricasoli as governor-general (March 22, 1860). Union with The Sardinian parliament which met in April con- the Italian tained deputies from Central Italy, and after the kingdom, occupation of the Neapolitan provinces and Sicily the kingdom of Italy was proclaimed (Feb. 18, 1861). In 1865, in consequence of the Franco-Italian convention' of September 1864, the capital was transferred from Turin to Florence, where it remained until it was removed to Rome in 1871. Since the union with Italy, Tuscany has ceased to constitute a separate political entity, although the people still preserve definite regional characteristics.' It has increased in wealth and education, and owing to a good system of land tenure the peasantry are among the most prosperous in Italy. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A. yon Reumqnt, Geschichte Tescanas (2 vols., Gotha, 1876-1877) ; Zobi, Storia civile delta Toscana (Florence, 1850) ; E. Robiony, Gli ultimi dei Medici (Florence, 1905) ; C. Tivaroni, Storia critica del risorgimento italiano (9 vols., Turin, 1888, &c.); M. Bartolommei-Gioli, // Rivolgimento toscano e Vazione popolare (Florence, 1905). See also under FLORENCE; MEDICI; FERDINAND III.; LEOPOLD II.; BARTOLOMMEI; RICASOLI, &c. (L. V.*) TUSCARORA, a tribe of North American Indians of Iroquoian stock. Their former range was on the Neuse river, North Caro- lina. Here in 1700 they lived in fifteen villages and were esti- mated at 6000. In 1711, as a protest against the encroachments on their territory, they declared war on the white settlers. After two years they were defeated and fled north to the Iroquois, in whose famous league they became the sixth nation, settling on the territory of the Oneida Indians, in New York state. In the War of American Independence some of the tribe fought for the English and some against them. The remnant of them is divided between reservations in Canada and New York, and numbers about 700. TUSCULUM, an ancient city of Latium, situated in a command- ing position on the north edge of the outer crater ring of the Alban volcano, 15 m. N.E. of the modern Frascati. The highest point is 2198 ft. above sea-level. It has a very extensive view of the Campagna, with Rome lying 15 m. distant to the north-west. Rome was approached by the Via Latina (from which a branch road ascended to Tusculum, while the main road passed through the valley to the south of it), or by the Via Tusculana (though the antiquity of the latter road is doubtful). According to tradition, the city was founded by Telegonusj the son of Ulysses and Circe. When Tarquinius Superbus was expelled from Rome his cause was espoused by the chief of Tusculum, Octavius Mamilius, who took a leading part in the formation of the Latin League, composed of the thirty principal cities of Latium, banded together against Rome. Mamilius commanded the Latin army at the battle of Lake Regillus (497 B.C.), but was killed, and the predominance of Rome among the Latin cities was practically established. According to some accounts Tusculum became from that time an ally of Rome, and on that account frequently incurred the hostility of the other Latin cities. In 381 B.C., after an expression of complete submission to Rome, the people of Tusculum received the Roman franchise, but without the vote, and thenceforth the city con- tinued to hold the rank of a municipium. Other accounts, however, speak of Tusculum as often allied with Rome's enemies — last of all with the Samnites in 323 B.C. Several of the chief Roman families were of Tusculan origin, e.g. the gentes Mamilia, Fulvia, Fonteia, Juventia and Porcia; to the last-named the celebrated Catos belonged. The town council kept the name of senate, but the title of dictator gave place to that of aedile. Notwithstanding this, and the fact that a special college of Roman equitcs was formed to take charge of the cults of the gods at Tusculum, and especially of the Dioscuri, the citizens resident there were neither numerous nor men of distinction. The villas of the neighbourhood had indeed acquired greater importance than the not easily accessible town itself, and by the end of the Republic, and still more during the imperial period, the territory of Tusculum was one of the favourite places of residence of the wealthy Romans. The number and extent of the remains almost defy description, and can only be made clear by a map. Even in the time of Cicero we hear of eighteen owners of villas there. Much of the territory (including Cicero's villa), but not the town itself, which lies far too high, was supplied with water by the Aqua Crabra. On the hill of Tusculum itself are remains of a small theatre (excavated in 1839), with a TUSKEGEE— TUSSAUD, MADAME 487 reservoir behind it, and an amphitheatre. Both belong probably to the imperial period, and so does a very large villa (the sub- structures of which are preserved), by some attributed, but wrongly, to Cicero, by others to Tiberius, near the latter. Be- tween the amphitheatre and the theatre is the site of the Forum, of which nothing is now visible, and to the south on a projecting spur were tombs of the Roman period. There are also many remains of houses and villas. The citadel — which stood on the highest point an abrupt rock — was approached only on one side, that towards the city, and even here by a steep ascent of 1 50 ft. Upon it remains of the medieval castle, which stood here until 1191, aione are visible. The city walls, of which some remains still exist below the theatre, are built of blocks of the native " lapis Albanus " or peperino. They probably belong to the republican period. Below them is a well-house, with a roof formed of a pointed arch — generally held to go back to a somewhat remote antiquity, but hardly with sufficient reason. The most interesting associations of the city are those con- nected with Cicero, whose favourite residence and retreat for study and literary work was at, or rather near, Tusculum. It T/as here that he composed his celebrated Tusculan Disputa- tions and other philosophical works. Much has been wiitten on the position of his villa, but its true site still remains doubtful. The theory, which places it at or near Grotta Ferrata, some distance farther to the west, has most evidence to support it. Although Cicero ( Pro Sestio, 43) speaks of his own house as being insignificant in size compared to that of his neighbour Gabinius, yet we gather from other notices in various parts of his works that it was a considerable building. It comprised two gymnasia (Div. i. 5), with covered porticus for exercise and philosophical discussion (Tusc. Disp. ii. 3). One of these, which stood on higher ground, was called " the Lyceum," and contained a library (Div. ii. 3); the other, on a lower site, shaded by rows of trees, was called " the Academy." The main building con- tained a covered porticus, or cloister, with apsidal recesses (exedrae) containing seats (see Ad Fam. vii. 23). It also had bathrooms (Ad Fam. xiv. 20), and contained a number of works of art, both pictures and statues in bronze and marble (Ep. ad Alt. i. i, 8, 9, 10). The central atrium appears to have been small, as Cicero speaks of it as an atriolum (Ad Quint. Fr. iii. i). The cost of this and the other house which he built at Pompeii led to his being burdened with debt (Ep. ad Alt. ii. i). Nothing now exists which can be asserted to be part of Cicero's villa with any degree of certainty. During the imperial period little is recorded about Tusculum; but soon after the transference of the seat of empire to Constantinople it became a very important stronghold, and for some centuries its counts occupied a leading position in Rome and were specially influential in the selection of the popes. During the I2th century there were constant struggles between Rome and Tusculum, and towards the close of the century (1191) the Romans, supported by the German emperor, gained the upper hand, and the walls of Tusculum, together with the whole city, were destroyed. See L. Canina, Descr. dell' anlico Tusculo (Rome, 1841); A. Nibby, Dintorni di Roma, iii. 293 (2nd ed., Rome, 1841); H. Dessau in Corp. inscript. lot. pp. 252 sqq. (Berlin, 1887); F. Grossi-Gondi, // Tuscolano ndV eld, classica (Rome, 1907) ; T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. 5 (London, 1907, 1909). (T. As.) TUSKEGEE, a town and county-seat of Macon county, Ala- bama, U.S.A., in the east part of the state, about 40 m. E. of Montgomery. Pop. (1900) 2170; (1910) 2803. It is served by the Tuskegee railway, which connects it with Chehaw, 5 m. distant, on the Western railway of Alabama. The city manu- factures cotton seed. Tuskegee is chiefly known for its educa- tional institutions — the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute and the Alabama Conference Female College (Methodist Episcopal Church, South; opened 1856). The former was founded in 1880 by an act of the state legislature as the Tuskegee State Normal School, and was opened in July 1881 by Booker T. Washington for the purpose of giving an industrial education to negroes; in 1893 it was incorporated under its present name. In 1899 the national Congress granted to the school 25,000 acres of mineral lands, of which 20,000 acres, valued at $200,000, were unsold in 1909. Andrew Carnegie gave $600,000 to the institute in 1903, and the institute has a Carnegie library (1902), with about 15,000 volumes in 1909. In 1909 theendowment was about $1,389,600, and the school property was valued at about $1,117,660. It had in 1909 a property of 2345 acres (of which 1000 were farm lands, 1145 pasture and wood lands, and 200 school campus), and 100 buildings, many of brick, and nearly all designed and constructed, even to the making of the bricks, by the teachers and students. The state of Alabama appro- priated $2000 for teachers' salaries in 1880, increased the appropriation to $3000 in 1884, and for many years gave $4500 annually; the school receives $10,000 annually from the John F. Slater Fund, and the same sum from the General Education Board. The institute comprises an academic department (in which all students are enrolled) with a seven years' course, the Phelps Hall bible training school (1892), with a three years' course, and departments of mechanical industries, industries for girls, and agriculture. The department of agriculture has an experiment station, established by the state in 1896, in which important experiments in cotton breeding have been carried on. There are a farm, a large truck garden, an orchard, and a bakery and canning factory. Forty different industries are taught. Cooking schools and night schools are carried on by the institute in the town of Tuskegee. In 1908-1909 the enrolment was 1494 students, of whom about one-quarter were women, and there were 167 teachers, all negroes. Tuition in the institute is free; board and living cost $8.50 a month; day students are allowed to " work-out " $i.so-$3.oo a month of this amount, and night students may thus pay all their expenses. At Tuskegee under the auspices of the institute are held the annual negro conferences (begun in 1891) and monthly farmers' institutes (begun in 1897); and short courses in agriculture (begun in 1904) are conducted. Farmers' institutes are held throughout the South by teachers of the school. In 1905 the institute took up the work of rural school extension. A model negro village (South Greenwood) has been built west of the institute grounds on land bought by the institute in 1901. Affiliated with the institute and having its headquarters in Tuskegee is the National Negro Business League (1900). The success of the institute is due primarily to its founder and principal, Booker T. Washing- ton, and to the efficient board of trustees, which has included such men as Robert C. Ogden and Seth Low. Tuskegee was settled about 1800. See Booker T. Washington, Working With the Hands (New York, 1904); and Thrasher, Tuskegee, Its Story and Its Work (Boston, 1900). TUSSAUD, MARIE (1760-1850), founder of "Madame Tussaud's Exhibition " of wax figures in London, was born in Berne in 1760, the daughter of Joseph Grosholtz (d. 1760), an army officer. Her uncle, a doctor of Berne, John Christopher Curtius, had attracted the attention of the prince de Conti by his beautiful anatomical wax models, and had been induced to move to Paris, abandon his profession, and practise wax modelling as a fine art. His house became the resort of many of the talented men of the day, and here he brought his niece at the age of six, and taught her to model in wax. She became such an adept that she early modelled many of the great people of France, and was finally sent for to stay at the palace at Versailles to instruct the sister of Louis XVI., Mme Elizabeth, in the popular craze. It was from Curtius's exhibition that the mob obtained the busts of Necker and the duke of Orleans that were carried by the procession when on the i2th of July 1789 the first blood of the French Revolution was shed. During the terrible days that followed Marie Grosholtz was called upon to model the heads of many of the prominent leaders and victims of the Revolution, and was herself for three months a prisoner, having fallen under the suspicion of the committee of public safety. In 1794 she married a Frenchman named Tussaud, from whom she was separated in 1800. Her uncle having died in the former year, after some difficulty she secured per- mission from Napoleon to leave France, and she took with her to London the nucleus of her collection from the cabinet de cite 488 TUSSER, T.— TUTTLINGEN in the Palais Royal, and the idea of her " Chamber of Horrors " from Curtius's Caverne des Grands Voleurs, in the Boulevard du Temple. Her wax figures were successfully shown in the Strand on the site of the Lyceum theatre, and through the provinces, and finally the exhibition was established in per- manent London quarters in Baker Street in 1833. Here Mme Tussaud died on the i6th of April 1850. She was succeeded by her son Francis Tussaud, he by his son Joseph, and he again by his son John Theodore Tussaud (b. 1859). The exhibition was moved in 1884 to a large building in Marylebone Road. TUSSER, THOMAS (c. 1524-1580), English poet, son of William and Isabella Tusser, was born at Rivenhall, Essex, about 1524. At a very early aige he became a chorister in the collegiate chapel of the castle of Wallingford, Berkshire. He appears to have been pressed for service in the King's Chapel, the choristers of which were usually afterwards placed by the king in one of the royal foundations at Oxford or Cambridge. But Tusser entered the choir of St Paul's Cathedral, and from there went to Eton College. He has left a quaint account of his privations at Wallingford, and of the severities of Nicholas Udal at Eton. He was elected to King's College, Cambridge, in 1543, a date which has fixed the earliest limit of his birth- year, as he would have been ineligible at nineteen. From King's College he moved to Trinity Hall, and on leaving Cam- bridge went to court in the service of William, ist Baron Paget of Beaudesart, as a musician. After ten years of life at court, he married and settled as a farmer at Cattiwade, Suffolk, near the river Stour, where he wrote his Hundreth Good Pointes of Husbandrie (1557, 1561, 1562, &c.). He never remained long in one place. For his wife's health he removed to Ipswich. After her death he married again, and farmed for some time at West Dereham. He then became a singing man in Norwich Cathedral, where he found a good patron in the dean, John Salisbury. After another experiment in farming at Fairsted, Essex, he removed to London, whence he was driven by the plague of 1572-1573 to find refuge at Trinity Hall, being matri- culated as a servant of the college in 1573. At the time of his death he was in possession of a small estate at Chesterton, Cambridgeshire, and his will proves that he was not, as has sometimes been stated, in poverty of any kind, but had in some measure the thrift he preached. Thomas Fuller says he " traded at large in oxen, sheep, dairies, grain of all kinds, to no profit"; that he " spread his bread with all sorts of butter, yet none would stick thereon." He died on the 3rd of May 1580. An erroneous inscription at Manningtree, Essex, asserts that he was sixty-five years old. The Hundreth Good Pointes was enlarged to A Hundreth good pointes of husbandry, lately tnaried unto a hundreth good poyntes of huswifery . . . the first extant edition of which, " newly corrected and amplified," is dated 1570. In 1573 appeared Five hundreth pointes of good husbandry . . . (reprinted 1577, 1580, 1585, 1586, 1590, &c.). The numerous editions of this book, which contained a metrical autobiography, prove that the homely and practical wisdom of Tusser's verse was appreciated. He gives directions of what is to be done in the farm in every month of the year, and minute instruc- tions for the regulation of domestic affairs in general. The later editions include A dialogue of wyvynge and thryvynge (1562). Modern editions are by William Mavor (1812), by H. M. W. (1848), and by W. Payne and Sidney J. Herrtage for the English Dialect Society (1878). TUTBURY, a town in the Burton parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, 4$ m. N.W. of Burton-upon-Trent, picturesquely situated on the river Dove, a western tributary of the Trent, which forms the county boundary with Derby- shire. Pop. (1901), 1971. The station of the Great Northern and North Staffordshire railways is in Derbyshire. The fine church of St Mary has a nave of rich Norman work with a re- markable western doorway; there are Early English additions, and the apsidal chancel is a modern imitation of that style. There are ruins of a large castle standing high above the valley; these include a gateway of 14th-century work, strengthened in Caroline times, a wall enclosing the broad " Tilt Yard," and portions of dwelling rooms. Glass is the staple manufacture. Alabaster is found in the neighbourhood. The early history of Tutbury (Toteberie, Stutesbury, Tultebiri, Tudbury) is very obscure. It is said to have been a seat of the Mercian kings. After the Conquest it was granted to Hugh d'Avranches, who appears to have built the first castle there. At the time of the Domesday Survey the castle was held by Henry de Ferrers, and " in the borough round it were 42 men living by their merchandize alone." Tutbury was the centre of an honour in Norman times, but the town remained small and unimportant, the castle and town continuing in the hands of the Ferrers until 1266, when, owing to Robert de Ferrers's participation in the barons' revolt, they were forfeited to the Crown and granted to Edmund Crouchback, earl of Lancaster. They are still part of the duchy of Lancaster. Tutbury Castle was partially rebuilt by John of Gaunt, whose wife, Constance of Castile, kept her court there. Later it was, for a time, the prison of Mary Queen of Scots. During the Civil War it was held for the king but surrendered to the parliamentary forces (1646), and was reduced to ruins by order of parliament (1647). Richard III. granted to the inhabitants of Tutbury two fairs, to be held respectively on St Katharine's day and the feast of the Invention of the Cross; the fair on the isth of August was famous until the end of the i8th century for its bull coursing, said to have been originally introduced by John of Gaunt. In 1831 a large treasure of English silver coins of the i3th and i4th centuries was discovered in the bed of the river, and a series was placed in the British Museum. This treasure was believed to have been lost by Thomas, the rebellious earl of Lancaster, who was driven from Tutbury Castle by Edward II. in 1322. See Mosley, History of Castle, Priory and Town of Tutbury (1832) ; Victoria County History : Stafford. TUTICORIN, a seaport of British India in the Tinnevelly district of Madras. Pop. (1901), 28,048. It is the southern terminus of the South Indian railway, 443 m. S.W. of Madras city. In connexion with this railway a daily steamer runs to Colombo, 149 m. distant by sea. Tuticorin is an old town, long in possession of the Dutch, and has a large Roman Catholic population. It used to be famous for its pearl fisheries, which extended from Cape Comorin to the Pamban Channel between India and Ceylon; but owing to the deepening of the Pamban Channel in 1895 these banks no longer produce the pearl oysters in such remunerative quantities, though conch shells are still found and exported to Bengal. As a set-off to this, Tuticorin has advanced greatly as a port since the opening of the railway in 1875, though it has only an open roadstead, where vessels must anchor two and a half miles from the shore; it is the second port in Madras and the sixth in all India. The exports are chiefly rice and livestock to Ceylon, cotton., tea, coffee and spices. There are factories for ginning and pressing cotton and a cotton mill. TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, lueri, to watch over, protect), properly a legal term, borrowed from Roman law, for a guar- dian of an infant (see ROMAN LAW and INFANT). Apart from this usage, which survives particularly in Scots law, the word is chiefly current in an educational sense of a teacher or in- structor. It is thus specifically applied to a fellow of a college at a university with particular functions, connected espe- cially with the supervision of the undergraduate members of the college. These functions differ in various universities. Thus, at Oxford, a fellow, who is also a tutor, besides lecturing, or taking his share of the general teaching, of the college, has the supervision and responsibility for a certain number of the undergraduates during their period of residence; at Cambridge the tutor has not necessarily any teaching functions to perform, but is more concerned with the economic and social welfare of the pupils assigned to his care. In American universities the term is applied to a teacher who is subordinate to a professor, his appointment being for a year or a term of years. TUTTLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wtirt- temberg, on the left bank of the Danube, which is here crossed by a bridge, 37 m. by rail N.E. of Schaffhausen, and at the TUXEDO— TVER 489 junction of lines to Stuttgart and Ulm. Pop. (1905), 14,627. The town is overlooked by the ruins of the castle of Honberg, which was destroyed during the Thirty Years' War, and has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, several schools, and a monument to Max Schneckenburger (1819-1849), the author of Die Wacht am Rhein. Its chief manufactures are shoes, cutlery, surgical instruments and woollen goods, and it has a trade in fruit and grain. Tuttlingen is a very ancient place, and is chiefly memorable for the victory gained here on the 24th of November 1643 by the Austrians and Bavarians over the French. It was almost totally destroyed by fire in 1803. It has belonged to Wiirt- temberg since 1404. TUXEDO, a town of Orange county, New York, U.S.A., about 40 m. N.N.W. of New York City, near the New Jersey state line. Pop. (1890), 1678; (1900), 2277; (1905), 2865; (1910), 2858. Tuxedo is served by the Erie railway. About 15 m. west of the railway station is Tuxedo Lake, which with 13,000 acres of surrounding country was taken for debt in 1814 by the elder Pierre Lorillard, who built a shooting-box here and sold wood from the land. The second Pierre Lorillard (1833-1901) formed the Tuxedo Park Association for the development of the tract, and on the ist of June 1886 the Tuxedo Club and Tuxedo Park were opened; here there has grown up a remarkable collection of private establishments for the enjoyment of country life by certain wealthy families, who form a social club to whom the privileges are restricted. The area covers a variety of wild and cultivated scenery, and is beautifully laid out and utilized; there are golf links, a tennis and racket club, and game preserves, with excellent trout and bass fishing in the lake. TUY, a city of north-western Spain, in the province of Ponte- vedra, on the right bank of the river Mifio (Portuguese Minho), opposite Valenfa do Minho, which stands on the left bank in Portuguese territory. Pop. (1900), 11,113. Tuy is the southern terminus of the railways to Santiago de Compostela and Corunna; Valenga do Minho is the northern terminus of the Portuguese railway to Oporto. Near Tuy rises the Monte San Cristobal, whose far-spreading spurs constitute the fertile and picturesque Vega del Oro. To the east is the river Louro, a right-hand tributary of the Mino abounding in salmon, trout, lamprey, eels and other fishes; and beyond the Louro, on the railway to Corunna, are the hot mineral springs of San Martin de Caldelas. Tuy is a clean and pleasant city with well-built houses, regular streets and many gardens. The cathedral, founded in the I2th century, but largely restored between the 15th and igth, is of a massive and fortress-like architecture. Its half-ruined cloister and noble eastern facade date from the i4th century. There are several large convents and ancient parish churches, an old episcopal palace, hospitals, good schools, a theatre, and a very handsome bridge over the Mino built in 1885. The industries of Tuy include tanning, brewing, the distillation of spirits and the manufacture of soap. The city has also a brisk agricultural trade. During part of the 7th century Tuy was the Visigothic capital. It was taken from the Moors by Alphonso VII. in the i2th century. As a frontier fortress it played an important part in the wars between Portugal and Castile. TVER, a government of central Russia, on the upper Volga, bounded by the governments of Pskov and Novgorod on the W. and N. respectively, Yaroslavl and Vladimir on the E. and Moscow and Smolensk on the S. It has an area of 24,967 sq. m. Lying on the southern slope of the Valdai plateau, and intersected by deep valleys, it has the aspect of a hilly region, but is in reality a plateau 800 to 1000 ft. in altitude. Its highest parts are in the west, where the Volga, Southern Dvina and Msta rise in marshes and lakes. The plateau is built up chiefly of Carboniferous limestones, Lower and Upper, underlain by Devonian and Silurian deposits, which crop out only in the denudations of the lower valleys. The whole is covered by a thick sheet of boulder-clay, the bottom-moraine of the Scan- dinavo-Russian ice-sheet, and by subsequent Lacustrine deposits. A number of dsar or eskers occur on the slopes of the plateau. Ochre, brick, and pottery clays, as also lime- stone for building, are obtained, and there are chalybeate springs. The soil, which is clayey for the most part, is not fertile as a rule. Nearly the whole of Tver is drained by the upper Volga and its tributaries, several of which (Vazuza, Dubna, Sestra, Tvertsa and the tributaries of the Mologa) are navigable. The Vyshnevol- otsk system of canals connects the Volga (navigable some 60 m. from its source) with the Baltic, and the Tikhvin system connects the Mologa with Lake Ladoga. The Msta, which flows into Lake Ilmen, and its tributary the Tsna drain Tver in the north-west, and the Southern Dvina rises in Ostashkov. This network of rivers highly favours navigation: corn, linseed, spirits, flax, hemp, timber, metals and manufactured wares to the annual value of £1,500,000 are shipped from, or brought to, the river ports of the government. Lakes, ponds and marshes are numerous in the west and north-west, Lake Seliger — near the source of the Volga — and Lake Mztino being the most important. The forests — coniferous in the north and deciduous in the south — are rapidly disappearing, but still cover 32 % of the surface. The climate is continental ; the average yearly temperature at Tver (41 "-5 F.) is the same as that of Orel and Tambov (Jan. 11°, July 67°). The population was estimated in 1906 as 2,053,000, almost entirely Great Russian, but including about 117,700 Karelians. The government is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns of which are Tver, Byezhetsk, Kalyazin, Kashin, Kor- sheva, Ostashkov, Rzhev, Staritsa, Torzhok, Vesyegonsk, Vyshniy Volochok and Zubtsov. Nearly 2,000,000 acres are under cereals. The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. The sowing of grass is spreading, owing to the efforts of the zemstws or local councils, and improved machinery is being introduced. Livestock breeding is also important, and dairy produce is exported. Manufactures have grown rapidly. Cotton-mills, flour-mills, tanneries, sugar-refineries, iron-foundries and distilleries are the chief establishments. The government of Tver is also the seat of important village industries, of which a remarkable variety is carried on, nearly every district and even every village having its own speciality. The principal of these are weaving, lace-making, boat-building, and the making of boots, saddlery, coarse pottery, sacks, nets, wooden wares, nails, locks, other hardware and agricultural implements and felt goods. TVER, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 104 m. by rail N.W. of Moscow, on both banks of the Volga (here crossed by a floating bridge) at its confluence with the Tvertsa. The low right bank is protected from inun- dations by a dam. Pop. (1885), 39,280; (1900), 45,644. Tver is an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church. The oldest church dates from 1564, and the cathedral from 1689. A public garden occupies the site of the former fortress. The city possesses a good archaeological museum, housed in a former imperial palace. The industries have developed greatly, espe- cially those in cotton, the chief works being cotton and flour mills, but there are also machinery works, glass works, saw- mills, tanneries, railway carriage works and a steamer-building wharf. Among the domestic industries are nail-making and the manufacture of hosiery for export to Moscow and St Peters- burg. The traffic of the town is considerable, Tver being an intermediate place for the trade of both capitals with -the governments of the upper Volga. Tver dates its origin from 1180, when a fort was erected at the mouth of the Tvertsa to protect the Suzdal principality against Novgorod. In the i3th century it became the capital of an independent principality, and remained so until the end of the 1 5th century. Michael, prince of Tver, was killed (1318) fight- ing against the Tatars, as also was Alexander his son. It long remained an open question whether Moscow or Tver would ultimately gain the supremacy in Great Russia, and it was only with the help of the Tatars that the princes of the former eventually succeeded in breaking down the independence of Tver. In 1486, when the city was almost entirely burned down by the Muscovites, the son of Ivan III. became prince of Tver; the final annexation to Moscow followed four years later. In 1570 Tver had to endure, for some reason now 490 TWAIN, MARK— TWEED difficult to understand, the vengeance of Ivan the Terrible, who ordered the massacre of 90,000 inhabitants of the principality. In 1609-1612 the city was plundered both by the followers of the second false Demetrius and by the Poles. TWAIN, MARK, the nom de plume of SAMUEL LANG- HORNE CLEMENS (1835-1910), American author, who was born on the 3oth of November 1835, at Florida, Missouri. His father was a country merchant from Tennessee, who moved soon after his son's birth to Hannibal, Missouri, a little town on the Mississippi. When the boy was only twelve his father died, and thereafter he had to get his education as best he could. Of actual schooling he had little. He learned how to set type, and as a journeyman printer he wandered widely, going even as far east as New York. At seventeen he went back to the Mississippi, determined to become a pilot on a river- steamboat. In his Life on the Mississippi he has recorded graphically his experiences while " learning the river." But in 1861 the war broke out, and the pilot's occupation was gone. After a brief period of uncertainty the young man started West with his brother, who had been appointed lieutenant- governor of Nevada. He went to the mines for a season, and there he began to write in the local newspapers, adopting the pen name of " Mark Twain," from a call used in taking soundings on the Mississippi steamboats. He drifted in time to San Francisco, and it was a newspaper of that city which in 1867 supplied the mcney for him to join a party going on a chartered steamboat to the Mediterranean ports. The letters which he wrote during this voyage were gathered in 1869 into a volume, The Innocents Abroad, and the book immediately won a wide and enduring popularity. This popularity was of service to him when he appeared on the platform with a lecture — or rather with an apparently informal talk, rich in admirably delivered anecdote. He edited a daily newspaper in Buffalo for a few months, and in 1870 he married Miss Olivia L. Langdon (d. 1904), removing a year later to Hartford, where he established his home. Roughing It was published in 1872, and in 1874 he collaborated with Charles Dudley Warner in The Gilded Age, from which he made a play, acted many hundred times with John T. Raymond as " Colonel Sellers." In 1875 he published The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, the sequel to which, Huckleberry Finn, did not appear until 1884. The result of a second visit to Europe was humorously recorded in A Tramp Abroad (1880), followed in 1882 by a more or less historical romance, The Prince and the Pauper; and a year later came Life on the Mississippi. The Adventures of Huckle- berry Finn, the next of his books, was published (in 1884) by a New York firm in which the author was chief partner. This firm prospered for a while, and issued in 1889 Mark Twain's own comic romance, A Connecticut Yankee at King Arthur's Court, and in 1892 a less successful novel, The American Claimant. But after a severe struggle the publishing house failed, leaving the author charged with its very heavy debts. After this disaster he issued a third Mississippi Valley novel, The Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson, in 1894, and in 1896 another historical romance, Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc, wherein the maid is treated with the utmost sympathy and reverence. He went on a tour round the world, partly to make money by lecturing and partly to get material for another book of travels, published in 1897, and called in America Following the Equator, and in England More Tramps Abroad. From time to time he had collected into volumes his scattered sketches; of these the first, The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, appeared in 1867, and the latest, The Man that Cor- rupted Hadleyburg, in 1900. To be recorded also is a volume of essays and literary criticisms, How to Tell a Story (1897). A complete edition of his works was published in twenty-two volumes in 1890-1900 by the American Publishing Company of Hartford. And in this last year, having paid off all the debts of his old firm, he returned to America. By the time he died his books had brought him a considerable fortune. In later years he published a few minor volumes of fiction, and a series of severe and also amusing criticisms of Christian Science (pub- lished as a book in 1907), and in 1906 he began an autobiography in the North American Review. He had a great reception in England in 1907, when he went over to receive from Oxford the degree of Doctor of Literature. He died at Redding, Connecticut, on the 2ist of April 1910. Of his four daughters only one, who married the Russian pianist Gabrilowitch, sur- vived him. Mark Twain was an outstanding figure for many years as a popular American personality in the world of letters. He is commonly considered as a humorist, and no doubt he is a humorist of a remarkable comic force and of a refreshing fertility. But the books in which his humour is broadly displayed, the travels and the sketches, are not really so significant of his power as the three novels of the Mississippi, Tom Sawyer, Huckleberry Finn and Pudd'nhead Wilson, wherein we have preserved a vanished civilization, peopled with typical figures, and presented with inexorable veracity. There is no lack of humour in them, and there is never a hint of affecta- tion in the writing; indeed, the author, doing spontaneously the work nearest to his hand, was very likely unconscious that he was making a contribution to history. But such Huckleberry Finn is, beyond all question; it is a story of very varied interest, now comic, now almost tragic, frequently poetic, unfailingly truthful, although not always sustained at its highest level. And in these three works of fiction there are not only humour and pathos, character and truth, there is also the largeness of outlook on life such as we find only in the works of the masters. Beneath his fun-making we can discern a man who is fundamentally serious, and whose ethical standards are ever lofty. Like Cervantes at times, Mark Twain reveals a depth of melancholy beneath his playful humour, -and like Moliere always, he has a deep scorn and a burning detestation of all sorts of sham and pretence, a scorching hatred of humbug and hypocrisy. Like Cervantes and like Moliere, he is always sincere and direct. After Mark Twain's death, his intimate friend, W. D. Howells, published in 1910 a series of personal recollections in Harper's Magazine. (B. M.) TWEED, a river in the south of Scotland. It rises in the south-west corner of Peeblesshire, not far from the Devil's Beef Tub (in Dumfriesshire) in the hill country in which the Clyde and Annan also rise. The stream flowing from Tweed's Wall, about 1500 ft. above the sea, is generally regarded as its source, though its origin has been traced to other streams at a still higher elevation. For the first 36 m. of its course the stream intersects the shire of Peebles in a north-easterly direction, and, shortly before the county town is reached, receives Lyne Water on the left and Manor Water on the right. The valley now widens, and the river, bending towards the south-east, passes Innerleithen, where it receives the Leithen (left) and the Quair (right). It then crosses Selkirkshire and, having received the Ettrick (reinforced by the Yarrow) on the right, flows northward past Abbotsford, forming for about 2 m. the boundary between the counties of Selkirk and Roxburgh. After receiving the Gala on the left, the Tweed crosses the north-western corner of Roxburghshire past Mel- rose and, after being joined by the Leader on the left, winds past Dryburgh Abbey round the south-western corner of Berwickshire. The remainder of its course is in a north-easterly direction through Roxburghshire past Kelso, where it receives the Teviot on the right, and then between the counties of Berwick and Northumberland, past Coldstream, to the town of Berwick, where it enters the North Sea. On the left it receives Eden Water at Edenmouth and Leet Water at Cold- stream, and the Till from Northumberland between Cold- stream and Norham Castle. The last 2 m. of its course before reaching Berwick are in England. The Tweed is 97 m. long and drains an area of 1870 sq. m. Its bed is pebbly and sandy, and notwithstanding discolorations from manu- factures, the stream, owing to its clear and sparkling appear- ance, still merits the epithet of the " silver Tweed." The river, however, has no estuary, and traffic is chiefly confined to Berwick, though for a short distance above the town some TWEEDDALE— TWICKENHAM 49 1 navigation is carried on by barges. The Tweed is one of the best salmon streams in Scotland. From the time of Kenneth the Grim (d. 1005) to that of James VI. (1600) the Tweed uplands were the favourite hunting ground of the Scots monarchs, and, at a later date, the Covenanters found refuge in the recesses of the hills and on the banks of Talla Water, an early right-hand affluent. Close to Stobo Castle is Stobo Kirk, the mother-church of the district, founded by St Kentigern and probably the oldest ecclesiastical building in Tweeddale, a mixture of Saxon, Norman and modern Gothic. See Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Scottish Rivers (1874); Professor John Veitch, The Rtver Tweed (1884); Rev. W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country (1892). TWEEDDALE, MARQUESSES OF. JOHN HAY, 2ND EARL and IST MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1626-1697), was the eldest son of John, 8th Lord Hay of Yester (c. 1599-1654), created earl of Tweeddale in 1646, who was the grandson of William Lord Hay of Yester (d. 1576), one of the partisans of Mary Queen of Scots, and thus a descendant of John Hay of Yester (Haddingtonshire) who was created a lord of the Scottish parliament in 1488 and died about 1500. Before succeeding to the peerage in 1654 the second earl fought for Charles I. during the Civil War, but he soon transferred his allegiance, and was in the Scottish ranks at Marston Moor. Changing sides again, he was with the royalists at Preston; but he was a member of Cromwell's parliament in 1656, and was imprisoned just after the restoration of Charles II. He was soon, however, in the king's favour, and in 1663 was appointed president of the Scottish council, and in 1664 an extraordinary lord of session. In Scotland he sought to mitigate the harshness shown by the English government to the Covenanters, and for this attitude he was dismissed from his offices in 1674; but he regained an official position in 1680 and held it during the reign of James II. A supporter of William of Orange, he was made lord high chancellor of Scotland in 1692, and two years later was created marquees of Tweeddale and earl of Gifford. He favoured the scheme for the expedition to Darien, and as lord high commissioner during William's absence he formally assented to the act establishing the trading company in 1695; for this action he was dismissed from office when the king returned to England in 1696. He died on the nth of August 1697. His son JOHN, 2ND MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1645-1713), was prominent in Scottish politics during the stormy period which preceded the union with England. After acting for a time with the national party he became the leader of the squadrone volante, a band of men who at first took up an inde- pendent attitude on the question, but afterwards supported the union. For a very short time he was lord chancellor of Scotland, and he was one of the first of the Scottish represen- tative peers. He died on the 2oth of April 1713. His eldest son, CHARLES (c. 1670-1715), became 3rd marquess; a younger son, Lord JOHN HAY (d. 1706), commanded the famous regiment of dragoons, afterwards called the Scots Greys, at the battle of Ramillies and elsewhere. JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762), eldest son of the 3rd marquess, was chief secretary of state for Scot- land from 1742 to 1746 and extraordinary lord of session from 1721 until his death. In six parliaments he was a representa- tive peer for Scotland; he was for a time keeper of the king's signet, and in 1761 he was made lord-justice-generaJ. He died on the 9th of December 1762. His brother, Lord CHARLES HAY (d. 1760), was the soldier who displayed great coolness when suddenly brought face to face with some French troops at Fontenoy, requesting the enemy, so Voltaire's account runs, to fire first. The family of the 4th marquess became extinct when GEORGE, the sth marquess, died on the 4th of October 1770; and GEORGE, a son of the 3rd marquess, succeeded to the title. When he died unmarried on the i6th of November 1787 the marquessate passed to a kinsman, GEORGE (1733-1804), a descendant of the 2nd marquess, who became 7th marquess. GEORGE, STH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876), son of the preceding, succeeded in August 1804. He fought in the Peninsular War, being wounded at the battles of Busaco and Vittoria, and then in America; and he attained the rank of a field marshal in 1875. From 1842 to 1848 he was governor and commander-in-chief of Madras, but his later life was mainly spent at Yester, where he showed a very practical interest in agriculture. He died on the loth of October 1876. His son, ARTHUR (1824-1878), who became gth marquess, was an ornithologist of repute and a soldier who served in India and the Crimea. His ornithological works were published privately in 1881 by his nephew, Captain R. E. W. Ramsay, with a memoir by Dr W. H. Russell. His successor was his brother, WILLIAM MONTAGU (b. 1826), who, after sitting in the House of Commons for thirteen years, was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Tweeddale in 1881. TWEEZERS, a small instrument like a pair of tongs, used for picking up minute objects, extracting thorns or splinters from the flesh, &c. Etymologically a " tweezer " is an instru- ment contained in a " tweeze " or a small case containing several instruments, " tweeze " being a plural form of " twee," an adaptation of French etui, a sheath-case or box to put things in. Why one particular instrument out of the case should be called " tweezers " is not certain; Skeat suggests a possible connexion of ideas with the obsolete " twich," " twitch " (Ger. zwicken, to nip, fasten, Eng. " tweak "), or reference may be made to the M. Eng. twisel or twissel, a pair of objects (twi-, two). The derivation of the French etui (O. Fr. estuy) is doubtful. Cog- nate forms are Span, estuche, Port, estojo, Ital. astuccio, formerly stuccio or stucchio, all with the same meaning of a small case for instruments such as scissors, knife, &c. Skeat supports Diez in his connexion with the modern German dialect Stauche, cuff, that part of the sleeve where such small objects were carried. Others connect the word with Lat. studium, a place where one studies, hence a place where objects of study are carried, a somewhat far-fetched sense development. TWELVE TABLES, the tables of wood on which was engraved or painted the earliest codification of the Roman law. Origi- nally ten in number, two others were afterwards added, con- taining supplemental matter, and the whole code was termed the Lex XII. Tabularum (Law of the Twelve Tables). (See ROMAN LAW and ROME.) TWENTY-FOUR PARGANAS, THE, a district of British India, in the presidency division of Bengal, with an area of 4844 sq. m. It occupies part of the Gangetic delta, east of the Hugli, surrounding (but not including) the city of Calcutta. It also includes the greater part of the almost uninhabited Sundarbans (q.v.). The administrative headquarters are at Alipur, a southern suburb of Calcutta. The country consists for the most part of a vast alluvial plain, and is everywhere watered by numerous branches of the Ganges. In 1901 the population was 2,078,359, showing an increase of 10 % in the decade. Rice is the staple crop, followed by jute, pulses and sugar-cane. The district is traversed by three railways, two of which terminate at the ports of Diamond Harbour and Port Canning, but numerous river channels are still the chief means of communication. Apart from the suburbs of Calcutta, there is hardly a single real town. But round Calcutta all the manufactures of a great city are to be found, principally jute mills and jute presses, cotton mills and paper mills, and also government factories for rifles and ammunition. The Twenty-four Parganas form the tract of which the zamindari or landlord rights were granted to the East India Company after the battle of Plassey, while the revenue arising therefrom was conferred upon Clive, upon whose death it reverted to the company. TWICKENHAM, an urban district in the Brentford parlia- mentary division of Middlesex, England, 12 m. W.S.W. of St Paul's Cathedral, London, on the river Thames. Pop. (1891), 16,027; (JO01)? 20,991. Its situation is pleasant, and it has grown into an extensive residential district. The body of the church of St Mary was rebuilt in brick after its collapse 492 TWILIGHT— TWISS, H. in 1713, but the Perpendicular tower remains. Among men of eminence buried here are Alexander Pope and Sir Godfrey Kneller. The Thames in this neighbourhood forms a long deep reach in favour with fishermen, and Eel Pie Island is a resort of boating parties. There are many fine houses in the vicinity, more than one possessing historical associations. Strawberry Hill, the residence of Horace Walpole, was built to his taste in a medley of Gothic styles. Marble Hill was erected by George II. for the countess of Suffolk, and Pope, Swift and Gay took part in its equipment. Orleans House was the residence in 1800 of Louis Philippe, then duke of Orleans, and this family again acquired it in 1852, when it was occupied by the duke of Aumale. Several eminent French refugees resided at this period in the neighbourhood. In 1700 the young duke of Gloucester, son of Queen Anne, died here. York House was given to Lord Clarendon by Charles II., was probably the occasional residence of James II. when duke of York, and in 1864 was occupied by the comte de Paris, nephew of the duke of Aumale. Twickenham House was the residence of Sir John Hawkins, author of the History of Music, and Twicken- ham Park House, no longer standing, that of Lord Chancellor Bacon. Pope's Villa was replaced by another building after his death, but the tunnel which connected his garden and house beneath a road, and was ornamented by him as a grotto, remains. Other eminent residents were Turner, who occupied Sandy- combe Lodge, and painted many of his famous works here, Henry Fielding the novelist, and Tennyson. Kneller Hall, the house built by Kneller (1711), was converted into a training college for masters of workhouse schools in 1847, and in 1856 became the Royal Military School of Music. Twickenham at the Domesday survey was included in Isle- worth. Anciently it was called Twittenham or Twicanham, and the first form, or a variation of it, is used by both Pope and Walpole. The manor was given in 941 by King Edmund to the monks of Christ Church, Canterbury, from whom it had been previously taken, but it was again alienated, for it was restored to the same monks by Edred in 948. In the reign of Henry VIII. it came into the possession of the Crown, and by Charles I. was assigned to Henrietta Maria as part of her jointure. It was sold during the Protectorate, but after the Restoration the queen mother resumed possession of it. In 1670 it was settled for life on Catherine of Braganza, queen of Charles II. It remains in possession of the Crown, but since the death of Catherine has been let on leases. The old manor house, now demolished, was Catherine's residence; and had been, according to tradition, the place of the retirement of Catherine of Aragon after her divorce from Henry VIII. TWILIGHT, formerly known as Crepusculum (a Latin word meaning dusky or obscure), properly the interval during which the atmosphere is illuminated after the setting of the sun. The analogous phenomenon in the morning, i.e. the interval between the first appearance of light and the rising of the sun, is known as the dawn. These phenomena are due to the light of the sun after refraction by the atmosphere being reflected to the observer by the clouds, dust, and other adventitious matter present in the atmosphere. Even in the early infancy of astronomy, the duration of twilight was associated with the position of the sun below the horizon, and measurements were made to de- termine the maximum vertical depression of the sun which admitted the phenomena. This was found by Alhazen, Tycho Brahe and others, to be about 18°, and although other observers obtained somewhat different values, yet this value is now generally admitted. The duration of twilight is therefore measured by the time in which the sun traverses an arc of 1 8° of vertical depression, and primarily depends on the latitude of the observer and the declination of the sun. It is subject to several minor variations, occasioned by the variable amount of dust, clouds, &c. suspended in the air; and also on the temperature, which alters the altitude of the reflecting particles; thus at the same place and on the same day, the morning twilight or dawn is generally shorter than the evening twilight. The duration and possibility of twilight may be geometrically exhibited as follows: Let O be the position of the observer (fig. l) ; Z, the zenith; P, the pole of the heavens; ADB, the plane of the horizon; EOF, the path of the sun. Let the circles ADB and FDE intersect in the points D and DI; then these points correspond to the rising and setting of the sun. Now 'twilight prevails from sunrise or sunset until the sun is depressed through 18°; hence if we draw arcs ZC and ZCi equal to 1 08°, and terminating on the circle FDE at C and Ci, then the arcs DC and' Did represent the distance traversed by the sun during the twilight. Also it may be observed FIG. i. that CiEC represents the path of the sun during the night, and DFDi during the day. The arc CD is readily determined by spherical trigonometry. For, join CP by an arc of a great circle; then in the triangle ZPC we know ZP (the colatitude of O) ; PC (the sun's polar distance) and ZC ( = 108° by construction). Hence the angle ZPC, the sun's hour angle, may be found; this gives the time before or after noon when the sun passes C. The times of sunrise and sunset being known, then the arcs DC and DiQ (and the duration of dawn and twilight) are determined. So far we have considered the case when the sun does attain a depression of 18°, but it is equally possible for this depression not to be attained. To investigate this, take ZG equal to 108°. Now if G lies beyond B and E (the maximum depression of the sun), E being also below B, then the sun will rise and set, but never descend so low as to occasion true night, and the entire interval between sunrise and sunset will be twilight. If E be not below B but above it, the sun will never descend below the horizon, and will neither rise nor set, and we are presented with the phenomenon known as the midnight sun. Since PE=9O° — sun's declination, and PG = latitude of observer + 18°, then it follows that for there to be no night the latitude of the ob- server together with the declination of the sun must lie between 90° and 72°. The maximum declination of the sun is about 23° 30', and hence in latitude 48° 30' there will be one day without a true night; in higher latitudes there will be an increasing number of such days; and in lower latitudes none. In England there is no real night from about the 22nd of May till the 22nd of July. The phenomenon known as the after-glow, or second twilight, has been referred to a second reflection of the solar rays in the atmosphere. TWILL (connected with " two "), a woven cloth in which the passage of the weft is arranged, not in regular suc- cession as in plain weaving, but over one thread and under two or more according to the kind of twill. This gives a suc- cession of diagonal lines to the cloth, and though in the normal type of twill this diagonal traverses from selvage to selvage at an angle of 45°, considerable variations may be made. Twills may be stout and serviceable cloths, though, theoreti- cally, it would seem that the strain of wear on the threads that compose the cloth is necessarily irregular. The twill or dia- gonal may run either from left to right or vice versa. Twills are made in most kinds of cloths — silk, woollen, cotton, &c. TWINING, THOMAS (1735-1804), English classical scholar, was born at Twickenham on the 8th of January 1734-1735. The son of Daniel Twining, tea merchant of London, he was originally intended for a commercial life, but his distaste for it and his fondness for study decided his father to send him to the university. He entered Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge (fellow, 1760), took orders, and after his marriage in 1764 spent the remainder of his life at Fordham (Essex) and Colchester, where he died on the 6th of August 1804. His reputation as a classical scholar was established by his translation, with notes, of Aristotle's Poetics (1789). Twining was also an accomplished musician, and assisted Charles Burney in his History of Music. Selections from his correspondence will be found in Recreations and Studies of a Country Clergyman of the Eighteenth Century (1882) and Selections from Papers of the Twining Family (1887), edited by his grand-nephew (Richard Twining) ; see also Gentleman's Magazine, Ixxiv. 490, and J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, vol. iii. (1908). TWISS, HORACE (1787-1849), English writer and politician, was born at Bath, being the son of Francis Twiss (1760-1827), a Shakespearian scholar who married Mrs Siddons's sister, Fanny Kemble, and whose brother Richard (1747-1821) made a name as a writer of travels. Horace Twiss had a pretty wit, and as a young man wrote light articles for the papers; and, TWISS, SIR T.— TYBURN 493 going to the bar, he obtained a considerable practice and became a K.C. in 1827. In 1820 he was elected to parliament, where, with some interruptions, he sat till 1841, holding the office of under-secretary for war and the colonies in 1828-1830. In 1844 he was appointed vice-chancellor of the duchy of Lan- caster, a well-paid post which enabled him to enjoy his popu- larity in London society. For some years he wrote for The Times, in which he first compiled the parliamentary summary, and his daughter married first Francis Bacon (d. 1840) and then J. T. Delane, both of them editors of that paper. He was the author of the Life (1844) of Lord Eldon, and other volumes. He died suddenly in London on the 4th of May 1849. TWISS, SIR TRAVERS (1809-1897), English jurist, eldest son of the Rev. Robert Twiss, was born in London on the igth of March 1809. At University College, Oxford, he obtained a first-class in mathematics and a second in classics in 1830, and was elected a fellow of his college, of which he was after- wards successively bursar, dean and tutor. During his connexion with Oxford he was, inter alia, a public examiner in classics and mathematics, Drummond professor of political economy (1842), and regius professor of civil law (1855). After he had forfeited his fellowship by marriage, he was elected to an hono- rary fellowship of University College. He published while at Oxford an epitome of Niebuhr's History of Rome, an annotated edition of Livy and other works, but his studies mainly lay in the direction of political economy, law, chiefly international law, and international politics. In 1840 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and became an advocate at Doctors' Commons. In the ecclesiastical courts he enjoyed a large practice, and filled many of the appointments incidental thereto, such as commissary-general of the city and diocese of Canter- bury (1849), vicar-general to the archbishop (1852) and chancellor of the diocese of London (1858). He was professor of international law at King's College, London (1852-1855). In 1858, when the Probate and Divorce Acts of 1857 came into force, and the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of Doctors' Commons had passed away, Twiss, like many other leading advocates of Doctors' Commons, became a Q.C., and in the same year he was also elected a bencher of his Inn. His successful career continued in the civil courts, and in addition to his large practice he was appointed in 1862 advocate-generai to the admiralty, and in 1867 queen's advocate-general. In 1867 he was also knighted. He served during his legal career upon a great number of royal commissions, such as the Maynooth commission in 1854, and others dealing with marriage law, neutrality, naturalization and allegiance. His reputation abroad led to his being invited by the king of the Belgians in 1884 to draw up the constitution of the Congo Free State. In 1871 Twiss became involved in an unpleasant scandal, occasioned by allegations against the ante-nuptial conduct of his wife, whom he had married in 1862; and he threw up all his appointments and lived in retirement in London until his death on the i4th of January 1897, devoting himself to the study of international law and kindred topics. Among his more notable publications of this period were The Law of Nations in Peace and The Law of Nations in War, two works by which his reputation as a jurist will chiefly endure. TWYSDEN, SIR ROGER (1597-1672), English antiquary and royalist pamphleteer, belonging to an ancient Kentish family. His mother, Anne, was the daughter of Sir Moule Finch, and his father, Sir William Twysden, was a courtier and scholar who shared in some of the voyages against the Spaniards in the reign of Queen Elizabeth and was well known at the court of King James I. He was one of the first baronets. Roger Twysden was educated at St Paul's School, London, and then at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He entered Gray's Inn on the 2nd of February 1623. He succeeded to the baronetcy on his father's death in 1629. For some years he remained on his estate at Roydon, East Peckham, largely engaged in building and planting, but also in studying antiquities and the law of the constitution. The king's attempts to govern without a parliament, and the vexatious interference of his lawyers and clergy with the freedom of all classes of men, offended Sir Roger as they did most other country gentlemen. He showed his determination to stand on his rights by refusing to pay ship money, but, probably because the advisers of the Crown were frightened by the unpopularity of the impost, was not molested. He was chosen member of parliament for Kent in the Short Parliament of 1640, but was not elected to the Long Parliament. In common with most men of his class Sir Roger applauded the early measures of the parliament to restrict the king's prerogative, and then became alarmed when it went on to assail the Church. The attainder of Lord Strafford frightened him as a tyrannical use of power. He be- came in fact a very typical example of the men who formed the strength of the king's party when the sword was at last drawn. He considered himself too old to serve in the field, and therefore he did not join the king at Oxford. But he took the most prominent part in preparing the Kentish petition of March 1642 and in subsequent demonstrations on behalf of Charles. He incurred the wrath of the parliament, was arrested on the ist of April 1642, but was soon let out on bail, and on his promise to keep quiet. But his respect for legality would not let him rest, and he was soon in trouble again for another demonstration known as " The Instruction to Mr Augustine Skinner." For this he was again arrested and for a time confined in a public-house, called " The Two Tobacco Pipes," near Charing Cross, London. He was released with a distinct intimation that he would be well advised not to go back to Roydon Hall, but to keep out of temptation in London. He took the advice and applied himself to reading. One plan for going abroad was given up, but at last he endeavoured to escape in disguise, was detected, and brought back to London. He was now subjected to all the vexations inflicted on Royalist partisans of good property, sequestrations of his rents, fines for " malignancy," and confinement in the Tower, where he consoled himself with his books. At last he com- pounded in 1650 and went home, where he lived quietly till the Restoration, when he resumed his position as magistrate. He died on the 27th of June 1672. He published The Commons' Liberty (Lbndon, 1648), demonstrating that finings and imprisonings by parliament were illegal; Historiae anglicanae scriptores decem (London, 1652), a work encouraged by Cromwell; and Historical Vindication of the Church of England (London, 1657). TYBURN, a small left-bank tributary of the river Thames, England, now having its course entirely within London and below ground. The name, which also occurs as Aye-bourne, is of obscure derivation, though sometimes stated to signify Twy-burn, i.e. (the junction of) two burns or streams. The Tyburn rose at Hampstead and ran south, crossing Regent's Park, striking the head of the modern ornamental water there. Its course is marked by the windings of Marylebone Lane, the dip in Piccadilly where that thoroughfare borders the Green Park and at times by a line of mist across the park itself. It joined the Thames at Westminster (q.v.). But the name is more famous in its application to the Middlesex gallows, also called Tyburn Tree and Deadly Never Green, and also at an early period, the Elms, through confusion with the place of execution of that name at Smithfield. The Tyburn gallows stood not far from the modern Marble Arch. Connaught Square is said by several authorities to have been the exact site, but it appears that so long as the gallows was a permanent structure it stood at the junction of the present Edgware and Bayswater roads. The site, however, may have varied, for Tyburn was a place of execution as early as the end of the i2th century. In 1759, moreover, a movable gallows super- seded the permanent erection. On some occasions its two uprights and cross-beam .are said to have actually spanned Edgware Road. Round the gibbet were erected open galleries, the seats in which were let at high prices. Among those executed here were Perkin Warbeck (1449), the Holy Maid of Kent and confederates (1535), Haughton, last prior to the Charter- house (1535), John Felton, murderer of Villiers, duke of Buck- ingham (1628), Jack Sheppard (1724), Earl Ferrers (1760). 494 In 1661 the skeletons of Cromwell, Ireton and other regicides were hung upon the gallows. The last execution took place in 1783, the scene being thereafter transferred to Newgate. The Tyburn Ticket was a certificate given to a prosecutor of a felon on conviction, the first assignee of which was exempted by a statute of William III. from all parish and ward duties within the district. The hangman's halter was colloquially known in the i6th century as the Tyburn Tippet. See A. Marks, Tyburn Tree, its History and Annals (London, 1908). TYDEUS, in Greek legend, son of Oeneus, king of Calydon, and Periboea. Having slain his uncle (or other relatives) he fled for refuge to Argos, where Adrastus received him hospitably and purified him from the guilt of blood. Tydeus took part in the expedition of the " Seven against Thebes," in which, although small of stature, he greatly distinguished himself. In the desperate battle under the walls of the city, he was severely wounded by Melanippus, but managed to slay his adversary. Athena, who held Tydeus in special favour, hastened to the field of battle, to heal him of his wound and bestow immor- tality upon him. But the sight of Tydeus, cleaving open the skull of his dead enemy and sucking out his brains, so disgusted her that she left him to his fate. Tydeus married Deipyle, the daughter of Adrastus, by whom he had a son, the famous Diomedes, frequently called Tydides. Homer, Iliad, xiv. 1 14-132 ; Apollodorus iii. 6, 8 ; Schol. on Pindar, Nemea, x. 12. TYLDESLEY with SHAKERLEY, an urban district in the Leigh parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, n m. W.N.W. from Manchester by the London & North Western railway. Pop. (1901), 14,843. The town is of modern growth and depends upon its cotton mills and the large collieries in the neighbourhood. TYLER, JOHN (1790-1862), tenth president of the United States, was born at Greenway, Charles City county, Virginia, on the 29th of March 1790. He was the second son of John Tyler (1747-1813), governor of Virginia in 1808-1811 and United States district judge in 1812-1813. The family was of English descent, but the claim of relationship to the famous Wat Tyler, though always stoutly maintained by President Tyler, cannot be substantiated. John Tyler the younger entered the grammar- school of the College of William and Mary, at Williamsburg, in 1802, and graduated in 1807. Two years later he was admitted to the bar. His public life began in 1811, when he was elected a member of the Virginia House of Delegates. Here he served for five years, being chosen also in 1815 a mem- ber of the council of state. In 1813 he raised a company for the defence of Richmond against the British, serving sub- sequently in minor operations elsewhere. From December 1816 to March 1821 he was a member of the national House of Representatives. A Republican in politics, and a firm believer in the doctrines of strict construction and state sover- eignty which Thomas Jefferson had been principally instru- mental in formulating, he opposed consistently the demand for internal improvements and increased tariff duties, and declined to follow Henry Clay in the proposed recognition of the independence of the Spanish colonies in South America and in the Missouri Compromise legislation. For the conduct of Jackson in Florida, in the summary execution of Arbuthnot and Ambrister, he had only strong condemnation. He declined a re-election to the House in 1821. In 1823-1825 he was again a member of the Virginia House of Delegates, and in 1825- 1827 was governor of the state. In 1827 he was elected to the United States Senate to succeed John Randolph. In 1829- 1830 he also served as a member of the Virginia constitutional convention. His career as senator was marked by a degree of independence which at times made his party position uncer- tain, notwithstanding the fact that his political ideas continued to be those of a thoroughgoing strict constructionist. Believ- ing protective tariff duties to be unconstitutional, he voted against the " tariff of abominations " in 1828, and also against the tariff of 1832, since the latter measure, though reducing TYDEUS— TYLER, JOHN duties, showed no abandonment of the protective principle. The compromise tariff of 1833, made necessary by the hostile attitude of South Carolina, owed its inception largely to him, but he voted against the " force bill," an act for enforcing the collection of duties, being the only senator whose vote was so recorded. His hostility to a high tariff policy, however, did not prevent him from condemning the South Carolina ordinance of nullification; and in the presidential election of 1832 he supported Andrew Jackson, to whose political principles and methods, as to those of his advisers, he was invincibly opposed, as the " least objectionable " of the various candidates. The vigorous course of the president towards South Carolina, however, led him, after 1833, to act more and more with the opposition which presently became the Whig party; but he was never at heart a Whig, at least as Whig principles came later to be defined, and his place is with the Democrats of the Calhoun school. He sought to incorporate in a new code for the District of Columbia, in 1832, a prohibition of the slave trade in the district, at the same time opposing the aboli- tion of slavery there without the consent of Maryland and Virginia, which had originally ceded the district to the United States. In the controversy over the removal of the govern- ment deposits from the Bank of the United States he sided with the bank, and voted for Clay's resolution censuring Jack- son for his course in the matter. In 1833 he was again elected to the Senate, notwithstanding the criticism of his independent attitude and the wide approval of Jackson's policy in regard to the bank. In the election of 1836 he was supported as a candidate for the vice-presidency by the friends of Hugh L. White of Tennessee, the Democratic candidate opposed to Martin Van Buren, and received 47 votes, none of them from Virginia. When the legislature of Virginia voted instructions to its senators to support Senator Thomas H. Benton's resolu- tion expunging from the journal ot the Senate the resolution of censure, Tyler, though admitting the right of instruction, could not conscientiously obey the mandate, and on the 29th of February 1836 he resigned his seat. He was by this time reckoned a Whig, and his refusal to favour the Van Buren administration lent colour to that view. In 1838 he became once more a member of the Virginia House of Delegates, and in the same year was chosen president of the Virginia Coloni- zation Society, of which he had long been a vice-president. In 1839 he made an unsuccessful contest for the United States senatorship. In December of that year the Whigs, relying upon his record in Congress as a sufficient declaration of political faith, nominated him for vice-president on the ticket with William Henry Harrison, expecting that the nomination would win support for the party in the South. Harrison and Tyler each received 234 electoral votes and were elected. On the 4th of April 1841, one month after the inauguration, Harrison died, and Tyler became president. The detailed discussion of the events of his administration, 1841-1845, belongs to the history of the United States (see UNITED STATES: History). He retained Harrison's cabinet until his veto of the bill for a " fiscal corporation " led to the resignation of all the members except Daniel Webster, who was bringing to a close the negotiations with Lord Ashburton for the settlement of the north-eastern boundary dispute; and he not only opposed the recognition of the spoils system in appointments and removals, but kept at their posts some of the ablest of the ministers abroad. He stood, however, as it were, midway between the two great parties, without the leadership or support of either; Van Buren, whose influence in the practical working of politics was still great, refused to recognize him as a Democrat, and the Whigs repudiated him as a Whig; while with Clay leading the majority in Congress, harmony between that body and the executive was from the first impossible. The annexation of Texas, achieved just before the close of his administration, seemed to commend him for a second term on that issue, and in May 1844 he was renominated by a convention of Democrats, irre- gularly chosen, at Baltimore. The majority of the annexa- tionists, however, would not support him, and he had further TYLER, M. C.— TYLER, WAT 495 to meet the opposition of Van Buren, who had failed to secure the nomination in the regular Democratic convention, and of James K. Polk, the regular Democratic nominee. Tyler accepted the Baltimore nomination, but on the 2oth of August withdrew from the contest. From this time until the eve of the Civil War he held no public office, but his opinions on political questions continued to be sought, and he was much in demand as a speaker on public occasions. In December 1860, when South Carolina adopted its ordinance of secession, Tyler, though sympathizing with the state, took firm ground against disunion and exerted himself in behalf of peace. The legisla- ture of Virginia appointed him a commissioner to confer with President Buchanan and arrange, if possible, for the main- tenance of the status quo in the matter of Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbour; but his efforts were unavailing. He did not abate his activity, however, and the Peace Congress which assembled at Washington on the 4th of February 1861, pur- suant to a resolution of the Virginia legislature, and over which he presided, was largely the result of his labours. The con- stitutional amendment proposed by the conference, however, did not meet with his approbation, and his action in signing and transmitting the resolution to Congress was merely formal. On the I3th of February, while absent in Washington on this mission, he was elected to the Virginia convention at Rich- mond, and took his seat on the ist of March. In the conven- tion he advocated immediate secession as the only proper course under the circumstances. He continued to serve as a member of the convention until it adjourned in December, in the meantime acting as one of the commissioners to nego- tiate a temporary union between Virginia and the Confederate States of America. He was also a member of the provisional Confederate Congress from May 1861, when the capital of the Confederacy was removed from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond. He was elected a member of the House of Re- presentatives of the permanent Congress, but died on the i8th of January 1862, in Richmond, before that body assembled. President Tyler was twice married, first in 1813 to Miss Letitia Christian (1790-1842), and second in 1844 to Miss Julia Gardiner (1820-1889). His son, LYON GARDINER TYLER (b. 1853), graduated at the university of Virginia in 1875, and practised law at Richmond, Virginia, from 1882 to 1888, when he became president of the College of William and Mary. Among his publications, besides Letters and Times of the Tylers, are Parlies and Patronage in the United States (1890); Cradle of the Republic (1900); England in America (1906) in the " American Nation " series, and Williamsburg, the Old Colonial Capital (1908). The principal authority for the life of Tyler, aside from speeches, messages and other documents, is Lyon G. Tyler, Letters and Times of the Tylers (3 vols., Richmond, Va., 1884-1896). (W. MAC D.*) TYLER, MOSES COIT (1835-1900), American author, was born in Griswold, Connecticut, on the 2nd of August 1835. At an early age he removed with his parents to Detroit, Michi- gan. He entered the university of Michigan in 1853, but in the next year went to Yale College, from which he graduated A.B. in 1857, and received the degree of A.M. in 1863. He studied for the Congregational ministry at the Yale Divinity School (1857-1858) and at the Andover Theological Seminary (1858-1859), and held a pastorate at Owego, New York, in 1859-1860 and at Poughkeepsie in 1860-1862. Owing to ill- health, however, and a change in his theological beliefs, he left the ministry. He became interested in physical training, and for some time (partly in England) wrote and lectured on the subject, besides other journalistic work. He became professor of English language and literature in the university of Michigan in 1867, and held that position until 1881, except in 1873-1874 when he was literary editor of the Christian Union; from 1881 until his death on the 28th of December 1900 at Ithaca, New York, he was professor of American history at Cornell University. In 1881 he was ordained deacon in the Protestant Episcopal Church and in 1883 priest, but he never undertook parochial work. Most important among his works are his valuable and original History of American Literature during the Colonial Time, 1607-1765 (2 vols., 1878; revised in 1897), and Literary History of the American Revolu- tion, 1763-1783 (2 vols., 1897). Supplementary to these two is his Three Men of Letters (1895), containing biographical and critical chapters on George Berkeley, Timothy Dwight and Joel Barlow. In addition he published The Brawnville Papers (1869), a series of essays on physical culture; a revision of Henry Morley's Manual of English Literature (1879); In Memoriam: Edgar Kelsey Apgar (1886), privately printed; Patrick Henry (1887), an excellent biography, in the " American Statesmen" series; and Glimpses of England: Social, Political, Literary (1898), a selection from his sketches written while abroad. See " Moses Coit Tyler," by Professor .William P. Trent, in The Forum (Aug. 1901), and an article by Professor George L. Burr, in the Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1901 (vol.i.). TYLER, WAT [or WALTER] (d. 1381), English rebel, a man of obscure origin, was a native either of Kent or of Essex. Nothing definite is known of him previous to the outbreak of the peasant revolt in 1381, but Froissart says he had served as a soldier in the French War, and a Kentishman in the re- tinue of Richard II. professed to identify him as a notorious rogue and robber of Kent. The name Tyler, or Teghler, is a trade designation and not a surname. The discontent of the rural labourers and of the poorer class of craftsmen in the towns, caused by the economic distress that followed the Black Death and the enactment of the Statute of Labourers in 1351, was brought to a head by the imposition of a poll tax in 1379 and again in 1381, and at the end of May in the latter year riots broke out at Brentwood in Essex; on the 4th of June similar violence occurred at Dartford; and on the 6th a mob several thousands strong seized the castle of Roches- ter and marched up the Medway to Maidstone. Here they chose Wat Tyler to be their leader, and in the next few days the rising spread over Kent, where much pillage and damage to property occurred. On the loth Tyler seized Canterbury, sacked the palace of Archbishop Sudbury, the chancellor, and beheaded three citizens as " traitors." Next day he led his followers, strengthened by many Kentish recruits, on the road to London, being joined at Maidstone by John Ball (q.ii.), whom the mob had liberated from the archbishop's prison. Reaching Blackheath on the I2th, the insurgents burnt the prisons in Southwark and pillaged the archbishop's palace at Lambeth, while another body of rebels from Essex encamped at Mile End. King Richard II. was at the Tower, but neither the king's councillors nor the municipal authorities had taken any measures to cope with the rising. The draw- bridge of London Bridge having been lowered by treachery, Tyler and his followers crossed the Thames; and being joined by thousands of London apprentices, artisans and criminals, they sacked and burnt John of Gaunt's splendid palace of the Savoy, the official residence of the treasurer, Sir Robert Hales, and the prisons of Newgate and the Fleet. On the i4th Richard II., a boy of fourteen, undertook the perilous enter- prise of riding out to confer with the rebels beyond the city wall. At Mile End the king met Wat Tyler; a lengthy and tumultuous conference, during which several persons were slain, took place, in which Tyler demanded the immediate abolition of serfdom and all feudal services, and the removal of all restrictions on freedom of labour and trade, as well as a general amnesty for the insurgents. Richard had no choice but to concede these demands, and charters were immediately drawn up to give effect to them. While this was in progress Tyler with a small band of followers returned to the Tower, which they entered, and dragged forth Archbishop Sudbury and Sir Robert Hales from the chapel and murdered them on Tower Hill. During the following night and day London was given over to plunder and slaughter, the victims being chiefly Flemish merchants, lawyers and personal adherents of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. Meantime the people 496 TYLER— TYLOPODA of property began to organize themselves for the restoration of order. On the isth of June, Richard, after confession and receiving the Sacrament, rode to Smithfield for a further conference with the rebels. Close to St Bartholomew's Church he met Wat Tyler, who advanced from the ranks of the insur- gents and shook the king's hand, bidding him be of good cheer. Tyler then formulated a number of fresh demands, including the confiscation of ecclesiastical estates and the institution of social equality. Richard replied that the popular desire should be satisfied "saving the regalities of the Crown." Tyler thereupon grew insolent, and in the altercation that ensued the rebel leader was killed by the mayor, Sir William Wai- worth (q.v.), and John Standwick, one of the king's squires. The rebels now handled their bows in a menacing fashion, but at the critical moment the young king with great presence of mind and courage spurred his horse into the open, crying, " Sirs, will you shoot your king? I will be your chief and captain, you shall have from me all that you seek." Richard then led the mob to a neighbouring meadow, where he kept them in parley till Walworth, who had returned within the city to summon the loyal citizens to the king's aid, returned with a sufficient following to overawe and disperse the rebels. With the death of Wat Tyler the rising in London and the home counties quickly subsided, though in East Anglia it flickered a short time longer under the leadership of John Wraw and Geoffrey Litster until suppressed by the energy of Henry Despenser, bishop of Norwich. About no persons were exe- cuted for the rebellion in Kent and Essex, including John Ball, and Jack Straw, Tyler's chief lieutenant.1 The enfranchise- ment of villeins granted by Richard at the Mile End conference was revoked by parliament in 1382, and no permanent results were obtained for the peasants by Wat Tyler's revolt. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The best original account of the rebellion of Wat Tyler is the " Anonimal Chronicle of St Mary's, York," printed by G. M. Trevelyan in the Eng. Hist. Rev. (1898). See also Thomas Walsingham, Chronicon Angliae (Rolls series, 1874); Froissart, Chronicles (edited by G. C. Macaulay, London, 1895) ; Andre Reville, Le Soulevement des travaillers d'Angleterre en Ij8l> (Paris, 1898); C. Oman, The Great Revolt of 1381 (Oxford, 1906), and The Political History of England, vol. iv. (ed. by W. Hunt and R. L. Poole, London, 1906). (R. J. M.) TYLER, a city and the county-seat of Smith county, Texas, U.S.A., about 115 m. E. by S. of Dallas. Pop. (1890), 6908; (1900), 8069, of whom 2693 were negroes; (1910 census), 10,400. Tyler is served by the International & Great Northern and the St Louis South-Western railways. It is the seat of the Tyler Commercial College, of the East Texas Conservatory of Music and of two institutions for negroes — Texas College (1895; Colored Methodist Episcopal) and the East Texas Normal and Industrial Academy (Baptist, 1905). The principal public buildings include the city hall, the county court-house, a Car- negie library and the post office and Federal Courts building. Sessions of the United States Circuit and District Courts, and of a state district court, as well as of the county court, are held in Tyler. Tyler is situated in a prosperous agricultural region, and has various manufactures. The St Louis South-Western railway maintains general offices and machine-shops here. Tyler, named in honour of President John Tyler, was settled in 1847, was incorporated as a town in 1870 and was chartered as a city in 1907. TYLOPODA (Gr. for boss-footed, in reference to the cushion-like pads forming the soles of the feet), the scientific name of the section of ruminating artiodactyle ungulate mam- mals (see ARTIODACTYLA) now represented by the Old World camels (see CAMEL) and the South American Llamas (see LLAMA) Characters. — In the skull there is a sagittal crest; the tympanic bulla is filled with cancellous tissue; the condyle of the lower jaw is rounded; and the premaxillae, or anterior bones of the upper jaw, have the full number of incisor teeth in the young state, the outer- most of these being persistent through life as an isolated tooth. The tusk-like canines are present in both jaws, those of the lower jaw 1 Mr F. W. D. Brie (English Historical Review, 1906) vol. xxi. advances the theory that Tyler and Straw are one and the same person. being differentiated from the long, horizontal and spatulate incisors; in form they are sub-erect and pointed. The crowns of the molars belong to the -rrescentic or selenodont type, and are tall-crowned or hypsodont; but one or more of the anterior premolars is usually detached from the series, and of simple pointed form. The hinder part of the body is much contracted, and the femur long and verti- cally placed, so that the knee-joint is lower in position, and the thigh altogether more detached from the abdomen than in most mammals. The limbs are long, but with only tWo digits (the third and fourth) developed on each, no traces of any of the others being present. The trapezoid and magnum of the carpus, and the cuboid and navi- cular of the tarsus are distinct. The two cannon-bones of each limb are confluent for the greater part of their length, though separated for a considerable distance at the lower end. Their lower articular surfaces, instead of being pulley-like, with deep ridges and grooves, as in other Artiodactyla, are simple, rounded and smooth. The first phalanges are expanded at their lower ends, and the wide, depressed middle phalanges embedded in a broad cutaneous pad, forming the sole of the foot, on which the animal rests in walking instead of on the hoofs. The terminal phalanges are small and nodular, not flattened on their inner or opposed surfaces, and not completely encased in hoofs, but bearing nails on their upper surface only. The neck is long and curved, and its vertebrae are remarkable for the position of the canal for the transmission of the vertebral artery, which does not perforate the transverse process, but passes obliquely through the anterior part of the pedicle of the arch. There are no horns or antlers. Though these animals ruminate, the stomach differs considerably in the details of its construction from that of the Pecora. The interior of the rumen or paunch has no tags or villi on its surface, and there is no distinct psalterium or manyplies. Both first and second compartments are remarkable for the presence of a number of pouches or cells in their walls, with muscular parti- tions, and a sphincter-like arrangement of their orifices, by which they can be shut off from the rest of the cavity, and into which the fluid portion only of the contents of the stomach is allowed to enter. The placenta is diffuse, not cotyledonary. Finally, the Tylopoda differ not only from other ungulates, but from all other mammals, in the fact that the red corpuscles of the blood, instead of being circular in outline, are oval as in the inferior vertebrate classes. Camels. — Of the two existing generic representatives of the Camelidae (as the family in which they are both included is named), the Old World camels (Camelus) are characterized by their great bodily size, and the presence of one or two fleshy humps, which diminish or increase in size according to the physical condition of the animals themselves. There is a total of 34 teeth, arranged as i. J, c. \, p. |, m. jj. Of these the first upper premolar is a simple tooth placed close behind the premaxilla and separated by a long gap from the two other teeth of the same series; while the lower incisors, of which the outermost is the largest, are directed partially forwards. The skull is elongated, with an overhanging occiput, complete bony rims to the orbits, and the premaxillae separated from the arched and rather long nasals. The vertebrae are C. 7. D. 12. L. 7. S. 4 and Ca. 13 to 15. The ears are short and rounded; the toes of the broad feet very imperfectly separated ; the tail io well developed, with a terminal tuft; and the straight hair is not woolly. Llamas. — Although the name llama properly applies only to one of the domesticated breeds, zoologically it is taken to include all the South American representatives of the Camelidae, which form the genus Lama. In this sense, llamas are characterized as follows. The dentition in the adult is i. $, c. \, p. •§, m. f ; total 32. In the upper jaw there is a compressed, sharp-pointed, tusk-like incisor near the hind edge of the premaxilla, followed in the male at least by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved canine in the anterior part of the maxilla. The isolated canine-like premolar which follows in the camels is not present. The teeth of the cheek-series which are in contact with each other consist of two small premolars (the first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars, constructed generally like those of Camelus. In the lower jaw the three incisors are long, spatulate and horizontal, with the outer one the smallest. Next to the latter is a curved, sub-erect canine, followed after an interval by an isolated minute and often deciduous simple conical premolar; then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which differ from those of recent species of Camelus in having a small accessory column at the anterior outer edge. The skull generally resembles that of Camelus, the relatively larger brain-cavity and orbits and less developed cranial ridges being due to its smaller size. The nasal bones are shorter and broader, and are joined by the premaxillae. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 12, L. 7, S. 4, Ca. 15 to 20. Ears rather long and pointed. No hump. Feet narrow, the toes being more separated than in the camels, and each with a distinct plantar pad. Tail short. Hairy covering long and woolly. Size smaller and general form lighter than in the camels. Llamas are now confined to the western and southernmost parts of South America, though fossil remains have been found in the caves of Brazil, and in the pampas of the Argentine Republic. (See also ALPACA; GUANACO; LLAMA and VICUGNA.) Fossil History. — As regards the past history of the group, remains of fossil species of Camelus have been obtained from the superficial TYLOPODA 497 deposits of various parts of Russia, Rumania, and Siberia, and others from the Lower Pliocene of northern India; the molar teeth of these latter presenting the additional column referred to above as distinguishing those of the llamas from those of modern camels. In addition to these Dr M. Schlosser has described remains of a large camel-like animal from China, with apparently generalized affinities, for which the name of Paracamelus is proposed. Mme Pavlow, of Moscow, has brought to notice a fossil camel-skull of great in- terest, which was collected in the district Alexandrie, of the govern- ment of Kherson, Russia. Unfortunately, the precise age of the formation from which it was obtained is unknown, but it is con- sidered probable that it dates from the later Tertiary. Although it has the deciduous dentition, Mme Pavlow considers herself justified in referring the Kherson skull to the genus Procamelus previously known only from the Lower Pliocene or Upper Miocene strata of North America, and differing from modern camels, among other features, by the retention of a fuller series of premolar teeth. Part of the cannon-bone of a camel from another district in Russia is provisionally assigned to the same species. Possibly this Russian camel (Procamelus khersonensis), as it is called, may form the connecting link between the typical Procamelus of North America and the fossil camel (Camelus sivalensis) of the Siwalik Hills of India. Be this as it may, the identification of a North American type of camel from the Tertiary strata of eastern Europe forms another connecting link between the extinct faunas of the northern half of the Old World and North America, and thus tends to show that the claim of America to be the exclusive birthplace of many Old World types may have to be reconsidered. Remains of camels (C. thomasi) have also been found in the Pleistocene strata of Oran and Ouen Seguen, in Algeria; and cer- tain remains from the Isle of Samos have been assigned to the same genus, although the reference requires confirmation. The Algerian Pleistocene camel was doubtless the direct ancestor of the living African species, which it serves to connect with the extinct C. sivalensis. In North America, apart from certain still older and more primi- tive mammals, with teeth of the tubercular type, the earliest known form which can definitely be included in the camel-series is Protylopus, of the Uinta or Upper Eocene. In this creature, which was not larger than a European hare, there was the full number of 44 teeth, which formed a regular series, without any long gaps, and with the canines but little taller than the incisors, while the hinder cheek-teeth, although of the crescentic type, were low-crowned. In both jaws the anterior front-teeth were of a cutting and compressed type. Unfortunately, the skull is incomplete, and the rest of the skeleton very imperfectly known; but sufficient of the former remains to show that the socket of the eye was open behind, and of the latter to indicate that in the hind-foot, at any rate, the upper bones of the two functional toes had not coalesced into a cannon-bone. The lateral hind-toes (that is to say the second and fifth of the typical series) had, however, become rudimentary ; although it is probable that the corresponding digits of the fore- limb were functional, so that this foot was four-toed. In old individuals the bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) became welded together about half-way down, although they remained free above. On the other hand it appears that the smaller bone of the leg (fibula) was welded to the larger one (tibia), and that its upper portion had disappeared. Nothing is known of the neck vertebrae. It is, of course, evident that there must have been an earlier form in which all the feet were four-toed, and the bones of the forearm and lower part of the leg separate. A stage higher in the series, viz. in the Oligocene, we meet with Poebrotherium, in which a distinct increase in bodily size is notice- able, as also in the relative length of the two bones which unite in the higher types to form the cannon-bone. Moreover, the crowns of the hinder cheek-teeth are taller, and more distinctly crescentic, both feet are two-toed, the ulna and radius are fused, and the fibula is represented only by its lower part. In the verte- brae of the neck the distinctive cameloid characters had already made their appearance. On the other hand, the skull was short and rabbit-like, showing none of the characteristic features of modern camels. In the Lower Miocene occurs Protomeryx or Gomphotherium, in which there is a considerable increase in the matter of bodily size, the two metacarpal and metatarsal bones (or those which unite in the latter forms to constitute the cannon-bones) being double the length of the corresponding elements in Protylopus. These bones, although separate, have their adjacent surfaces more closely applied .than is the case in the latter; while in this and the earlier genera the terminal toe-bones indicate that the foot was of the normal hoofed type. In the skull the socket of the eye is surrounded by bone; while the dentition begins to approximate to the camel type — notably by the circumstance that the lower canine is either separated by a gap from the outermost incisors, or that its crown assumes a backwardly curved shape. In Protolabis of the Middle Miocene, while no canno_n-bone is formed, the first and second pairs of incisor teeth are retained, and the limbs and feet are short and disproportionately small. In the Upper Miocene we come to a distinct type — Procamelus — which is entitled to be regarded as a camel, and approximates in size to a small llama. Here the mecacarpals and metatarsals have partially united to form cannon- bones, the skull has assumed the elongated form characteristic of modern camels, with the loss of the first and second pairs of upper incisors, and the development of gaps in front of and behind each of the next three teeth, that is to say, the third incisor, the canine and the first cheek-tooth. The approximately contemporaneous Pliauchema makes another step by the loss of the second lower cheek-tooth. Both these genera have the toe-bones of the ir- regular nodular form distinctive of modern camels, so that we may safely infer that the feet themselves had assumed the cushion- type. In one species of Procamelus the metacarpals and metatarsals coalesced into canon-bones late in life; but when we come to the Pleistocene Camelops such union took place at an early stage of existence, and was thoroughly complete. In the living members of the group it occurs before birth. The species of Camelops were probably fully as large as llamas, and some, at any rate, resembled these animals as regards the number of teeth, the incisors being reduced to one upper and three lower pairs, and the cheek- teeth to four or five in the upper and four in the lower jaw ; the total number of teeth thus being 28 or 30 in place of the 44 of Poebrothe- rium. The sole difference between Camelops and Llama seems to consist in certain structural details of the lower cheek-teeth. An allied extinct genus (Eschatius) is also distinguished by certain features in the dentition. Apart from Procamelus the foregoing genera are exclusively North American. A lower jaw from the Pleistocene deposits of that continent has, however, been referred to the Old World Camelus. In addition to the above there is an extraordinary North American Miocene giraffe-necked camel (Allicamelus) , a creature of the size of a giraffe, with similarly elongated neck and limbs, and evidently adapted for browsing on trees. The feet and number of teeth were generally similar to those of Procamelus. Unlike the giraffe, the length of the limbs is due to the elongation of their upper segments, and that of the neck to the lengthening of only the hinder vertebrae. In caverns and superficial deposits of South America occur re- mains of extinct species more or less closely related to modern llamas; but previous to the Upper Pliocene the group is unknown in South America, which it reached from the north. All the foregoing genera are included in the sub-family Camelidae. Parallel to this is, however, the North American family Leptomery- chidae (Hypertragulidae), as represented by Leptomeryx, Camelo- meryx and- Leptoreodon, which presents remarkable resemblances, especially in the type genus, to the Tragulina (see CHEVROTAIN); camel-like features being, however, apparent in the two genera last mentioned. Generalized features are also displayed by the Oligocene Hypisodus, which in its short skull and large orbits presents a curious approximation to the African dik-dik antelopes of the genus Madoqua (see ANTELOPE). Again, the remarkable horned North American Oligocene genus Protoceras, while dis- playing resemblances to Leptomeryx and Leptoreodon, presents also points of similarity to the Tragulina and Pecora (g.f .). The North American genus Oreodon typifies a second family included by Professor W. B. Scott in the Tylopoda and generally known as the Oreodontidae. As Oreodon is, however, antedated by Merycoidodon, the latter; name is properly entitled to stand, in which case the family should be called Agriochoeridae. It is not easy to point put the characters in which the family approximates to the Camelidae, and only its general characteristics can be indicated. The family ranges in North America from the Upper Eocene to the Lower Miocene, but Oreodon (or Merycoidodon), which is typified by an animal of the size of a sheep, is Oligocene. In the Oreodontinae or typical section of the family, which includes several genera nearly allied! to Oreodon, the skull is shorter and higher than in the camels, with a swollen brain-case, a preorbital gland- pit, the condyle of the lower jaw transversely elongated, the tympanic bulla hollow, and the orbit surrounded by bone. The dentition comprises the typical 44 teeth, of which the molars are short-crowned, with four crescentic cusps on those of the upper jaw (selenodont type). The most characteristic dental feature is, however, the assumption of the form and function of a canine by the first lower premolar; the lower canine being incisor-like. The tail is very long; and the feet have five functional toes, with com- plete but short metacarpals or metatarsals. In the Miocene Agriochoerus, which typifies a second sub-family (Agriochoerinae), there is no gland-pit in the skull, of which the orbit is open behind; while the upper incisors are wanting in the adult and the terminal toe-bones are claw-like rather than of the hoofed type. The molars are less completely selenodont than in the type genus. It is note- worthy that a molar from the Tertiary of India has been referred to Agriochoerus, a determination which if correct probably indicates the occurrence of Oreodonts in the unknown Tertiary deposits of Central Asia. It may be added that in the Oreodontidae the vertebral artery pierces the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae in the normal manner. The earliest representatives of the Tylopoda according to Professor Scott is the Middle Eocene genus Homacodon, typifying the family Homacodontidae, which is regarded as the common ancestor of both TYLOR— TYNDALE Camelidae and Oreodontidae, with resemblances to the European Oligocene genus Dichobune (see ARTIODACTYLA). Homacodon was an animal of the size of a rabbit, with five toes (of which only five were functional to each foot) and 44 teeth, of which the molars are tuberculated (bunodont), with six columns on those of the upper jaw; the premolars being of a cutting type. It should be added that this generalized animal is not unfrequently classed among the ancestral pigs, but its cameline affinities are strongly emphasized by Professor Scott. LITERATURE. — W. B. Scott, " On the Osteology of Poebrother- ium," Journal of Morphology (1891), vol. v. ; "The Osteology of Protoceras " (1895), ibid., vol. xi. ; J. L. Wortman, " On the Oste- ology of Agriochoerus," Bull. Amer. Museum (1895), vol. vii. ; " The Extinct Camelidae of North America (1898), ibid., vol. x. ; W. D. Matthew, " The Skull of Hypisodus (1901), ibid., vol. xvi. (R. L.*) TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT (1832- ), English anthro- pologist, was born at Camberwell, London, on the 2nd of October 1832, the son of Joseph Tylor, a brassfounder. Alfred Tylor, the geologist, was an elder brother. His parents were members of the Society of Friends, at one of whose schools, at Grove House, Tottenham, he was educated. In 1848 he entered his father's manufactory in London, but at about the age of twenty he was threatened with consumption and forced to abandon business. During 1855-1856 he travelled in the United States of America to recruit his health. Proceeding in 1856 to Cuba, he met Henry Christy the ethnologist, with whom he visited Mexico. Tylor's association with Christy greatly stimulated his awakening interest in anthropology, and his visit to Mexico, with its rich prehistoric remains, led him to make a systematic study of the science. While on a visit to Cannes he wrote a record of his observations, entitled Anahuac; or, Mexico and the Mexicans, Ancient and Modern, which was published in 1861. In 1865 appeared Researches into the Early History of Mankind, which made Tylor's reputa- tion. It showed great research, original insight, and much constructive power in the formation of systematic views. The chapters on early myths and their geographical distribution are especially valuable. The work reached a third edition in 1878. This book was followed in 1871 by the more elaborate Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art and Custom, which at once became the standard general treatise on anthropology. Tylor's treatment of animism (chs.xi.-xvii.) was particularly elaborate, and he first determined the limits of that province of anthro- pology intending it to include " the general doctrine of souls, and other spiritual beings." In 1881 Tylor published a smaller and more popular handbook on Anthropology. His work had already met with recognition. In €871 he was elected F.R.S., and in 1875 received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford. He was appointed keeper of the Uni- versity Museum at Oxford in 1883, and reader in anthropology in 1884. In 1888 he was appointed first Gifford lecturer at Aberdeen University, and delivered a two years' course on " Natural Religion." In 1896 he became first professor of anthropology at Oxford. At the end of 1907 the Clarendon Press published a volume of Anthropological Essays, to which various representative scholars of a younger generation in the same field had contributed, the essays being dedicated and presented to Tylor as a mark of honour; and this collection includes not only a bibliography of his publications by Miss Freire-Marreco, but also an appreciation of Tylor's life-work by Andrew Lang. TYMPANON, or TYMPANUM (Gr. TVfnravov, from rinrTdv, to strike), a name applied by the Romans to both kettledrum and tambourine, in the case of the latter sometimes qualified by leve. The tympanum leve, generally included among the tympana, described as being like a sieve, was the tambourine used in the rites of Bacchus and Cybele. Pliny doubtless described half pearls having one side round and the other flat, as tympania, on account of their resemblance to the tympanum or kettledrum, which, in its primitive form, innocent of screws or mechanism for tightening the head, exactly resembled the half pearl. During the middle ages the tympanum was gene- rally a tambourine, the kettledrum being known as nacaire. In architecture the term tympanum is given to the triangular space enclosed between the horizontal cornice of the entabla- ture and the sloping cornice of the pediment. Though sometimes left plain, in the most celebrated Greek temples it was filled with sculpture of the highest standard ever attained. In Romanesque and Gothic work the term is applied to the space above the lintel or architrave of a door and the discharging arch over it, which was also enriched either with geometrical patterns or in later work with groups of figures; those in continental work are usually arranged in tiers. The upper portion of a gable when enclosed with a horizontal string-course, is also termed a tympanum. TYNDALE (or TINDALE), WILLIAM (c. 1492-1536), translator of the New Testament and Pentateuch (see BIBLE, ENGLISH), was born on the Welsh border, probably in Gloucestershire, some time between 1490 and 1495. In Easter term 1510 he went to Oxford, where Foxe says he was entered of Magdalen Hall. He took his M.A. degree in 1515 and removed to Cam- bridge, where Erasmus had helped to establish a reputation for Greek and theology. Ordained to the priesthood, probably towards the close of 1521, he entered the household of Sir John Walsh, Old Sodbury, Gloucestershire, as chaplain and domestic tutor. Here he lived for two years, using his leisure in preaching in the villages and at Bristol, conduct which brought him into collision with the backward clergy of the district, and led to his being summoned before the chancellor of Worcester (William of Malvern) as a suspected heretic; but he was allowed to depart without receiving censure or giving any undertaking. But the persecution of the clergy led him to seek an antidote for what he regarded as the corruption of the Church, and he re- solved to translate the New Testament into the vernacular. In this he hoped to get help from Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of London, and so " with the good will of his master " he left Gloucester in the summer of 1523. Tunstall disappointed him, so he got employment as a preacher at St Dunstan's-in- the-West, and worked at his translation, living as chaplain jn the house of Humphrey Monmouth, an alderman, and forming a firm friendship with John Frith; but finding publication impossible in England, he sailed for Hamburg in May 1524. After visiting Luther at Wittenberg, he settled with his amanu- ensis William Roy in Cologne, where he had made some progress in printing a 4to edition of his New Testament, when the work was discovered by John Cochlaeus, dean at Frankfurt, who not only got the senate of Cologne to interdict further printing, but warned Henry VIII. and Wolsey to watch the English ports. Tyndale and Roy escaped with their sheets to Worms, where the 8vo editiqn was completed in 1:526. Copies were smuggled into England but were suppressed by the bishops, and William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, even bought up copies on the Continent to destroy them. At- tempts were made to seize Tyndale at Worms, but he found refuge at Marburg with Philip, landgrave of Hesse. There he probably met Patrick Hamilton, and was joined by John Frith. About this time he changed his views on the Eucharist and swung clean over from transubstantiation to the advanced Zwinglian position. His Parable of the Wicked Mammon (1528), Obedience of a Christen Man (1528), in which the two great principles of the English Reformation are set out, viz. the authority of Scripture in the Church and the supremacy of the king in the state, and Practyse of Prelates (1530), a strong in- dictment of the Roman Church and also of Henry VIII. 's divorce proceedings, were all printed at" Marburg. In 1529 on his way to Hamburg he was wrecked on the Dutch coast, and lost his newly completed translation of Deuteronomy. Later in the year he went to Antwerp where he conducted his share of the classic controversy with Sir Thomas More. After Henry VIII. 's change of attitude towards Rome, Stephen Vaughan, the English envoy to the Netherlands, suggested Tyndale's return, but the reformer feared ecclesiastical hostility and declined. Henry then demanded his surrender from the emperor as one who was spreading sedition in England, and Tyndale left Antwerp for two years, returning in 1533 and TYNDALL 499 busying himself with revising his translations. In May 1535 he was betrayed by Henry Phillips, to whom he had shown much kindness, as a professing student of the new faith. The imperial officers imprisoned him at Vilvorde Castle, the state prison, 6 m. from Brussels, where in spite of the great efforts of the English merchants and the appeal of Thomas Cromwell to Archbishop Carandolet, president of the council, and to the governor of the castle, he was tried for heresy and condemned. On the 6th of October 1536 he was strangled at the stake and his body afterwards burnt. Though long an exile from his native land, Tyndale was one of the greatest forces of the English Reformation. His writings show sound scholarship and high literary power, while they helped to shape the thought of the Puritan party in England. His translation of the Bible was so sure and happy that it formed ! the basis of subsequent renderings, especially that of the authorized version of 1611. Besides the New Testament, the Pentateuch and Jonah, it is believed that he finished in prison the section of the Old Testament extending from Joshua to Chronicles. Beside the works already named Tyndale wrote A Prologue on the Epistle to the Romans (1526), An Exposition of the 1st Epistle of John (1531), An Exposition of Matthew v.-vii. (1532), a treatise on the sacraments (1533), and possibly another (no longer extant) on matrimony (1529). The works of Tyndale were first published along with those of John Frith (g.f.) and Robert Barnes, " three worthy martyrs and principal teachers of the Church of England," by John Day, in 1573 (folio). A new edition of the works of Tyndale and Frith, by T. Russell, was published at London (1828-1831). His Doctrinal Treatises and Introductions to Different Portions of the Holy Scripture were published by the Parker Society in 1848. For biography, see Foxe's Acts and Monuments; R. Demaus, William Tyndale (London, 1871); also the Introduction to Mombert's critical reprint of Tyndale's Pentateuch (New York, 1884), where a bibliography is given. TYNDALL, JOHN (1820-1893), British natural philosopher, was born in Co. Carlow, Ireland, on the 2nd of August 1820, his father being the son of a small landowner in poor circum- stances, but a man of more than ordinary ability. With Darwin and Huxley his name is inseparably connected with the battle which began in the middle of the ipth century for making the new standpoint of modern science part of the accepted philo- sophy in general life. For many years, indeed, he came to repre- sent to ordinary Englishmen the typical or ideal professor of physics. His strong, picturesque mode of seizing and expressing things gave him an immense living influence both in speech and writing, and disseminated a popular knowledge of physical science such as had not previously existed. But besides being a true educator, and perhaps the greatest popular teacher of natural philosophy in his generation, he was an earnest and original observer and explorer of nature. Tyndall was to a large extent a self-made man; he had no early advantages, but with indomitable earnestness devoted him- self to study, to which he was stimulated by the writings of Carlyle. He passed from a national school in Co. Carlow to a minor post (1839) in the Irish ordnance survey, thence (1842) to the English survey, attending mechanics' institute lectures at Preston in Lancashire. He then became for a time (1844) a railway engineer, and in 1847 a teacher at Queenwood College, Hants. Thence with much spirit, and in face of many difficulties, he betook himself, with his colleague Edward Frankland, to the university of Marburg (1848-1851), where, by intense application, he obtained his doctorate in two years. His inaugural dissertation was an essay on screw-surfaces. Tyndall's first original work in physical science was in his experiments with regard to magnetism and diamagnetic polarity, on which he was chiefly occupied from 1850 to 1855. While he was still lecturing on natural philosophy at Queenwood College, his magnetic investigations made him known in the higher circles of the scientific world, and through the initiative of Sir E. Sabine, treasurer of the Royal Society, he was elected F.R.S. in June 1852. In 1850 he had made Faraday's acquaintance, and shortly before the Ipswich meeting of the British Associa- tion in 1851 he began a lasting friendship with T. H. Huxley. The two young men stood for chairs of physics and natural history respectively, first at Toronto, next at Sydney, but they were in each case unsuccessful. On the nth of February 1853, however, Tyndall gave, by invitation, a Friday evening lecture (on " The Influence of Material Aggregation upon the Manifesta- tions of Force ") at the Royal Institution, and his public reputa- tion was at once established. In the following May he was chosen professor of natural philosophy at the Royal Institution, a post which exactly suited his striking gifts and made him a colleague of Faraday, whom in 1866 he succeeded as scientific adviser to the Trinity House and Board of Trade, and in 1867 as superintendent of the Royal Institution. His reverent attach- ment to Faraday is beautifully manifested in his memorial volume called Faraday as a Discoverer (1868). The more original contributions which Tyndall made to science are dealt with elsewhere, in the articles concerned with the various subjects (see HEAT, &c.). But his inquiries into glacier motion were notable alike for his association with Switzer- land and for prolonged controversy with other men of science on the subject. In 1854, after the meeting of the British Association in Liverpool, a memorable visit occurred to the Penrhyn slate quarries, where the question of slaty cleavage arose in his mind, and ultimately led him, with Huxley, to Switzerland to study the phenomena of glaciers. Here the mountains seized him, and he became a constant visitor and one of the most intrepid and most resolute of explorers; among other feats of climbing he was the first to ascend the Weiss- horn (1861). The strong, vigorous, healthfulness and enjoyment which permeate the record of his Alpine work are magnificent, and traces of his influence remain in Switzerland to this day. The problem of the flow of glaciers occupied his attention for years, and his views brought him into acute conflict with others, particularly J. D. Forbes and James Thomson. Every one knew that glaciers moved, but the questions were how they moved, for what reason and by what mechanism. Some thought they slid like solids; others that they flowed like liquids; others that they crawled by alternate expansion and contraction, or by alternate freezing and melting; others, again, that they broke and mended. Thus there arose a chaos of controversy, illumi- nated by definite measurements and observations. Tyndall's own summary of the course of research on the subject was as follows: — The idea of semi-fluid motion belongs entirely to Rendu ; the proof of the quicker central flow belongs in part to Rendu, but almost wholly to Agassiz and Forbes ; the proof of the retardation of the bed belongs to Forbes alone; while the discovery of the locus of the point of maximum motion belongs, I suppose, to me. But while Forbes asserted that ice was viscous, Tyndall denied it, and insisted, as the result of his observations, on the flow being due to fracture and regelation. All agreed that ice flowed as if it were a viscous fluid ; and of this apparent viscosity James Thomson offered an independent explanation by the application of pure thermodynamical theory, which Tyndall considered inefficient to account for the facts he observed. It is unnecessary here to rake among the ashes of this prolonged dispute, but it may be noted that Helmholtz, who, in his lecture on " Ice and Glaciers," adopted Thomson's theory, afterwards, added in an appendix that he had come to the conclusion that Tyndall had " assigned the essential and principal cause of glacier motion in referring it to fracture and regelation " (1865). Tyndall's investigations of the transparency and opacity of gases and vapours for radiant heat, which occupied him during many years (1850-1871), are frequently considered his chief scientific work. But his activities were essentially many- sided. He definitely established the absorptive power of clear aqueous vapour — a point of great meteorological significance. He made brilliant experiments elucidating the blue of the sky,, and discovered the precipitation of organic vapours by means of light. He called attention to curious phenomena occurring in the track of a luminous beam. He examined the opacity of the air for sound in connexion with lighthouse and siren work, 500 TYNDARIS— TYNE and he finally clinched the proof of what had been already sub- stantially demonstrated by several others, viz. that germ-free air did not initiate putrefaction, and that accordingly " spon- taneous generation " as ordinarily understood was a chimera (1875-1876). One practical outcome of these researches is the method now always adopted of sterilizing by a succession of gentle warmings, sufficient to kill the developed micro-organisms, instead of by one fierce heating attempting to attack the more refractory undeveloped germs of the same. This method of inter- mittent sterilization originated with Tyndall, and it was an im- portant contribution to biological science and industrial practice. For the substantial publication of these researches reference must be made to the Transactions of the Royal Society; but an account of many of them was incorporated in his best-known books, namely, the famous Heal as a Mode of Motion (1863; and later editions to 1880), the first popular exposition of the me- chanical theory of heat, which in 1862 had not reached the text- books; The Forms of Water, &c. (1872); Lectures on Light (1873); Floating Matter in the Air (1881); On Sound (1867; revised 1875, 1883, 1893). The original memoirs themselves on radiant heat and on magnetism were collected and issued as two large volumes under the following titles: Diamagnetism and Magne-crystallic Action (1870); Contributions to Molecular Physics in the Domain of Radiant Heat (1872). It was on the whole the personality, however, rather than the discoverer, that was greatest in Tyndall. In the pursuit of pure science for its own sake, undisturbed by sordid considera- tions, he shone as a beacon light to younger men — an exemplar of simple tastes, robust nature and lofty aspirations. His elevation above the common run of men was conspicuous in his treatment of the money which came to him in connexion with his successful lecturing tour in America (1872-1873). It amounted to several thousands of pounds, but he would touch none of it; he placed it in the hands of trustees for the benefit of American science — an act of lavishness which bespeaks a noble nature. Though not so prominent as Huxley in detailed controversy over theological problems, he played an important part in educating the public mind in the attitude which the development of natural philosophy entailed towards dogma and religious authority. His famous Belfast address (1874), de- livered as president of the British Association, made a great stir among those who were then busy with the supposed conflict between science and religion; and in his occasional writings — Fragments of Science, as he called them, " for unscientific people " — he touched on current conceptions of prayer, miracles, &c., with characteristic straightforwardness and vigour. As a public speaker he had an inborn Irish readiness and vehemence of expression; and, though a thorough Liberal, he split from Mr Gladstone on Irish home rule, and took an active part in politics in opposing it. In 1876 Tyndall married Louisa, daughter of Lord Claud Hamilton. He built in 1877 a cottage on Bel Alp above the Rhone valley, and in 1885 a house on Hindhead,near Haslemere. At the latter place he spent most of his later years; his health was, however, no longer as vigorous as his brain, and he suffered frequently from sleeplessness. On the 4th of December 1893, having been -accidentally given an overdose of chloral, he died at Hindhead. TYNDARIS, an ancient city on the northern coast of Sicily, about 13 m. W.S.W. of Mylae (mod. Milazzo) and 5 m. E. of the modern town of Patti. It was founded by Dionysius the Elder in 395 B.C., who settled there 600 Peloponnesian Messenians on a site cut out of the territory of Abacaenum (i m. north of the modern Tripi). It was thus almost the last Greek city founded in Sicily. It was one of the earliest allies of Timoleon. In the First Punic War it was dependent on Carthage, but expelled the garrison in 254 B.C. and joined the Romans, under whom it seems to have flourished. Cicero calls it " nobilissima civitas," though it seems to have suffered especially under Verres. It was one of the points occupied by Sextus Pompeius, but was later on taken by Agrippa, who used it as a base of operations. Augustus probably made it a colonia. Pliny mentions that half of it was swallowed up by the sea, though he does not give the date of this event (Hist. nal. ii. 206). It was probably, however, due to a fault in the limestone rock of which it is composed, and the action of the sea. The site is a remarkably fine one, and it is surprising that it was not occupied sooner. It is an isolated hill (920 ft.) with projecting spurs, rising abruptly on the seaward side, and con- nected by a comparatively narrow isthmus with the lower ground inland. It thus commands a magnificent view, including even the summit of Etna, while opposite to it on the north are the Lipari Islands. Considerable remains of the city walls, built of rectangular blocks of stone, exist on the south side; on the west their foundations are traceable. Remains of several towers may be seen, and the site of the main gate, which was in a recess on the south (the land) side, is clearly traceable, the walls defending it on each side being well preserved. Outside it are several tombs of the Roman period. The walls follow the upper edge of the plateau, and do not seem to have included the spurs to seaward. Their remains indicate that it was the north and north-east portion of the city that fell. This fact renders it doubtful whether the church of the Madonna di Tindari, at the east extremity, marks the site of the acropolis. Along parts of the north side, where the line of the wall should run, is a line of debris, which may belong to a reconstruction after the catastrophe described by Pliny. Within the walls are considerable remains of a building generally known (though not correctly) as the gymnasium, constructed of masonry, with three narrow halls, each about 90 ft. long, the cen- tral hall being 21 ft. wide, the other two 14 ft. Below it to the north are remains of a building with several mosaic pavements, and to the west is a small theatre, the internal diameter of which is 212 ft., and the length of the stage 80 ft. There are traces of many other buildings within the city area, including a consider- able number of underground cisterns An important collection of objects found on the site is preserved in the Villa della Scala (i| m. to the west), belonging to Baron Sciacca, the owner of the site itself. See R. V. Scaffidi, Tyndaris (Palermo, 1895). (T. As.) TYNE, a river in the north-east of England, flowing east- ward to the North Sea, formed of two main branches, the North Tyne and South Tyne. The North Tyne rises in the Cheviot Hills, at their south-western extremity, near the Scottish border. The valley soon becomes beautifully wooded. At Bellingham it receives the Rede, whose wild valley, Redesdale, was one. of the chief localities of border warfare, and contains the site of the battle of Otterburn (1388). The South Tyne rises in the south-eastern extremity of Cumber- land, below Cross Fell in the Pennine Chain, and flows north past Alston as far as the small town of Haltwhistle, where it turns east. The valley receives from the south the picturesque Allendale, in which the lead mines were formerly important. The two branches of the Tyne join at Warden, a little above the town of Hexham, with its great abbey, and the united stream continues past Corbridge, where a Roman road crossed it, in a beautiful sylvan valley. The united course from the junction to the sea is about 30 m. The length from the source of the North Tyne is 80 m., and the drainage area is 1130 sq. m. In its last ism. the Tyne, here the boundary between Northumber- land and Durham, is one of the most important commercial waterways in England. Sea-going vessels can navigate up to Blay.lon, and collieries and large manufacturing towns line the banks — Newburn, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Wallsend and North Shield.; on the Northumberland side; Gateshead, Jarrow and South Shields on the Durham side, with many lesser centres, forming continuous lines of factories and shipbuilding yards. The growth of the great shipbuilding and engineering companies, now amalgamated, of which the Armstrong firm at Elswick is the mos famous, necessitated the dredging of the river so as to form a leep waterway. At high-water spring tides there are 40 ft. oi water at Shields Harbour at the mouth, and 31 at Newcast»e, 8 m. up river. Dangerous rocks outside the mouth have bee n partially removed and the remainder protected, and the Tynf forms a very safe harbour of refuge. TYNEMOUTH— TYPEWRITER TYNEMOUTH, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Northumberland, England, including the townships of Chirton, Cullercoats, North Shields, Preston and Tynemouth. Pop. (1891), 46,588; (1901), 51,366. North Shields, Tynemouth and Cullercoats are successive stations on a branch of the North- Eastern railway. Tynemouth lies on the north bank of the Tyne, on a picturesque promontory, 85 m. E. of Newcastle. North Shields (q.v.) adjoins it on the W.; Chirton is to the W. again, and Preston to the N. of North Shields, while Cullercoats is on the coast ij m. N.N.W. of Tynemouth. Tynemouth is the prin- cipal watering-place on this part of the coast, and here and at Cullercoats are numerous private residences. On the point of the promontory there is a small battery called the Spanish battery, and near it is a monument to Lord Collingwood. Within the grounds, to which the gateway of the old castle gives entrance, are the ruins of the ancient priory of St Mary and St Oswin — the principal remains being those of the church, which was a magnificent example of Early English work engrafted upon Norman. The priory and castle serve as the headquarters of the Tyne Submarine Engineers. The municipal buildings are in North Shields, which is also an important seaport. The coast is rocky and dangerous, but a fine pier protects the harbour (see NORTH SHIELDS). The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 4372 acres. Tynemouth is supposed to have been a Roman station, from the discovery of Roman remains there, but its early history centres round the priory, supposed to have been founded by Edwin, king of Northumbria, between 617 and 633, and rebuilt by king Oswald in 634. In 651 it became famous as the burial- place of Oswin, king of Deira, afterwards patron saint of the priory. After the conquest Malcolm, king of Scotland, and Edward his son, who had been defeated and killed at Alnwick, were buried there. Earl Waltheof gave Tynemouth to the monks of Jarrow, and it became a cell to the church of Durham, but later, owing to a quarrel with the bishop, Robert de Mowbray granted it to the abbey of St Albans in Hertfordshire. The priory was probably fortified in Saxon times, and was strengthened by Robert de Mowbray so that it was able to sustain a siege of two months by William Rufus. After the Dissolution the forti- fications were repaired by Henry VIII. In 1642 it was garri- soned for the king by the earl of Newcastle, but surrendered to parliament in 1644. It was converted into barracks at the end of the 1 8th century. Owing to their close proximity to New- castle and to the ascendancy which the burgesses of that town had gained over the river Tyne, Tynemouth and North Shields did not become important until the igth century; the privileges which they held before that time are contained in charters to the prior and convent, and include freedom from toll, &c., granted by King John in 1203-1204. In 1292 there were disputes between the citizens of Newcastle and the prior, who had built a quay at North Shields, but was obliged by act of parliament to destroy it. Edward IV. in 1463 confirmed the previous charters of the monks, and at the same time gave them and their tenants licence to buy necessaries from ships in the " port and river of Tyne," and to load ships with coal and salt " without hindrance from the men of Newcastle." After the Napoleonic wars the trade of North Shields rapidly increased. The borough was incorporated in 1849, and has returned one member to parliament since 1832. In 1279 the prior claimed a market at Tynemouth, but was not allowed to hold it; and in 1304 a fair, which had been granted to him in the preceding year, was withdrawn on the petition of the burgesses of Newcastle. A market and two fairs on the last Friday in April and the first Friday in November were estab- lished in 1802 by the duke of Northumberland. In the I7th century the chief industries were the salt and coal trades. The former, which has entirely disappeared, was the more important, and in 1635 the salt-makers of North and South Shields received an incorporation charter. See Victoria County History, Northumberland; W. S. Gibson, The History of the Monastery founded at Tynemouth in the Diocese of Durham (1846-1847). TYPEWRITER, a writing machine which produces characters resembling those of ordinary letterpress; the term is also applied to the operator who works such machines. In 1714 a British patent was granted to Henry Mill, who claimed that he had brought his invention to perfection at great pains and expense, for " An Artificial Machine or Method for the Impressing or Transcribing Letters, Singly or Progressively one after another as in Writing, whereby all Writing whatever may be Engrossed in Paper or Parchment so Neat and Exact as not to be distinguished from Print "; but beyond the title the patent gives no indication of the nature or construction of the machine. In America a patent for a " typographer " was obtained by William A. Burt in 1829, but the records of it were destroyed by a fire at Washington in 1836. The " typo- graphic machine or pen " patented by X. Progrin, of Mar- seilles, in 1833, was on the type-bar principle, and at the York meeting of the British Association in 1844 a Mr Littledale showed an apparatus for the use of the blind, by which the impression of a type selected from a series contained in a slide could be embossed on a sheet of paper. In the " chirographer," for which American patents were granted to Charles Thurber in 1843 and 1845, a horizontal wheel carried in its periphery a series of rods each bearing a letter, the wheel being rotated till the required type was over the printing point. The Great Exhibition of 1851 contained a machine patented by Pierre Foucault, of Paris, in 1849, in which a series of rods with type at their ends could be pushed down to emboss paper at the print- ing point to which they were arranged radially; and there was in addition the " typograph " of William Hughes, which was also intended for embossing, though it was subsequently modified to give an impression through carbon paper. Between 1847 and 1856 Alfred E. Beach in America, and between 1855 and 1860 Sir Charles Wheatstone in England, constructed several typewriters, and in 1857 Dr S. W. Francis, of New York, made one with a pianoforte keyboard and type bars arranged in a circle. In 1866 John Pratt, an American living in London, patented a machine having 36 types mounted in three rows on a type wheel, the rotation of which brought the required character opposite the printing point, when the paper with a carbon sheet intervening was pressed against it by a hammer worked by the keys. Two years later an American patent was taken out by C. L. Sholes and C. Glidden, and in 1875, after effecting various improvements, they finally placed the manufacture of their machines in the hands of Messrs E. Remington & Sons, gun- makers, of Ilion, New York. The Remington machines worked on the type-bar principle, but at first each of the 44 bars carried only a single character, so that the writing was in capitals only. But in 1878 type-bars with two types were introduced, so that a machine with 40 keys, two being change-case keys, could print 76 characters, with both capital and small letters. The great majority of modern typewriters are worked from a keyboard; the few that are not, known as index machines, will be disregarded here, for although they are much less expensive in first cost than the others, they scarcely come into competition as practical instruments, on account of their slowness. Key- board machines fall into two classes, according as the types which make the impressions are (a) carried at the end of levers or type-bars which strike the paper when the keys are depressed, or (b) are arranged round the circumference of a wheel, or segment, which is rotated by the action of the keys until the corresponding type is brought opposite the printing point. The former of these arrangements is the more common. Another point of difference is in the inking device; in some cases, the type is inked by means of an ink-pad before being brought down on the paper to make the impression, but more frequently an inked ribbon is drawn along by the action of the machine between the type-face and the paper. Sometimes this ribbon is inked in two colours, enabling the operator, by bringing the appropriate portion opposite the type-face, to write, say, in black and red at will. A third basis of classification may be found in the arrangement of the keyboard. In some machines there is one key for each character, in others each key does duty 502 TYPEWRITER for two or more characters. For example, in the former class there is one key for the capital A and another for the small a, the keys being arranged in two banks corresponding to the upper and lower cases of a printer's type-case; in the latter, one key is capable of striking both the small and the capital letter, and it does one or other according as a subsidiary key is or is not brought into simultaneous use with it. In type-bar machines designed on this plan, each bar carries two or more letters (cf. fig. i). This form of keyboard is also applied to type- wheel machines. Though there are numberless differences in detail, all type- writers, apart from the index machines, bear a general resem- blance to each other in their me- chanical arrangements. The really essential operations may be reduced to two; the machine must print a letter when a key is struck, and it must have a device by which the paper may be moved a short distance to the left with each stroke in order that the letters may be printed separately, not one on top of the other. Of the many subsidiary appliances that are fitted — a bell to warn the operator that he is approaching the end of a line, a lock to prevent the machine from working after the end of the line has been passed, attachments for facilitating insertion of fresh paper, corrections, and tabulation, &c. — some are certainly of advan- tage, but others are more useful to the manufacturer in drawing up his advertisements than to the expert operator, whose first care often is to disconnect them from the machine. Similarly with the " visible writing," which is some- times put forward as a recommendation of extraordinary importance; doubtless the novice who is learning the keyboard finds a natural satisfaction in being able to see at a glance that he has struck the key he was aiming at, but to the practised operator it is not a matter of great moment whetherthe writing is always in view or whether it is only to be seen by moving the carriage, for he should as little need to test the accuracy of his performance by constant inspec- tion as the piano-player needs to look at the notes to discover whether he has struck the right ones. The one important desid- eratum, without which no type- writer can produce work of satisfactory appearance, is ac- curacy of alignment. For the attainment of this the use of type-bars has given wide scope to the ingenuity of inventors, who have been confronted with the problem of making a system of levers at once strong, rigid and light, and of supporting them on bearings which are steady and adjustable for wear in conditions where space is much restricted. In the Oliver machine the type-bar is of the form shown in fig. i, to secure stiffness and a double bearing. In the Bar-Lock, the type- bars are arranged three in one hanger, so that each has a bearing FIG. i. — Type-bar of Oliver Machine. FIG. 2.— Type-bars of Bar-Lock Machine. three times as wide as would be possible in the same space if each had a hanger to itself (fig. 2) ; in addition the wear of the pivots can be taken up by the screws seen on the right of the bearings, and as a further P precaution each type-bar is locked at the printing point by falling between a pair of conical pins, which centre it exactly in the required place. In the Yost 'and the Empire the type-bars pass through guides. The centre guide of the former is shown at G in fig. 3, the type being just about to strike the paper. Pressure on one of the keys works the lever and pushes up the . connecting-rod C, when the type leaves ^uide and Type-bar of the ink-pad P and passes through the Yost Machine, guide, which is slightly bevelled so as to guide it exactly to the print- ing point. In the Smith Premier the shafts upon which the type- FIG. 3. — Central FIG. 4. — Type-bar Bearings, Smith Premier. bars swing are mounted tangentially on the ring (fig. 4), so that long supporting bearings are obtained, while the shortness of the type-bars themselves renders it possible to make them very stiff. The rocking-shaft mechan- ism (fig. 5), by which the power is transmitted from the keys to the type-bars, admits of each key having the same leverage and tends to uniformity of touch. This last quality is also aimed at by inter- posing an intermediate parallel bar between the key levers and the type- bar, as in the New Century Caligraph. In the Dens- are the friction of the movements is minimized by the employment of ball bearings for the type-bar pivots. Electrical type- writers, in which the de- pression of a key does not | work a type-bar directly, but merely closes a circuit that energizes an electro- magnet, have been sug- FlG 5._Rocking.shaft Mechanism of ratted as a means of Smith Premier, obtaining umtormity ot ,, „ , . touch combined with ease *' Key with stem 2, Rocking shaft, and rapidity, but have 3- ConMctin^-rod. 4, Type-bar, not as yet displaced the A and B, Conical bearings, if in. apart, ordinary machines to any extent. One special form of typewriter, the Elliott-Fisher, is designed to write in a book such as a ledger. One leaf is clamped between the platen and an open frame which holds the paper smoothly. The operative parts slide on this frame, and move up and down the page so as to space the lines properly, the keyboard, with the type- bars, riobon, &c., travelling step by step across the page. Aft adding device may be combined with this machine. TYPHOID FEVER 503 TYPHOID FEVER. Typhoid or enteric1 (Gr. tvrepov, the intestine) is a specific infectious fever characterized mainly by its insidious onset, by a peculiar course of the temperature, by marked abdominal symptoms occurring in connexion with a specific lesion of the bowels, by an eruption upon the skin, by its uncertain duration, and by a liability to relapses. This fever has received various names, such as gastric fever, abdominal typhus, infantile remittent fever, slow fever, nervous fever, " pythogenic fever," &c. The name of " typhoid " was given by Louis in 1829, as a derivative from typhus. Until a com- paratively recent period typhoid was not distinguished from typhus. For, although it had been noticed that the course of the disease and its morbid anatomy were different from those of ordinary cases of typhus, it was believed that they merely represented a variety of that malady. The distinction between the two diseases appears to have been first accurately made in 1836 by Messrs Gerhard and Pennock, of Philadelphia, and valu- able work was done by other American doctors, particularly Elisha Bartlett (1842). The difference between typhus and typhoid was still more fully demonstrated by Dr A. P. Stewart, of Glasgow (afterwards of London). Finally, all doubt upon the subject was removed by the careful clinical and patho- logical observations made by Sir William Jenner at the London fever hospital (1849-1851). The more important phenomena of typhoid fever will be better understood by a brief reference to the principal pathological changes which take place during the disease. These relate for the most part to the intestines, in which the morbid processes are highly characteristic, both as to their nature and their locality. The changes (to be presently specified) are evidently the result of the action of the contagium on the system, and they begin to show themselves from the very commencement of the fever, passing through various stages during its continuance. The portion of the bowels in which they occur most abundantly is the lower part of the small intestine (ileum), where the " solitary glands" and " Peyer's patches " on the mucous surface of the canal become affected by diseased action of a definite and progressive character, which stands in distinct relation to the symptoms exhibited by the patient in the course of the fever. (l) These glands, which in health are compara- tively indistinct, become in the commencement of the fever enlarged and prominent by infiltration due to inflammatory action in their substance, and consequent cell proliferation. This change usually affects a large extent of the ileum, but is more marked in the lower portion near the ileo-caecal valve. It is generally held that this is the condition of the parts during the first eight or ten days of the fever. (2) These enlarged glands next undergo a process of sloughing, the inflammatory products being cast off either in frag- ments or en masse. This usually takes place in the second week of the fever. (3) Ulcers are thus formed varying in size according to the gland masses which have sloughed away. They may be few or many in number, and they exhibit certain characteristic appear- ances. They are frequently, but not always, oblong in shape, with their long axis in that of the bowel, and they have somewhat thin and ragged edges. They may extend through the thickness of the intestine to the peritoneal coat and in their progress erode blood-vessels or perforate the bowel. This stage of ulceration exists from the second week onwards during the remaining period of the fever, and even into the stage of convalescence. (4) In most instances these ulcers heal by cicatrization, leaving, however, no contraction of the calibre of the bowel. This stage of healing occupies a considerable time, since the process does not advance at an equal rate in the case of all the ulcers, some of which have been later in forming than others. Even when convalescence has 1 The word " enteric " has been substituted for " typhoid " by the Royal College of Physicians in the nomenclature of diseases authorized by them, and the change was officially adopted by all departments of the British government. Its advantages are doubt- ful, and it has been generally ignored by those foreign countries which used the word " typhoid. ' " Enteric " is preferable in that it cannot be confounded with " typhus " and bears some relation to the nature of the affection, the characteristic feature of which is a specific inflammation of the small intestine; but it is not suffi- ciently distinctive. There are, in truth, several enteric fevers, and the appropriation of a term having a general meaning to one of them is inconvenient. Thus it is found necessary to revert to the discarded " typhoid," which has no real meaning in itself, but is convenient as a distinctive label, when speaking of the cause of the disease or some of its symptoms. We have the " typhoid bacillus," " typhoid stools," " typhoid spots", " typhoid ulcers," &c. The word " enteric " cannot well be applied to these things, because of its general meaning. Consequently both words have to be used, which is awkward and confusing. been apparently completed, some unhealed ulcers may yet remain and prove, particularly in connexion with errors in diet, a cause of relapse of some of the symptoms, and even of still more serious or ' fatal consequences. The mesenteric glands external to, but in functional relation with, the intestine, become enlarged during the progress of the fever, but usually subside after recovery. Besides these changes, which are well recognized, others more or less important are often present. Among these may be mentioned marked atrophy, thinning and softness of the coats of the intestines, even after the ulcers have healed — a condition which may not improbably be the cause of that long-continued impairment of the function of the bowels so often complained of by persons who have passed through an attack of typhoid fever. Other changes common to most fevers are also to be observed, such as softening of the muscular tissues generally, and particularly of the heart, and evidences of complications affecting chest or other organs, which not infre- quently arise. The swelled leg of fever sometimes follows typhoid, as does also periosteal inflammation. The symptoms characterizing the onset of typhoid fever ar.e very much less marked than those of most other fevers. The most marked of the early symptoms are headache, lassitude and dis- comfort, together with sleeplessness and feverishness, particularly at night; this last symptom is that by which the disease is most readily detected in its early stages. The peculiar course of the temperature is also one of the most important diagnostic evidences of this fever. During the first week it has a morning range of moderate febrile rise, but in the evening there is a marked ascent, with a fall again towards morning, each morning and evening, however, showing respectively a- higher point than that of the pre- vious day, until about the eighth day, when in an average case the highest point is attained. This varies according to the severity of the attack; but it is no unusual thing to register 104° or 105° F.. in the evening and 103° or 104° in the morning. During the second week the daily range of temperature is comparatively small, a slight morning remission being all that is observed. In the third week the same condition continues more or less; but